States of matter

 The three states of matter are solids, liquids and gases

 A substance can usually exist in all three states, dependent on temperature (and pressure)
 State changes occur at the melting point (solid to liquid, liquid to solid) and at
the boiling point (liquid to gas and gas to liquid)
o Melting and freezing occur at the melting point
o Boiling and condensing take place at the boiling point
 Individual atoms themselves do not share the same properties as bulk matter
 The three states of matter can be represented by a simple model
o In this model, the particles are represented by small solid spheres

Summary of the properties of the three states of matter

Solid Liquid Gas

Diagram

Arrangement of particles Regular arrangement Randomly arranged Randomly arranged

Movement of particles Vibrate about a fixed position Move around each other Move quickly in all directions

Closeness of particles Very close Close Far apart

Changing states of matter

 The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas
depends on the strength of the forces between the particles
 The stronger the forces between the particles, the more energy that is needed to overcome
them
 Therefore, the stronger the forces between the particles the higher the melting point and
boiling point of the substance
  Changing states is a physical change
o The particles themselves remain the same, it is just the forces between the particles
which change

Melting

 Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid

 Heat / thermal energy absorbed by the particles is transformed into kinetic energy
 This causes the particles to vibrate more and start to move / flow
 Melting happens at a specific temperature, known as the melting point (m.p.)

Boiling

 Boiling and evaporation are both when a liquid changes into a gas
o However, there is a key difference between boiling and evaporation
 In boiling, heat / thermal energy causes bubbles of gas to form inside the liquid, allowing for
liquid particles to escape from the surface and within the liquid
 Boiling happens at a specific temperature, known as the boiling point (b.p.)

Freezing

 Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid

 This is the reverse of melting and occurs at the same temperature as melting
o So, the melting point and freezing point of a pure substance are the same
o For example, water freezes and melts at 0 ºC
 Freezing needs a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and occurs at a
specific temperature

Evaporation

 Evaporation occurs over a range of temperatures

o It can happen at temperatures below the boiling point of the liquid
 Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high energy particles can escape from
the liquid's surface at low temperatures
 The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid surface, the more quickly a liquid can
evaporate

Condensation

 Condensation occurs when a gas changes into a liquid on cooling and takes place over a range of
temperatures
 When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they bump into each other they lack the
energy to bounce away again, instead, they group together to form a liquid
Sublimation

 When a solid changes directly into a gas

 This happens to only a few solids, such as iodine or solid carbon dioxide
 The reverse reaction also happens and is called desublimation or deposition

Changing states of matter

State changes require a change in the energy of the particles

Diffusion and dilution

 Diffusion and dilution experiments support a theory that all matter (solids, liquids and gases) is
made up of tiny, moving particles

Diffusion in gases

Diffusion of red-brown bromine gas

Description:
  Here, we see the diffusion of bromine gas from one gas jar to another
 After 5 minutes the bromine gas has diffused from the bottom jar to the top jar

Explanation:

 The air and bromine particles are moving randomly and there are large gaps between particles
 The particles can therefore easily mix together

Diffusion in liquids
Diffusion of potassium manganate(VII) in water over time

Description:

 When potassium manganate (VII) crystals are dissolved in water, a purple solution is formed
 A small number of crystals produce a highly intense colour
Explanation:

 The water and potassium manganate (VII) particles are moving randomly and the particles can
slide over each other
 The particles can therefore easily mix together
 Diffusion in liquids is slower than in gases because the particles in a liquid are closely packed
together and move more slowly

Dilution

Dissolving potassium manganate (VII) in water

Description:

 When potassium magnate (VII) crystals are dissolved in water, the solution can be diluted
several times

 The colour fades but does not disappear until a lot of dilutions have been done

Explanation:

 This indicates that there are a lot of particles in a small amount of potassium manganate (VII)
and therefore the particles must be very small

Solutions terminology
 You need to know all the following terms used when describing solutions:

Term Meaning Example

Solvent The liquid in which a solute dissolves The water in sea water
Solute The substance which dissolves in a liquid to form a solution The salt in sea water
Solution The mixture formed when a solute is dissolved in a solvent Sea water
Saturated A solution with the maximum concentration of solute dissolved in Sea water in the Dead
solution the solvent Sea
Soluble Describes a substance that will dissolve Salt is soluble in water
 Sand is insoluble in
Insoluble Describes a substance that will not dissolve
water
Solubility

 Solubility is a measurement of how much of a substance will dissolve in a given volume of a

liquid
o The liquid is called the solvent
o The solubility of a gas depends on pressure and temperature
 Different substances have different solubilities
 Solubility can be expressed in g per 100 g of solvent
 Solubility of solids is affected by temperature
o As temperature increases, solids usually become more soluble
 Solubility of gases is affected by temperature and pressure; in general:
o As pressure increases, gases become more soluble
o As temperature increases, gases become less soluble

Solubility curves
 Solubility graphs or curves represent solubility in g per 100 g of water plotted against
temperature

 To plot a solubility curve, the maximum mass of solute that can be dissolved in 100 g of water
before a saturated solution is formed, is determined at a series of different temperatures

Solubility curve for three salts

While the solubility of most salts increases with temperature, sodium chloride, or common salt, hardly
changes at all

Practical: Investigate the solubility of a solid in water at a specific temperature

Aim

 To measure the solubility of a salt at different temperatures

Method

1. Prepare two beakers, one as a hot water bath and one as an ice bath
2. Using a small measuring cylinder, measure out 4 cm3 of distilled water into a boiling tube.
3. On a balance weigh out 2.6 g of ammonium chloride and add it to the boiling tube
4. Place the boiling tube into the hot water bath and stir until the solid dissolves
5. Transfer the boiling tube to the ice bath and allow it to cool while stirring
6. Note the temperature at which crystals first appear and record it in a table of results
7. Add 1 cm3 of distilled water then warm the solution again to dissolve the crystals
8. Repeat the cooling process again noting the temperature at which crystals first appear
9. Continue the steps until a total of 10 cm3 of water has been added

Results

 The results for method 2 can be recorded in a table

 The solubility in g / 100g is calculated by dividing the mass of the solute by the volume and
multiplying by 100

Example results table

Volume of water in boiling tube / cm3 Solubility in g per 100 g Temperature at which crystals appear / oC
4 65
5 52
6 43
7 37
8 32
9 29
10 26
Graph
  The results can be used to plot a solubility curve for ammonium chloride at different
temperatures
o Solubility is on the y-axis and temperature is on the x-axis

Conclusion
 The shape of the graph will allow us to state how the solubility varies with temperature

Element, compounds and mixtures

 All substances can be classified into one of these three types

o Elements
o Compounds
o Mixtures

What is an element?

 A substance made of atoms that all contain the same number of protons and cannot be split
into anything simpler
 There are 118 elements found in the Periodic Table
o E.g. copper, iron, magnesium

What is a compound?

 A pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined

 There is an unlimited number of compounds
 Compounds cannot be separated into their elements by physical means
o E.g. copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), carbon dioxide (CO2)

What is a mixture?

 A combination of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) that are not chemically
combined
 Mixtures can be separated by physical methods such as filtration or evaporation
o E.g. sand and water, oil and water, sulfur powder and iron filings

Particle diagram showing elements, compounds and mixtures

All substances can be classified as an element, compound or mixture

Pure Substance vs mixture

 In everyday language, we use the word pure to describe when something is natural or clean and
to which nothing else has been added
 In chemistry, a pure substance may consist of a single element or compound which contains no
other substances
 For example, pure water contains only H2O molecules and nothing else
 Drinking water would not be classed as a mixture and not a pure substance because it contains
H2O molecules and additional substances like dissolved ions and chlorine

Pure substance v mixture

Pure water consists of only H2O molecules whereas tap water is a mixture

How can purity be distinguished?

 Pure substances melt and boil at specific and sharp temperatures

o E.g. pure water has a boiling point of 100 °C and a melting point of 0 °C
 Impure substances have a range of melting and boiling points as they consist
of different substances
  Generally, impure substances have lower melting points and higher boiling points than the pure
substance
 Melting and boiling point data can therefore be used to distinguish pure substances from
mixtures
 Melting point analysis is routinely used to assess the purity of drugs
 This is done using a melting point apparatus which allows you to slowly heat a small amount of
the sample, making it easier to observe the exact melting point
 This is then compared to data tables
 The closer the measured value is to the actual melting or boiling point then the purer the
sample is
 Measuring purity is also important in foodstuffs

Simple distillation
 Simple distillation is used to separate a liquid and soluble solid from a solution (e.g., water from
a solution of salt water) or a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids

 The solution is heated, and pure water evaporates producing a vapour which rises through the
neck of the round bottomed flask

 The vapour passes through the condenser, where it cools and condenses, turning into the pure
liquid that is collected in a beaker

 After all the water is evaporated from the solution, only the solid solute will be left behind

Simple distillation

Diagram showing the distillation of a mixture of salt and water

Fractional distillation
  Fractional distillation is used to separate two or more liquids that are miscible with one another
(e.g., ethanol and water from a mixture of the two)
 The solution is heated to the temperature of the substance with the lowest boiling point
 This substance will rise and evaporate first, and vapours will pass through a condenser, where
they cool and condense, turning into a liquid that will be collected in a beaker
 All of the substance is evaporated and collected, leaving behind the other components(s) of the
mixture
 For water and ethanol
o Ethanol has a boiling point of 78 ºC and water of 100 ºC
o The mixture is heated until it reaches 78 ºC, at which point the ethanol boils and distills
out of the mixture and condenses into the beaker
 When the temperature starts to increase to 100 ºC heating should be stopped. Water and
ethanol are now separated

Fractional distillation apparatus

Fractional distillation of a mixture of ethanol and water

Filtration

 Filtration is used to separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the solid and a liquid /
solution ( e.g., sand from a mixture of sand and water)
o Centrifugation can also be used for this mixture
 A piece of filter paper is placed in a filter funnel above a beaker
 A mixture of insoluble solid and liquid is poured into the filter funnel
 The filter paper will only allow small liquid particles to pass through as filtrate
 Solid particles are too large to pass through the filter paper so will stay behind as a residue
The filtration process

Filtration of a mixture of sand and water

Crystallisation

 Crystallisation is used to separate a dissolved solid from a solution, when the solid is much more
soluble in hot solvent than in cold (e.g., copper sulphate from a solution of copper (II) sulphate
in water)
 The solution is heated, allowing the solvent to evaporate, leaving a saturated solution behind
 Test if the solution is saturated by dipping a clean, dry, cold glass rod into the solution
o If the solution is saturated, crystals will form on the glass rod
 The saturated solution is allowed to cool slowly
 Crystals begin to grow as solids will come out of solution due to decreasing solubility
 The crystals are collected by filtering the solution, they are washed with cold distilled water to
remove impurities and are then allowed to dry

The process of crystallisation

Diagram showing the process of crystallisation

Paper chromatography
 Paper chromatography is used to separate substances that have different solubilities in a given
solvent (e.g. different coloured inks that have been mixed to make black ink)
 A pencil line is drawn on chromatography paper and spots of the sample are placed on it
o Pencil is used for this as ink would run into the chromatogram along with the samples
 The paper is then lowered into the solvent container
o The pencil line must sit above the level of the solvent so the samples don´t wash into
the solvent container
 The solvent travels up the paper by capillary action, taking some of the coloured substances
with it
 Different substances have different solubilities so will travel at different rates
o This causes the substances to separate
o Those substances with higher solubility will travel further than the others
 This will show the different components of the ink / dye

Analysis of the composition of ink using paper chromatography

Interpreting chromatograms

 We can use a chromatogram to compare the substances present in a mixture to known

substances and make assumptions
o Pure substances will produce only one spot on the chromatogram
o Impure substances will produce more than one spot on the chromatogram
o If two or more substances are the same, they will produce identical chromatograms
o If the substance is a mixture, it will separate on the paper to show all
the different components as separate spots
 It is common practice to include a known compound as a reference spot
o This can help match up to an unknown spot or set of spots in order to identify it

Interpreting chromatograms

Diagram showing the analysis of a mixture and pure substances using chromatography

 We can draw several conclusions from this chromatogram:

o The brown ink is a mixture as there are three dots
o Red, yellow and blue are pure as there is only one dot for each
o The brown ink contains red, blue and yellow as the dots are in line with one another
horizontally

Rf Values

 Rf values are used to identify the components of mixtures

 The Rf value of a particular compound is always the same
o However, it does depend on the solvent used
o If the solvent is changed then the Rf value changes
 Calculating the Rf value allows chemists to identify unknown substances because it can be
compared with the Rf values of known substances under the same conditions
 The retention factor, Rf, is calculated by the equation:
  The Rf value:
o Is a ratio
o Has no units
o Will always be less than

Practical: Investigate Paper Chromatography Using Inks & Food Colourings

Aim:

Investigate how paper chromatography can be used to separate and identify a mixture of food
colourings

Apparatus:

 A 250 cm3 beaker

 A wooden spill
 A rectangle of chromatography paper
 Four known food colourings labelled A–D
 An unknown mixture of food colourings labelled U
 Five glass capillary tubes
 Paper clip
 Ruler & pencil

Diagram of the apparatus needed for paper chromatography

Method:

1. Use a ruler to draw a horizontal pencil line 2 cm from the end of the chromatography paper
2. Use a different capillary tube to put a tiny spot of each colouring A, B, C and D on the line
3. Use the fifth tube to put a small spot of the unknown mixture U on the line
4. Make sure each spot is no more than 2-3 mm in diameter and label each spot in pencil
5. Pour water into the beaker to a depth of no more than 1 cm and clip the top of the
chromatography paper to the wooden spill. The top end is the furthest from the spots
6. Carefully rest the wooden spill on the top edge of the beaker. The bottom edge of the paper
 should dip into the solvent

7. Allow the solvent to travel undisturbed at least three quarters of the way up the paper
8. Remove the paper and draw another pencil line on the dry part of the paper as close to the wet
edge as possible. This is called the solvent front line
9. Measure the distance in mm between the two pencil lines. This is the distance travelled by the
water solvent
10. For each of food colour A, B, C and D measure the distance in mm from the start line to the
middle of the spot

Practical Tip:

The pencil line must never be below the level of the solvent as the samples will be washed away

Results:

 Record your results in a suitable table

Food colouring Distance moved by spot (mm) Distance Moved by solvent (mm) Rf value
A
B
C
D
 The Rf values of food colours A, B, C and D should be compared to that for the unknown sample
as well as a visual comparison being made
 Substances with matching Rf values are the same substance and will move the same distance up
the paper

Atoms and molecules

 It is important to understand the terms atom and molecule when referring to atomic structure,
elements and compounds

Term Definition
The smallest particle of an element that contains electrons surrounding a nucleus that contains protons
Atom
and neutrons
Molecul A group of two or more atoms chemically combined to form an identifiable unit which retains the
e properties and composition of the substance
Atomic structure

 All substances are made of tiny particles of matter called atoms which are the building blocks of
all matter
 Each atom is made of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons
 The protons and neutrons are located at the centre of the atom, which is called the nucleus
o The nucleus is positively charged
 The electrons move very fast around the nucleus in orbital paths called shells
  The mass of the electron is negligible, hence the mass of an atom is contained within the
nucleus where the protons and neutrons are located

Atomic structure

Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus, and electrons in shells orbiting the nucleus

 Subatomic particles are so small that it is not practical to measure their masses and charges
using conventional units (such as grams or coulombs)
 Instead, their masses and charges are compared to each other, and so are
called ‘relative atomic masses’ and ‘relative atomic charges’
o Protons and neutrons have a very similar mass, so each is assigned a relative mass of 1
o Electrons are 2000 times smaller than a proton and neutron, and so their mass is often
described as being negligible
o These are not actual charges and masses, but rather charges and masses of particles
relative to each other

Table of mass and charge of subatomic particles

Particle Relative Mass Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0 (neutral)
Electron 1/1840 -1
Term Definition
Atomic number The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Mass number The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Isotope Atoms of the same element which have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons
Relative atomic The average mass of one atom of an element, taking into account the abundance of all the isotopes for the
mass element. It is equal to 1/12th the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Calculating protons, neutrons and electrons

 You need to know the following terms to describe the properties and characteristics of atoms

 The atomic number is equal to the number of protons in an atom

 Since atoms are neutral, then it is also the same as the number of electrons
  The mass number is the number of protons plus neutrons
o The number of neutrons can thus be calculated by subtracting the atomic number from
the mass number
 For example, lithium has an atomic number of , therefore it has 3 protons and 3 electrons
 The mass number of lithium is 7, so it has 7 - 3 = 4 neutrons
 Lithium therefore has:
o 3 protons
o 3 electrons
o 4 neutrons

Calculating relative atomic mass

 The relative atomic mass of each element is calculated from the mass number and relative
abundances of all the isotopes of a particular element
 The equation below is used where the top line of the equation can be extended to include the
number of different isotopes of a particular element present

The periodic table

 There are over 100 chemical elements which have been isolated and identified
 Elements are arranged on the Periodic table in order of increasing atomic number
o Each element has one proton more than the element preceding it
o This is done so that elements end up in columns with other elements which have similar
properties
 The table is arranged in vertical columns called groups and in rows called periods
o Period: These are the horizontal rows that show the number of shells of electrons an
atom has and are numbered from 1 - 7
 E.g. Elements in Period 2 have two electron shells, elements in Period 3 have
three electron shells
o Group: These are the vertical columns that show how many outer electrons each atom
has and are numbered from 1 – 7, with a final group called Group 0 (instead of group 8)
 E.g. Group 4 elements have atoms with 4 electrons in the outermost shell,
Group 6 elements have atoms with 6 electrons in the outermost shell and so on
The periodic table

The Periodic Table of the Elements

Electronic configuration of the first 20 elements

 We can represent the structure of the atom in two ways: using diagrams
called electron shell diagrams or by writing out a special notation called
the electronic configuration (or electronic structure or electron distribution)
 Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells (or energy levels) and each shell has a different amount of
energy associated with it
 The further away from the nucleus, the more energy a shell has
 Electrons fill the shell closest to the nucleus
 When a shell becomes full of electrons, additional electrons have to be added to the next shell
o The first shell can hold 2 electrons
o The second shell can hold 8 electrons
o For this course, a simplified model is used that suggests that the third shell can hold 8
electrons
o For the first 20 elements, once the third shell has 8 electrons, the fourth shell begins to
fill

Electron shell diagram

 A simplified model showing the electron shells

 The arrangement of electrons in shells can also be explained using numbers

 Instead of drawing electron shell diagrams, the number of electrons in each electron shell can
be written down, separated by commas
 This notation is called the electronic configuration (or electronic structure)
o The electronic structure of carbon is 6 electrons, 2 in the 1st shell and 4 in the 2nd shell
 So its electronic configuration is 2,4
 Electronic configurations can also be written for ions
o E.g. A sodium atom has 11 electrons, a sodium ion has lost one electron, therefore has
10 electrons; 2 in the first shell and 8 in the 2nd shell
 Its electronic configuration is 2,8
 You should be able to write the electron configuration for the first twenty elements

Electronic configurations of the first 20 elements

Element Atomic Number Electronic Configuration

hydrogen 1 1
helium 2 2
lithium 3 2,1
beryllium 4 2,2
boron 5 2,3
carbon 6 2,4
nitrogen 7 2,5
oxygen 8 2,6
fluorine 9 2,7
neon 10 2,8
sodium 11 2,8,1
magnesium 12 2,8,2
aluminium 13 2,8,3
silicon 14 2,8,4
phosphorus 15 2,8,5
sulfur 16 2,8,6
chlorine 17 2,8,7
argon 18 2,8,8
potassium 19 2,8,8,1
calcium 20 2,8,8,2
Note: Although the third shell can hold up to 18 electrons, the filling of the shells follows a more
complicated pattern after potassium and calcium. For these two elements, the third shell holds 8 and
the remaining electrons (for reasons of stability) occupy the fourth shell first before filling the third shell

Electronic configurations and the periodic table

 There is a clear relationship between the electronic configuration and how the Periodic Table is
designed
 The number of notations in the electronic configuration tells us the number of occupied shells
o This tells us what period an element is in
 The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has
o This tells us the group an element is in
 Elements in the same group have the same number of outer shell electrons

The relationship between the electronic configurations and periodic table

The electronic configuration for chlorine

 Period: The red numbers at the bottom show the number of notations
o The number of notations is 3
o Therefore chlorine has 3 occupied shells
 Group: The last notation, in this case 7
o This means that chlorine has 7 electrons in its outer shell
o Chlorine is therefore in Group 7

The position of chlorine on the periodic table

 Chlorine is in Group 7, Period 3
Properties of metals and non-metals

 We can use properties such as electrical conductivity and acid-base character to classify
elements as metals or non-metals

Properties of metals and non-metals

Property Metals Non-metals

Electron arrangement 1-3 outer shell electrons 4-7 outer shell electrons
Bonding Metallic bonding due to loss of electrons Covalent by sharing of outer shell electrons
Electrical conductivity Good conductor of electricity Poor conductors of electricity
Type of oxide Basic oxides Acidic oxides (some are neutral)
Reaction with acids Many react with acids Usually do not react with acids
 Usually lustrous (shiny)  Dull, non-reflective
 Solid at room temperature (excluding mercury)  Different states at room temperature
Physical characteristics  Malleable, can be bent and shaped  Flaky, brittle
 High melting and boiling point  Low melting and boiling points

Metals and non-metals in the periodic table

 The location of the metals and non-metals shows a clear pattern when highlighted on a periodic
table

Another thing that is striking, is that you can see that the vast majority of elements are metals
 Metals are on the left of the Periodic Table and non-metals on the right
Chemical properties

Chemical properties of elements in the same group

 Elements in the same group in the Periodic Table will have similar chemical properties
 This is because they have the same number of outer electrons so will react and bond similarly
 The group number of an element which is given on the Periodic Table indicates the number of
electrons in the outer shell
o This rule holds true for all elements except helium; although is in Group 0, it has only
one shell, the first and innermost shell, which holds only 2 electrons

 We can use the group number to predict how elements will react as the number of outer shell
electrons in an element influences how the element reacts.
 Therefore, elements in the same group react similarly
o By observing the reaction of one element from a group, you can predict how the other
elements in that group will react
o By reacting two or more elements from the same group and observing what happens in
those reactions you can make predictions about reactivity and establish trends in
reactivity in that group
 For example, lithium, sodium and potassium are in Group 1 and can all react with elements in
Group 7 to form an ionic compound
  The Group 1 metals become more reactive as you move down the group while the Group 7
elements show a decrease in reactivity moving down the group

Why are noble gases unreactive?

 The elements in Group 0 of the Periodic Table are called the noble gases
 Noble gases are:
o Non-metals
o Monatomic (exist as single atoms)
o Colourless and non-flammable gases at room temperature
 Most elements participate in reactions to complete their outer shells by losing, gaining, or
sharing electrons
 Group 0 elements do not do this because they have full outer shells of electrons
o They are therefore unreactive (inert) and do not form molecules easily
 Most noble gases have 8 electrons in their outer shell, except helium which has 2
 Electronic configurations of the noble gases:
o He = 2
o Ne = 2, 8
o Ar = 2, 8, 8
o Kr = 2, 8, 18, 8
o Xe = 2, 8, 18, 18, 8

The noble gases

Noble gases are located in the last group on the right hand side of the Periodic Table

Writing equations

 New substances are made during chemical reactions

o However, the same atoms are always present before and after reaction
o They have just joined up in different ways
 o Atoms cannot be created or destroyed, so if they exist in the reactants then they
absolutely must be in the products!
 Because of this the total mass of reactants is always equal to the total mass of products
 This idea is known as the Law of Conservation of Mass

Conservation of mass

 The Law of Conservation of Mass enables us to balance chemical equations, since no atoms can
be lost or created
 You should be able to:
o Write word equations for reactions outlined in these notes
o Write formulae and balanced chemical equations for the reactions in these note

How to write word equations

 Word equations show the reactants and products of a chemical reaction using their full
chemical names

reactants → products

 The reactants are those substances on the left-hand side of the arrow
o They can be thought of as the chemical ingredients of the reaction
 They react with each other to form new substances, which are the products
 The products are on the right-hand side of the arrow
 The arrow (which is spoken as “to form” or “produces”) implies the conversion of reactants into
products
o Reaction conditions or the name of a catalyst (a substance added to make a reaction go
faster) can be written above the arrow
 An example is the reaction of sodium hydroxide (a base) and hydrochloric acid to produce
sodium chloride (common table salt) and water:

sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ⟶ sodium chloride + water

How to write balanced equations

 A symbol equation uses the formulae of the reactants and products to show what happens in a
chemical reaction
 When writing symbol equations, you should:
o Ensure reactants are on the left of the equation and products are on the right
o Write the following non-metals as molecules: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2
o Include state symbols
 Solid = (s)
 Liquid = (l)
 Gas = (g)
 Aqueous = (aq)

 You need to be confident using the state symbols (s), (l), (g) and (aq)
o You will not need to include them in all equations unless you are specifically asked to
 o However, it is good practice to include state symbols in your equations so that you don't
miss any marks

 A symbol equation must be balanced to give the correct ratio of reactants and products:
o For example, the combustion of sulfur:

S (s) + O2 (g)→ SO2 (g)

 This equation shows that one atom of sulfur, S, reacts with one molecule of oxygen, O 2, to make
one molecule of sulfur dioxide, SO2

Balancing equations

 When balancing equations, there must be the same number of atoms of each element on either
side of the equation following the Law of Conservation of Mass
 To balance an equation you work across the equation from left to right, checking one element
after another
o If there is a group of atoms such as a nitrate group (NO3–) that has not changed from one
side to the other, then count the whole group as one entity rather than counting the
individual atoms
 Examples of balanced symbol / chemical equations include:
o Acid-base neutralisation reaction:

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) ⟶ NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

 Redox reaction:

2Fe2O3 (aq) + 3C (s) ⟶ 4Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)

 In each equation, there are equal numbers of each atom on either side of the reaction arrow so
the equations are balanced
 The best approach is to practice lot of examples of balancing equations
o This can be by trial and error - changing the coefficients (numbers) in front of the
formulae one by one and checking the result on the other side
o Balance elements that appear on their own, last in the process

Relative formula (molecular) mass

How to calculate relative formula mass

 The symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar

 This is calculated from the mass number and relative abundances of all the isotopes of a
particular element
 The symbol for the relative formula mass is Mr and it refers to the total mass of the molecule
 To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of all the
atoms present in the formula
Relative formula mass calculations table

Substance Atoms present Calculation Mr

Hydrogen
2xH (2 x 1) 2
H2

Water
(2 x H) + (1 x O) (2 x 1) + (1 x 16) 18
H2O

Potassium carbonate
(2 x K) + (1 x C) + (3 x O) (2 x 39) + (1 x 12) + (3 x 16) 138
K2CO3

Calcium hydroxide
(1 x Ca) + (2 x O) + (2 x H) (1 x 40) + (2 x 16) + (2 x 1) 74
Ca(OH)2

Ammonium sulfate
(2 x N) + (8 x H) + (1 x S) + (4 x O) (2 x 14) + (8 x 1) + (1 x 32) + (4 x 16) 132
(NH4)2SO4
 In accordance with the Law of Conservation of Mass, the sum of the relative formula masses of
the reactants will be the same as the sum of the relative formula masses of the products

The mole

 Chemical amounts are measured in moles

 The symbol for the unit mole is mol
 One mole of a substance contains the same number of the stated particles, atoms, molecules, or
ions as one mole of any other substance
 The number of atoms, molecules or ions in a mole (1 mol) of a given substance is the Avogadro
constant.
o The value of the Avogadro constant is 6.02 x 1023 per mole
 For example:
o One mole of sodium (Na) contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms of sodium
o One mole of hydrogen (H2) contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules of hydrogen
o One mole of sodium chloride (NaCl) contains 6.02 x 1023 formula units of sodium
chloride

 The mass of 1 mole of a substance is known as the molar mass

o For an element, it is the same as the relative atomic mass written in grams
o For a compound, it is the same as the relative molecular or formula mass in grams
 If you had 6.02 x 1023 atoms of carbon in your hand, that number of carbon atoms would have a
mass of 12 g (because the Ar of carbon is 12)
  So one mole of helium atoms would have a mass of 4 g (Ar of He is 4), one mole of lithium would
have a mass of 7 g (Ar of Li is 7) and so on
 To find the mass of one mole of a compound, we add up the relative atomic masses
o So one mole of water would have a mass of (2 x 1) + 16 = 18 g
o So one carbon atom has the same mass as 12 hydrogen atoms

Calculating moles and masses

 Although elements and chemicals react with each other in molar ratios, in the laboratory we use
digital balances and grams to measure quantities of chemicals as it is impractical to try and
measure out moles.

 Therefore, we must be able to convert between moles and grams.

 We can use the following formula to convert between moles, mass in grams and the molar
mass:

Formula triangle for moles, mass and molar mass

Reacting mass calculations

 Chemical / symbol equations can be used to calculate:

o The moles of reactants and products
o The mass of reactants and products
 To do this:
o Information from the question is used to find the amount in moles of the substances
being considered
o Then, the ratio between the substances is identified using the balanced chemical
equation
o Once the moles have been determined they can then be converted into grams using the
relative atomic or relative formula masses

Balancing Equations using Reacting Masses

 If the masses of reactants and products of a reaction are known then we can use them to write a
balanced equation for that reaction

 This is done by converting the masses to moles and simplifying to find the molar ratios

How to calculate percentage yield

  Yield is the term used to describe the amount of product you get from a reaction
 In practice, you never get 100% yield in a chemical process for several reasons
 These include:
o Some reactants may be left behind in the equipment
o The reaction may be reversible and in these reactions a high yield is never possible as
the products are continually turning back into the reactants
o Some products may also be lost during separation and purification stages such as
filtration or distillation
o There may be side reactions occurring where a substance reacts with a gas in the air or
an impurity in one of the reactants
o Products can also be lost during transfer from one container to another

Actual and theoretical yield

 The actual yield is the recorded amount of product obtained

 The theoretical yield is the amount of product that would be obtained under perfect practical
and chemical conditions
 It is calculated from the balanced equation and the reacting masses
 The percentage yield compares the actual yield to the theoretical yield
 For economic reasons, the objective of every chemical producing company is to have as high a
percentage yield as possible to increase profits and reduce costs and waste

Calculating percentage yield

 The percentage yield is a good way of measuring how successful a chemical process is
 There are often several methods of creating a compound and each method is called a reaction
pathway
 Reaction pathways consist of a sequence of reactions which must occur to produce the required
product
 Companies often investigate and try out different reaction pathways and these are
then compared and evaluated so that a manufacturing process can be chosen
 The percentage yield of each pathway is a significant factor in this decision making process
 The equation to calculate the percentage yield is:

Formulae of a simple compound by experiment

 The formulae of simple compounds can be found by careful experimentation and accurate
measurements of mass changes
 The principle is to use mass measurements before and after a reaction and then convert masses
into moles
 Using the moles of reactants and products it is possible to deduce molar ratios and hence an
empirical formula
  Experiments which are easier to do using this process involve gases being lost or gained
 In this example a hydrated salt is heated to drive off the water as water vapour

The formula of a hydrated salt

Aim:

 To determine the formula of hydrated copper sulfate, CuSO4. xH2O

Diagram:

Heating a hydrated salt to remove the water of crystallisation

Method

1. Measure the mass of evaporating dish

2. Add a known mass of hydrated salt
3. Heat over a Bunsen burner, gently stirring, until the blue salt turns completely white, indicating
that all the water has been lost
4. Record the mass of the evaporating dish and its contents

Practical tip:

 Avoid overheating the salt as it could decompose and give you a larger mass change

Results:

 Mass of the white anhydrous salt

o Measure the mass of white anhydrous salt remaining
 Mass of water
o Subtract the mass of the white anhydrous salt remaining from the mass of known hydrated salt
o Step 1 – Divide the mass of the copper sulfate and the water by their respective molar masses
o Step 2 – Simplify the ratio of water to copper sulfate:

anhydrous salt water

Mass a b
 a / Mr b / Mr
Moles (Step 1)
=y =x

Ratio (Step 2) 1: x
o Step 3 – Represent the ratio in the form ‘salt.xH2O’

Practical: Determine the formula of magnesium oxide

Aim:

To determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide by combustion of magnesium

Diagram:

Method:

1. Measure the mass of the crucible with the lid

2. Add a sample of magnesium into the crucible and measure the mass with the lid (calculate the
mass of the metal by subtracting the mass of the empty crucible)
3. Strongly heat the crucible over a Bunsen burner for several minutes
4. Lift the lid frequently to allow sufficient air into the crucible for the magnesium to fully oxidise
without letting magnesium oxide smoke escape
5. Continue heating until the mass of the crucible remains constant (maximum mass), indicating
that the reaction is complete
6. Measure the mass of the crucible and its contents (calculate the mass of metal oxide by
subtracting the mass of the empty crucible)

Results

 Mass of metal:
o Subtract the mass of the crucible from magnesium and the mass of the empty crucible
 Mass of oxygen:
o Subtract the mass of the magnesium used from the mass of magnesium oxid
o Step 1 – Divide each of the two masses by the relative atomic masses of the element
o Step 2 – Simplify the ratio
 magnesium oxygen
mass a b
moles a / Ar a / Ar
x y
Ratio = x : y

 Step 3 – Represent the ratio in the form ‘MxOy‘ E.g, MgO

Practical: Determine the formula of copper(II) oxide

Aim:

To determine the formula of copper(II)oxide by reduction with methane

Diagram:

Method:

1. Measure mass of the empty boiling tube

2. Place metal oxide into a horizontal boiling tube and measure the mass again
3. Support the tube in a horizontal position held by a clamp
4. A steady stream of natural gas(methane) is passed over the copper(II)oxide and the excess gas is
burned off
5. The copper(II)oxide is heated strongly using a Bunsen burner
6. Heat until metal oxide completely changes colour, meaning that all the oxygen has been
removed
7. Measure mass of the tube remaining metal powder and subtract the mass of the tube

Results:

Working out empirical formula:

Mass of Metal:
  Measure mass of the remaining metal powder
o Mass of Oxygen:
 Subtract mass of the remaining metal powder from the mass of metal oxide
 Step 1 – Divide each of the two masses by the relative atomic masses of
elements
 Step 2 – Simplify the ratio:

metal oxygen
mass a b
moles a / Mr b / Mr
Ratio x y
 Step 3 – Represent the ratio in the form ‘MxOy‘ E.g, CuO

Empirical & Molecular Formulae

 The molecular formula is the formula that shows the number and type of each atom in a
molecule
o E.g. the molecular formula of ethanoic acid is C2H4O2
 The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element present
in one molecule or formula unit of the compound
o E.g. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH2O
 Organic molecules often have different empirical and molecular formulae
 The formula of an ionic compound is always an empirical formula

Calculating empirical and molecular formula

How to calculate empirical formulae

 Empirical formula calculations are very methodical

 Use a table and the following steps to complete an empirical formula calculation:
1. Write the element
2. Write the value given for each element
o This may be given as a mass, in g, or as a percentage
o There are exam questions where you are required to calculate the value of one
of the elements
3. Write the relative atomic mass of each element
4. Calculate the moles of each element

o Moles =
5. Calculate the ratio of elements
o Divide all the moles by the smallest number of moles
o If you get a ratio that does not have whole numbers, you multiply by an
appropriate number to make all the values into whole numbers
6. Write the final empirical formula

How to calculate molecular formula

  Molecular formula gives the actual numbers of atoms of each element present in the formula
of the compound

Table showing the relationship between empirical and molecular formulae

Compound Empirical formula Molecular formula

Methane CH4 CH4
Ethane CH3 C2H6
Ethene CH2 C2H4
Benzene CH C6H6
 To calculate the molecular formula:
1. Find the relative formula mass of the empirical formula
o Add the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in the empirical formula
2. Use the following equation:

o
3. Multiply the number of each element present in the empirical formula by the number
from step 2 to find the molecular formula

Deducing formulae of hydrated salts

 A hydrated salt is a crystallised salt that contains water molecules as part of its structure
 The formula of a hydrated salt shows the water molecules, e.g. CuSO4•2H2O
o The • symbol shows that the water present is water of crystallisation
 The formula of hydrated salts can be determined experimentally by:
o Weighing a sample of the hydrated salt
o Heating it until the water of crystallisation has been driven off
 This is achieved by heating until a constant mass
o Re-weighing the anhydrous salt
 From the results, you can determine the mass of anhydrous salt and the mass of the water of
crystallisation
 Applying a similar approach to deducing empirical formulae, the formula of the hydrated salt
can be calculated

How to calculate water of crystallisation

 The steps for empirical formula can be adapted for hydrated salt / water of crystallisation
calculations
o Instead of writing elements, write the two components of a hydrated salt
 The salt
 Water
o Instead of writing relative atomic mass, write the relative molecular / formula mass of
the salt and water
 Use a table and the following steps to complete the calculation:

1. Write the salt and water

 2. Write the value given for the salt and water
o There are exam questions where you are required to calculate one of these
values
3. Write the relative molecular / formula mass of the salt and water
4. Calculate the moles of the salt and water

o Moles =
5. Calculate the ratio salt : water
o Divide all the moles by the smallest number of moles
o The calculation should give a ratio of 1 salt : x water
6. Write the final hydrated salt formula

Calculate Concentrations of Solutions

 A solute is a solid substance that dissolves into a liquid

o The amount of solute can be expressed in grams (g) or moles (mol)
 A solvent is the liquid that a solute dissolves in
o The amount / volume of a solvent is measured in cm3 or dm3
 Most chemical reactions occur between solutes which are dissolved in solvents, such as water or
an organic solvent
 A solution is the mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent
o The amount / volume of a solution measured in cm3 or dm3
 Concentration refers to the amount of solute there is in a specific volume of the solvent
o The greater the amount of solute in a given volume, the greater the concentration
o Concentration is sometimes commonly referred to as strength
 For example, dissolving more coffee in hot water results in a stronger coffee

 Typically, concentration is expressed in terms of the amount of substance per dm 3

o Therefore, the units of concentration are:
 g / dm3
 mol / dm3
 It is more useful to a chemist to express concentration in terms of moles per unit volume rather
than mass per unit volume
 To calculate concentration in mol / dm3 we use the following equation:
 The concentration-moles formula triangle

 Volumes are often expressed in cm3, but dm3 must be used when calculating concentration.
o To convert cm3 to dm3, divide by 1000
o To convert dm3 to cm3, multiply by 1000

Converting between cm3 and dm3

Calculate Volumes of Gases

Avogadro's Law

 Avogadro’s Law states that at the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal
amounts of gases occupy the same volume of space
 At room temperature and pressure, the volume occupied by one mole of any gas was found to
be 24 dm3 or 24,000 cm3
 This is known as the molar gas volume at RTP
 RTP stands for “room temperature and pressure” and the conditions are 20 ºC and 1
atmosphere (atm)
 From the molar gas volume the following formula triangle can be derived:

Formula triangle showing the relationship between moles of gas, volume in dm3 and the molar
volume

 If the volume is given in cm3 instead of dm3, then divide by 24,000 instead of 24:
 Formula triangle showing the relationship between moles of gas, volume in cm3 and the molar volume

 The formula can be used to calculate the number of moles of gases from a given volume or vice
versa

Simply cover the one you want and the triangle tells you what to do

To find the volume

Volume = Moles x Molar Volume

Examples of Converting Moles into Volumes Table

Name of Gas Amount of Gas Volume of Gas

Hydrogen 3 mol (3 x 24) = 72 dm3
Carbon Dioxide 0.25 mol (0.25 x 24) = 6 dm3
Oxygen 5.4 mol (5.4 x 24,000) = 129,600 cm3
Ammonia 0.02 mol (0.02 x 24) = 0.48 dm3
To find the moles

Moles = Volume ÷ Molar Volume

Examples of Converting Volumes into Moles Table

Name of Gas Volume of Gas Amount of Gas

Methane 225.6 dm3 (225.6 ÷ 24) = 9.4 mol
Carbon Monoxide 7.2 dm3 (7.2 ÷ 24) = 0.3 mol
Sulfur Dioxide 960 dm3 (960 ÷ 24) = 40 mol
Oxygen 1200 cm3 (1200 ÷ 24,000) = 0.05 mol
Using mass to calculate the volume of a gas

 You may be asked to calculate the volume of a gas from a given amount stated in grams instead
of moles
 To answer these type of questions you must first convert grams to moles and then calculate the
volume.
 A second style of gas calculation involves calculating the volumes of gaseous reactants and
products from a balanced equation and a given volume of a gaseous reactant or product
 These problems are straightforward as you are applying Avogadro's Law, so the moles ( and
coefficients) in equations are in the same ratio as the gas volumes
Metals reacting with water & acids

 The chemistry of the metals is studied by analysing their reactions with water and acids
 Based on these reactions a reactivity series of metals can be produced
 The series can be used to place a group of metals in order of reactivity based on the
observations of their reactions with water and acids

Reactions of metal with cold water summary table

Metal Reaction with water

Most reactive
Potassium Reacts violently
Sodium Reacts quickly
Lithium Reacts less strongly
Calcium Reacts less strongly
Magnesium
Zinc
Iron Slow rusting
Copper
Least reactive
Reaction with water

 The reactions of potassium and sodium have already been seen previously in the alkali metals,
but the reaction with calcium and water is given here for reference:

Ca (s) + 2H2O (l) ⟶ Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2(g)

calcium + water ⟶ calcium hydroxide + hydrogen

 The reactions with magnesium, iron and zinc and cold water are very slow

Reaction with dilute sulfuric or hydrochloric acids

 Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids
 The more reactive the metal then the more vigorous the reaction will be
 Metals that are placed high on the reactivity series such as potassium and sodium are very
dangerous and react explosively with acids
 When acids react with metals they form a salt and hydrogen gas:
 The general equation is:

metal + acid ⟶ salt + hydrogen

 Some examples of metal-acid reactions and their equations are given below:

Table of acid-metal reactions

 Metal Sulfuric acid Hydrochloric acid
Magnesium Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Zinc Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Iron Fe (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Fe (s) + 2HCl (aq) → FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Metal displacement reactions

 The reactivity of metals decreases going down the reactivity series.

This means that a more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its compounds

Two examples are:

o Reacting a metal with a metal oxide (by heating)

o Reacting a metal with an aqueous solution of a metal compound
 For example it is possible to reduce copper(II) oxide by heating it with zinc.
 The reducing agent in the reaction is zinc:

Zn + CuO → ZnO + Cu

zinc + copper(II) oxide → zinc oxide + copper

Metal oxide displacement table

Mixture Products Equation for Reaction

Iron(III) oxide and aluminium - thermite reaction Iron and aluminium oxide Fe2O3 + 2Al → 2Fe + Al2O3
Sodium oxide and magnesium No reaction as sodium is above magnesium -----
Silver oxide and copper Silver and copper(II) oxide Ag2O + Cu → 2Ag + CuO
Zinc oxide and calcium Zinc and calcium oxide ZnO + Ca → Zn + CaO
Lead(II) oxide and silver No reaction as lead is more reactive than silver ------
Iron nail and copper(II) chloride Copper and iron(II) chloride Fe + CuCl2 → FeCl2 + Cu
Displacement reactions between metals & aqueous solutions of metal salts

 The reactivity between two metals can be compared using displacement reactions in salt
solutions of one of the metals
 This is easily seen as the more reactive metal slowly disappears from the solution, displacing the
less reactive metal
 For example, magnesium is a reactive metal and can displace copper from copper(II)sulfate
solution:

Mg + CuSO4→ MgSO4 + Cu

 The blue colour of the CuSO4 solution fades as colourless magnesium sulfate solution is formed
 Copper coats the surface of the magnesium and also forms solid metal which falls to the bottom
of the beaker

Displacement reaction between magnesium and copper(II) sulfate

 Diagram showing the colour change when magnesium displaces copper from copper(II) sulfate

Other displacement reactions

Metal solutions displacement table

Mixture Products Equation for Reaction

Magnesium and iron(II) sulfate Magnesium sulfate and iron Mg + FeSO4 → MgSO4 + Fe
Zinc and sodium chloride No reaction as sodium is above zinc ------
Lead and silver nitrate Lead(II) nitrate and silver Pb + AgNO3 → Pb(NO3)2 + Ag
Copper and calcium chloride No reaction as calcium is above copper -------
Iron and copper(II) sulfate Iron(II) sulfate and copper Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu

he reactivity series

Carbon and the reactivity series mnemonic

 Carbon is an important element and has its own place on the reactivity series
 Its use in the extraction of metals from their oxides and a more complete reactivity series with
an accompanying mnemonic to help you memorise it is below

The reactivity series mnemonic

 “Please send lions, cats, monkeys and cute zebras into hot countries signed Gordon”

Metal Abbreviation
Most reactive
Potassium P - Please
Sodium S- Send
Lithium L - Lions
Calcium C - Cats
Magnesium M - Monkeys
Aluminium A - And
Carbon C - Cute
Zinc Z - Zebras
 Iron I - Into
Hydrogen H - Hot
Copper C - Countries
Silver S - Signed
Gold G - Gordon
Least reactive
Reactivity series mnemonic table

Rusting of iron

Investigating rusting

 Oxygen and water must be present for rust to occur

 You can investigate the conditions needed for rusting by setting up a series of control test tubes
as shown below
 Boiled water removes any dissolved oxygen and calcium chloride is a drying agent

Investigating rusting

Diagram showing how the conditions for rusting can be investigated

 The nail on the left rusts

o It is in contact with both air (which contains oxygen) and water
 The nail in the middle does not rust
o It is not in contact with air because the oil provides a barrier to prevent oxygen diffusing
into the boiled water
 The nail on the right does not rust
o It is not in contact with water because calcium chloride absorbs any water molecules
present due to moisture
 The results show that both air and water must be present for rusting to occur

Damage to Iron Structures

  Rust is a soft solid substance that flakes off the surface of iron easily, exposing fresh iron below
which then undergoes rusting
 This means that over time all of the iron rusts and its structure becomes weakened

Rust prevention

Barrier Methods

 Rust can be prevented by coating iron with barriers that prevent the iron from coming into
contact with water and oxygen
 However, if the coatings are washed away or scratched, the iron is once again exposed to water
and oxygen and will rust
 Unlike some other metals, once iron begins to rust it will continue to corrode internally as rust is
porous and allows both air and water to come into contact with fresh metal underneath any
barrier surfaces that have been broken or scratched
 Common barrier methods include: paint, oil, grease, and electroplating

Sacrificial Protection

 Iron can be prevented from rusting using the reactivity series

 A more reactive metal can be attached to a less reactive metal
 The more reactive metal will oxidise and therefore corrode first, protecting the less reactive
metal from corrosion
 Zinc is more reactive than iron therefore will lose its electrons more easily than iron and is
oxidised more easily
 For continued protection, the zinc bars have to be replaced before they completely corrode

Zinc bars on the side of steel ships

Diagram to show the use of zinc bars on the sides of steel ships as a method of sacrificial protection

Galvanising

 Galvanising is a process where the iron to be protected is coated with a layer of zinc
 This can be done by electroplating or dipping it into molten zinc
 ZnCO3 is formed when zinc reacts with oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air and protects the
iron by the barrier method
  If the coating is damaged or scratched, the iron is still protected from rusting
by sacrificial protection

Oxidation & reduction

Oxidation & reduction in terms of oxygen

 The reactions of metals with oxygen, such as in iron rusting can be classified as oxidation
 Oxidation is any reaction in which a substance gains oxygen
 The opposite of oxidation is reduction
 Reduction is a reaction in which a substance loses oxygen
 For example, the displacement reaction between zinc and copper(II)oxide can be classified as
a redox reaction

Zn + CuO → ZnO + Cu

zinc + copper(II) oxide → zinc oxide + copper

 Oxidation cannot occur without reduction happening simultaneously, hence these are called
redox reactions
 The copper(II)oxide supplies the oxygen, so it is the oxidising agent
 The zinc is the reducing agent because it removes the oxygen

Oxidation & Reduction in terms of electrons

 Displacement reactions can be analysed in terms redox reactions by studying

the transfer of electrons
 For the example of magnesium and copper sulfate, a balanced equation can be written in terms
of the ions involved:

Mg (s) + Cu2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)

 The sulfate ions, SO42-, appear on both sides of the equation unchanged hence they
are spectator ions and do not participate in the chemistry of the reaction so can be omitted:

Mg (s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

 This equation is an example of a balanced ionic equation which can be further split into two half
equations illustrating oxidation and reduction individually:

Mg → Mg2+ + 2e–

Cu2+ + 2e–→ Cu

 Mg is oxidised as it lose electrons

 Cu2+ is reduced as it gain electrons
 Oxidation is the loss of electrons
  Reduction is the gain of electrons

Oxidising agents in terms of electrons

 Oxidising agents will oxidise other species in a reaction

o They are themselves reduced therefore will gain electrons
 In the following example Fe has been oxidised and Cu2+ has been reduced
 Therefore Cu2+ is the oxidising agent

The redox reaction between Fe and Cu2+

The Fe atom is oxidised (loses electrons) and the Cu2+ ion is reduced (gains electrons). Cu2+ is the
oxidising agent

'OIL RIG' is a useful mnemonic to help remember the definitions of oxidation and reduction
Practical: Investigate Metals reacting with acids

Aim

To investigate the reactions between dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acids with the metals magnesium,
iron and zinc

Diagram

Mg, Fe and Zn reacting with acid

 Investigating the reactions of dilute acids with metals

Method

1. Wear some safety glasses before handling acids

2. Using a small measuring cylinder, add 5 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid to each of three test
tubes
3. Add about 1 cm length of magnesium ribbon to the first tube, observe and note down what you
see
4. Use a lighted splint to test for any gases given off
5. To the second test tube add a few pieces of iron filings and to the third some zinc turnings
6. Observe what happens, test for any gases and note down your observations
7. Repeat the experiment with dilute sulfuric acid

Results

Metal With dilute hydrochloric acid With dilute sulfuric acid

Magnesiu Dissolves quickly, gets hot, gas given off which goes pop with a lighted Rapid bubbling, splint goes pop, metal
m splint, colourless solution left dissolves
Iron Very slow bubbling Slow reaction, small bubbles seen
Metal dissolves forming colourless solution,
Zinc Bubbles given off, metal slowly dissolves
gas given off slowly
Metals with Acids Observations Table

Table of acid-metal reactions

Metal Sulfuric acid Hydrochloric acid

Magnesium Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Zinc Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Iron Fe (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Fe (s) + 2HCl (aq) → FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Conclusion

 The metals can be ranked in reactivity order Mg > Zn > Fe

 The three metals react in the same with both acids
 Hydrogen and a metal salt solution is produced
 Sources of metals
 The Earth’s crust contains metals and metal compounds such as gold, copper, iron oxide and
aluminium oxide

 Useful metals are often chemically combined with other substances forming ores

 A metal ore is a rock that contains enough of the metal to make it worthwhile extracting

 They have to be extracted from their ores through processes such as electrolysis, using
a blast furnace or by reacting with more reactive material

 In many cases the ore is an oxide of the metal, therefore the extraction of these metals is a
reduction process since oxygen is being removed

 Common examples of oxide ores are iron and aluminium ores which are
called haematite and bauxite respectively

 Unreactive metals do not have to be extracted chemically as they are often found as
the uncombined element

 This occurs as they do not easily react with other substances due to their chemical stability

 Examples include gold and platinum which can both be mined directly from the Earth’s crust

Extracting Metals

Extraction of metals and the reactivity series

 The most reactive metals are at the top of the series

 The tendency to become oxidised is thus linked to how reactive a metal is and therefore
its position on the reactivity series
 Metals higher up are therefore less resistant to oxidation than the metals placed lower down
which are more resistant to oxidation
 The position of the metal on the reactivity series determines the method of extraction

Metals extraction method table

Metal Extraction method

Most reactive
Potassium
Sodium
Extracted by electrolysis of the molten chloride or oxide
Lithium
Calcium
Large amounts of electricity are required, which makes this an expensive process
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc Extracted by heating with a reducing agent such as carbon or carbon monoxide in a blast furnace
 Iron
A cheap process as carbon is cheap and can also be a source of heat
Copper
Silver
Found as pure elements
Gold
Least reactive
The extraction method depends on the position of a metal in the reactivity series

 Higher placed metals (above carbon) have to be extracted using electrolysis as they are too
reactive and cannot be reduced by carbon
 Lower placed metals can be extracted by heating with carbon which reduces them

The extraction method depends on the position of a metal in the reactivity series

Extraction of Iron from Hematite

 Iron is extracted in a large container called a blast furnace from its ore, hematite
 Modern blast furnaces produce approximately 10,000 tonnes of iron per day
 This is a continuous process with new raw materials added and products removed all the time
due to the time and cost associated with getting the furnace up to temperature

The Blast Furnace

 There are three main zones in the blast furnace

 The raw materials: iron ore (hematite), coke (an impure form of carbon), and limestone are
added into the top of the blast furnace
 Hot air is blown into the bottom

Raw material Formula Use

Iron ore (hematite) Fe2O3 Source of iron
Coke C To provide carbon
Limestone CaCO3 To neutralise acidic impurities
Table of raw materials and their uses

Zone 1
  Coke burns in the hot air forming carbon dioxide
 The reaction is exothermic so it gives off heat, heating the furnace

carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide

C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)

Zone 2

 At the high temperatures in the furnace, more coke reacts with carbon dioxide forming carbon
monoxide
 Carbon dioxide has been reduced to carbon monoxide

carbon + carbon dioxide → carbon monoxide

CO2 (g) + C (s) → 2CO (g)

Zone 3

 Carbon monoxide reduces the iron(III) oxide in the iron ore to form iron
 This will melt and collect at the bottom of the furnace, where it is tapped off:

iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide → iron + carbon dioxide

Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2Fe (I) + 3CO2 (g)

Removal of impurities

 Limestone (calcium carbonate) is added to the furnace to remove acidic impurities in the ore
o The calcium carbonate in the limestone thermally decomposes to form calcium oxide

calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

 The calcium oxide formed reacts with the silicon dioxide, which is an impurity in the iron ore, to
form calcium silicate by neutralisation

calcium oxide + silicon dioxide → calcium silicate

CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) → CaSiO3 (l)

 This melts and collects as a molten slag floating on top of the molten iron, which is tapped off
separately

Extraction of Aluminium
  Aluminium is a reactive metal, above carbon in the reactivity series
 Its main ore, is bauxite, which contains aluminium oxide
 Aluminium is higher in the reactivity series than carbon, so it cannot be extracted by reduction
using carbon
 Instead, aluminium is extracted by electrolysis

The electrolytic cell for extraction of aluminium

Diagram showing the extraction of aluminium by electrolysis

 Bauxite is first purified to produce aluminium oxide, Al2O3

 Aluminium oxide is then dissolved in molten cryolite
o This is because aluminium oxide has a melting point of over 2000°C which would use a
lot of energy and be very expensive
o The resulting mixture has a lower melting point without interfering with the reaction
 The mixture is placed in an electrolysis cell, made from steel, lined with graphite
 The graphite lining acts as the negative electrode, with several large graphite blocks as the
positive electrodes
 At the cathode (negative electrode):
o Aluminium ions gain electrons (reduction)
o Molten aluminium forms at the bottom of the cell
o The molten aluminium is siphoned off from time to time and fresh aluminium oxide is
added to the cell

Al3+ + 3e– → Al

 At the anode (positive electrode):

o Oxide ions lose electrons (oxidation)
o Oxygen is produced at the anode:

2O2– → O2 + 4e–

 The carbon in the graphite anodes reacts with the oxygen produced to produce CO2
 C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)

 As a result the anode wears away and has to be replaced regularly

 A lot of electricity is required for this process of extraction, this is a major expense

Uses of metals
 The uses of aluminium, copper and steel are summarised in these tables:

Uses of Aluminium

Use Property
Aircraft bodies High strength-to-weight ratio (low density)
Saucepans Very good conductor of heat and unreactive
Overhead electrical cables Very good conductor of electricity
Food cans Non-toxic, resistant to corrosion and resistant to acidic food stuffs
Uses of copper

Use Property
Electrical wiring Very good conductor of electricity and ductile
Saucepans Very good conductor of heat, unreactive, malleable
Water pipes Unreactive (does not react with water), non-toxic and malleable
Uses of iron

Use Property
Building material Good strength, malleable and ductile, relatively inexpensive
Variable oxidation state*
Catalyst
Increases the rate of reaction without being used up
* This is beyond the scope of this specification but included for completeness

Uses of Steel

Type of steel Iron alloyed with Use Property

Mild 0.25% C Car body panels and wiring Soft and malleable
High carbon 0.5-1.4% C Tools, e.g. chisels Hard
Stainless 20% Cr and 10% Ni Cutlery, sinks and chemical plants Strong and resistant to corrosion

Alloys
  An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or metal with a non-metal such as carbon
o Steel is made from iron and carbon
 Alloys often have properties that can be very different from the metals they contain
o They can be stronger and harder
o They are resistance to corrosion or extreme temperatures
 These enhanced properties can make alloys more useful than pure metals
 Alloys are harder than pure metals because:
o Alloys contain atoms of different sizes
o This distorts the regular arrangements of atoms
o So it is more difficult for the layers of atoms to slide over each other
 Brass is a common example of an alloy which contains 70% copper and 30% zinc

Alloy structure

The regular arrangement of a metal lattice structure is distorted in alloys

Indicators

What are two colour indicators?

 Two colours indicators are used to distinguish between acids and alkalis
 Many plants contain substances that can act as indicators and the most common one
is litmus which is extracted from lichens
 Synthetic indicators are organic compounds that are sensitive to changes in acidity and appear
different colours in acids and alkalis
 Phenolphthalein and methyl orange are synthetic indicators frequently used in acid-alkali
titrations
 Synthetic indicators are used to show the endpoint in titrations as they have a very sharp change
of colour when an acid has been neutralised by an alkali and vice-versa
 Litmus is not suitable for titrations as the colour change is not sharp and it goes through a purple
transition colour in neutral solutions making it difficult to determine an endpoint
 Litmus is very useful as an an indicator paper and comes in red and blue versions, for dipping
into solutions or testing gases

Two Colour Indicators Table

Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkali

 litmus red blue
phenolphthalein colourless pink
methyl orange red yellow
The pH scale

 The pH scale goes from 0 – 14

 All acids have pH values of below 7, all alkalis have pH values of above 7
 The lower the pH then the more acidic the solution is
o pH 0-3 = strong acid
 Extremely acidic substances can have values of below 1
o pH 4-6 = weak acid
 The higher the pH then the more alkaline the solution is
o pH 8-10 = weak alkali
o pH 11-14 = strong alkali
 A solution of pH 7 is described as being neutral

Universal indicator

 Universal indicator is a wide range indicator and can give only an approximate value for pH

It is made of a mixture of different plant indicators which operate across a broad pH range and
is useful for estimating the pH of an unknown solution

A few drops are added to the solution and the colour is matched with a colour chart which
indicates the pH which matches with specific colours

Universal indicator colours vary slightly between manufacturer so colour charts are usually
provided for a specific indicator formulation
 pH scale with the Universal Indicator colours used to determine the pH of a solution
Acids & alkalis

 When acids are added to water, they form positively charged hydrogen ions (H+)
o The presence of H+ ions is what makes a solution acidic
 When alkalis are added to water, they form negative hydroxide ions (OH–)
o The presence of the OH– ions is what makes the aqueous solution an alkali
 The pH scale is a numerical scale which is used to show how acidic or alkaline a solution is
o It is a measure of the amount of the hydrogen ions present in solution

Neutralisation

 A neutralisation reaction occurs when an acid reacts with an alkali

 When these substances react together in a neutralisation reaction, the H+ ions react with
the OH– ions to produce water
 Not all reactions of acids are neutralisations
o For example when a metal reacts with an acid, although a salt is produced there is no
water formed so it does not fit the definition of neutralisation
 For example, when hydrochloric acid is neutralised a sodium chloride and water are produced:
  The net ionic equation of all acid-base neutralisations and is what leads to a neutral solution,
since water has a pH of 7:

H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)⟶ H2O (l)

 Neutralisation is very important in the treatment of soils to raise the pH as some crops cannot
tolerate pH levels below 7
o This is achieved by adding bases to the soil such as limestone and quicklime

What is a titration?

 Titrations are a method of analysing the concentration of solutions

 Acid-base titrations are one of the most important kinds of titrations
 They can determine exactly how much alkali is needed to neutralise a quantity of acid – and vice
versa
 You may be asked to calculate the moles present in a given amount,
the concentration or volume required to neutralise an acid or a base
 Titrations can also be used to prepare salts

How to carry out a titration

 Performing a titration

Method

1. Use the pipette and pipette filler and place exactly 25 cm3 sodium hydroxide solution into the
conical flask
2. Fill the burette with hydrochloric acid, place an empty beaker underneath the tap. Run a small
portion of acid through the burette to remove any air bubbles
3. Record the starting point on the burette to the nearest 0.05 cm3
4. Place the conical flask on a white tile so the tip of the burette is inside the flask
5. Add a few drops of a suitable indicator to the solution in the conical flask
6. Perform a rough titration by taking the burette reading and running in the solution in 1 – 3
cm3 portions, while swirling the flask vigorously
7. Quickly close the tap when the end-point is reached (sharp colour change) and record the
volume, placing your eye level with the meniscus
8. Now repeat the titration with a fresh batch of sodium hydroxide
9. As the rough end-point volume is approached, add the solution from the burette one drop at a
time until the indicator just changes colour
10. Record the volume to the nearest 0.05 cm3
11. Repeat until you achieve two concordant results (two results that are within 0.1 cm 3 of each
other) to increase accuracy

Results

Results table for a titration

Rough titre (cm3) Titre 1 (cm3) Titre 2 (cm3) Mean (cm3)

15.50 14.90 15.00 14.95
Solubility rules

 Ionic compounds are generally soluble in water compared to covalent substances, but there are
exceptions
  A knowledge of the solubility of ionic compounds helps us to determine the most appropriate
method for the preparation of salts
 The solubility of common ionic compounds is shown below:

Solubility of the common salts

Salts Soluble Insoluble

Sodium, potassium and
All None
ammonium
Nitrates All None
Chlorides Most are soluble Silver and lead(II)
Barium, calcium and
Sulfates Most are soluble
lead(II)
Carbonates Carbonates of sodium, potassium and ammonium Most are insoluble
Hydroxides of sodium potassium and ammonium (calcium hydroxide is
Hydroxides Most are insoluble
sparingly soluble)
 Note that calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble in water

Acids, bases & protons

Proton transfer

 The earlier definition of an acid and a base can be extended

 In terms of proton transfer, we can further define each substance in how they interact with
protons

Acids

 Acids are proton donors as they ionize in solution producing protons, H+ ions
 These H+ ions make the aqueous solution acidic
 Example: hydrochloric acid

HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)

Bases (Alkalis)

 Bases (alkalis) are proton acceptors as they ionize in solution producing OH- ions which can
accept protons
 These OH- ions make the aqueous solution alkaline
 Example: sodium hydroxide

NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH– (aq)

Reactions of Acids

Reactions of acids with metals

  Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids
 The more reactive the metal then the more vigorous the reaction will be
 Metals that are placed high on the reactivity series such as potassium and sodium are very
dangerous and react explosively with acids
 When acids react with metals they form a salt and hydrogen gas
 The general equation is:

metal + acid ⟶ salt + hydrogen

 Some examples of metal-acid reactions and their equations are given below:

Table of acid-metal reactions

Metal Sulfuric acid Hydrochloric acid

Magnesium Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Zinc Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Iron Fe (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Fe (s) + 2HCl (aq) → FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
 In general, we can summarise the reaction of a metal that forms a +2 ion as follows:

Acids-Metals Summary Table

Acid Name of products Equation for reaction

Hydrochloric acid Metal chloride and hydrogen M + 2HCl → MCl2 + H2
Sulfuric acid Metal sulfate and hydrogen M + H2SO4 → MSO4 + H2
Reaction of acids with bases

 When an acid reacts with a base, a neutralisation reaction occurs

 In all acid-base neutralisation reactions, a salt and water are produced:

acid + base ⟶ salt + water

 The identity of the salt produced depends on the acid used and the positive ions in the base
 Hydrochloric acid produces chlorides, sulfuric acid produces sulfate salts and nitric acid
produces nitrates
 Metal oxides and metal hydroxides act as bases
 The following are some specific examples of reactions between acids and metal oxides /
hydroxides:

2HCl + CuO ⟶ CuCl2 + H2O

H2SO4 + 2NaOH ⟶ Na2SO4 + 2H2O

HNO3 + KOH ⟶ KNO3 + H2O

 In general, we can summarise the reaction of metals and bases as follows:

 Acids and Metals Oxides or Hydroxides Summary Table

MOH + HCl ⟶ MCl + H2O

Acid Name of products Equation for reaction

MO + H2SO4 ⟶ MSO4 + H2O

Hydrochloric acid Metal chloride and water

MO + HNO3 ⟶ MNO3 + H2O

Sulfuric acid Metal sulfate and water
Nitric acid Metal nitrate and water
Reactions of Acids with Metal Carbonates

 Acids will react with metal carbonates to form the corresponding

metal salt, carbon dioxide and water
 These reactions are easily distinguishable from acid – metal oxide/hydroxide reactions due to
the presence of effervescence caused by the carbon dioxide gas

Acids & Metal Carbonates Reactions Table

MCO3 + 2HCl ⟶ MCl2 + CO2 + H2O

Acid Name of Products Equation for Reaction

MCO3 + 2H2SO4 ⟶ MSO4 + CO2 + H2O

Hydrochloric acid Metal chloride, carbon dioxide and water

MCO3 + HNO3 ⟶ M(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O

Sulfuric acid Metal sulfate, carbon dioxide and water
Nitric acid Metal nitrate, carbon dioxide and water
 The following are some specific examples of reactions between acids and metal carbonates:

2HCl + Na2CO3 ⟶ 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

H2SO4 + CaCO3⟶ CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

Bases

What makes a base act like a base?

 Bases are substances which can neutralise an acid, forming a salt and water
 The term base and alkali are not the same
 A base which is water-soluble is referred to as an alkali
o So, all alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis
 Alkalis have pH values of above 7
 In basic (alkaline) conditions red litmus paper turns blue
 Bases are usually oxides, hydroxides or carbonates of metals
 The presence of the OH- ions is what makes the aqueous solution an alkali
 One unusual base is ammonia solution
o When ammonia reacts with water it produces hydroxide ions

Some common alkalis and the ions they contain

Name of alkali Formula Ions formed in water

Sodium hydroxide NaOH Na+ + OH-
Potassium hydroxide KOH K+ + OH-
Aqueous ammonia NH3 (+ H2O) NH4+ + OH-
Prepare a soluble salt
  A soluble salt can be made from the reaction of an acid with an insoluble base
 During the preparation of soluble salts, the insoluble reactant is added in excess to ensure
that all of the acid has reacted
 If this step is not completed, any unreacted acid would become dangerously concentrated
during evaporation and crystallisation
 The excess reactant is then removed by filtration to ensure that only the salt and water remain
 Since all of the acid has reacted and the excess solid base has been removed then the solution
left can only be salt and water
 The water is evaporated by heating until small crystals begin to appear
o This is typically once half of the water is left
o Allowing the filtered solution to evaporate slowly over a period of days results in the
formation of larger crystals
 If a carbonate was used as the solid base instead of an oxide or hydroxide, then any carbon
dioxide gas produced would have been released into the atmosphere
 A common example is the preparation of copper(II) sulfate which can be made with copper(II)
oxide and dilute sulfuric acid:

CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ⟶ CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

Copper sulfate crystals

After filtering and heating copper sulfate crystals will form. Larger crystals will form if the water in the
solution is left to evaporate slowly

 The acid could also be reacted with a metal to produce the salt, as long as the metal is above
hydrogen in the reactivity series and not too reactive so that a dangerous reaction does not take
place

Prepare a soluble salt II

 It is also possible to prepare a sample of a dry salt starting from an acid and an alkali
 A titration can be used for this

Preparation of a soluble salt using a titraion

 Diagram showing the apparatus needed to prepare a salt by titration

Method
  Use a pipette to measure the alkali into a conical flask and add a few drops of indicator
(phenolphthalein or methyl orange)
 Add the acid into the burette and note the starting volume
 Add the acid very slowly from the burette to the conical flask until the indicator changes to
appropriate colour
 Note and record the final volume of acid in burette and calculate the volume of acid added
(starting volume of acid - final volume of acid)
 Add this same volume of acid into the same volume of alkali without the indicator
 Heat to partially evaporate, leaving a saturated solution
 Leave to crystallise decant excess solution and allow crystals to dry

Prepare an insoluble salt

 Insoluble salts can be prepared using a precipitation reaction

 The solid salt obtained is the precipitate, thus in order to successfully use this method the solid
salt being formed must be insoluble in water
 The preparation of a soluble salt follows this pattern:

soluble salt 1 + soluble salt 2 ⟶ insoluble salt + soluble salt 3

AB + CD ⟶ AD + CB

 The method involves measuring out a fixed volume of one solution and then adding the second
salt solution until it is in a slight excess
o This ensures the maximum amount of precipitate will be obtained
 The precipitate is recovered by filtration and then it must be washed with distilled water remove
reactants that are contaminating the residue (recovered solid)
o It is then left to dry
 This method is a good way to prepare silver and lead(II) salts which are often insoluble; the
starting material will usually be the nitrate of silver or lead(II) since all nitrates are soluble

Practical: Prepare Copper(II)Sulfate

Aim

To prepare a pure, dry sample of hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals

Materials

 1.0 mol / dm3 dilute sulfuric acid

 Copper(II) oxide
 Spatula & glass rod
 Measuring cylinder & 100 cm3 beaker
 Bunsen burner
 Tripod, gauze & heatproof mat
 Filter funnel & paper, conical flask
 Evaporating basin and dish.
Diagram

Preparation of a soluble salt from an insoluble base and acid

 The preparation of copper(II) sulfate by the insoluble base method

Method

1. Add 50 cm3 dilute acid into a beaker and warm gently using a Bunsen burner
2. Add the copper(II) oxide slowly to the hot dilute acid and stir until the base is in excess (i.e. until
the base stops dissolving and a suspension of the base forms in the acid)
3. Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess base
4. Gently heat the solution in a water bath or with an electric heater to evaporate the water and to
make the solution saturated
5. Check the solution is saturated by dipping a cold glass rod into the solution and seeing if crystals
form on the end
6. Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallise
7. Decant excess solution and allow the crystals to dry

Practical Tip

 The base is added in excess to use up all of the acid, which would become dangerously
concentrated during the evaporation and crystallisation stages

Results

 Hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals should be bright blue and regularly shaped

Practical: Prepare Lead(II)Sulfate

Aim

 To prepare a dry sample of lead(II) sulfate

 The solid salt obtained is the precipitate, thus in order to successfully use this method the solid
salt being formed must be insoluble in water, and the reactants must be soluble

Diagram

Preparation of an insoluble salt via precipitation

 The preparation of lead(II)sulfate by precipitation from two soluble salts

Method

1. Measure out 25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm3 lead(II)nitrate solution and add it to a small beaker
2. Measure out 25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm3 of potassium sulfate add it to the beaker and mix together
using a stirring rod
3. Filter to remove precipitate from mixture
4. Wash filtrate with distilled water to remove traces of other solutions
5. Leave in an oven to dry
Soluble salt 1 = lead(II) nitrate

Soluble salt 2 = potassium sulfate

lead(II) nitrate + potassium sulfate → lead(II) sulfate + potassium nitrate

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + K2SO4 (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

Exothermic and endothermic reactions

 The changes in heat content can be determined and measured with a thermometer
 Note that the overall amount of energy does not change as energy is conserved in reactions
o This is known as the law of conservation of energy
 This means that it cannot be created or destroyed but it can be transferred
 So, if energy is transferred to the surroundings during a chemical reaction, then the products
formed must have less energy than the reactants by the same amount as that transferred

Exothermic reactions

 An exothermic reaction releases heat energy

o This means that the temperature increases
 Examples of exothermic reactions include neutralisation and combustion

Exothermic reaction diagram

In exothermic reactions, the temperature of the surroundings increases and the heat content of the
system falls
Endothermic reactions

 An endothermic reaction takes heat energy in

o This means that the temperature decreases

Endothermic reaction diagram

In endothermic reactions, the temperature of the surroundings falls and the heat content of the
system increases

 The following are some examples of heat changes in reactions

o Neutralisation reactions:
 These always give energy out
o Displacement reactions:
 These can either take energy in or give it out
o Combustion reactions:
 These always give energy out

Calorimetry

 We can experimentally determine the relative amounts of energy released by a fuel

 We do this using simple calorimetry
 There are two types of calorimetry experiments you need to know:
o Enthalpy changes of reactions in solution
o Enthalpy changes of combustion

Reactions in solution
  To calculate the amount of energy produced by a chemical reaction in solution we measure the
temperature change when the solutions are mixed together
 The solutions need to be mixed together in an insulated contain to prevent heat loss
 This method can be used for:
o Neutralisation reactions
o Dissolving solids in water
o Displacement reactions

 For the purposes of the calculations, some assumptions are made about the experiment:
o That the specific heat capacity of the solution is the same as pure water, i.e. 4.18 J/g/°C
o That the density of the solution is the same as pure water, i.e. 1 g/cm3
o The specific heat capacity of the container is ignored
o The reaction is complete
o There are negligible heat losses
 A calorimeter can be made up of a polystyrene drinking cup, a vacuum flask or metal can

A simple calorimeter

A polystyrene cup can act as a calorimeter to find enthalpy changes in a chemical reaction

 Method:
1. A fixed volume of one reagent is added to the calorimeter and the initial
temperature taken with a thermometer
2. An excess amount of the second reagent is added and the solution is stirred
continuously
3. The maximum temperature is recorded and the temperature rise calculated
 The energy released would be calculated using:

Q = m x c x ΔT

 Q = the heat energy change, J

 m = the mass of the substance being heated, g
 c = the specific heat capacity, J/g/°C
 ΔT = the temperature change, °C
Enthalpy of combustion experiments

 The principle here is to use the heat released by a combustion reaction to increase the heat
content of water
 A typical simple calorimeter is used to measure the temperature changes to the water

Diagram to show the set up of calorimetry equipment

A lid is used to prevent heat loss

 The steps are:

1. Measure a fixed volume of water into a copper can
2. Weigh the spirit burner containing a fuel using a balance
3. Measure the initial temperature of the water
4. Burn the fuel and stir the water
5. Wait until the temperature has risen by approximately 20 oC and extinguish the flame
6. Record the final temperature of the water and re-weigh the spirit burner
 To calculate the energy released by the fuel we can use the data obtained from the experiment
above and the specific heat capacity of water
 The specific heat capacity, c, is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a
substance by 1 °C

o The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g/°C

 The heat energy change is calculated using:

Q = m x c x ΔT

 Q = the heat energy change, J

 m = the mass of the substance being heated, g
 c = the specific heat capacity, J/g/°C
 ΔT = the temperature change, °C
Sources of error

 Not all the heat produced by the combustion reaction is transferred to the water
o Some heat is lost to the surroundings
o Some heat is absorbed by the calorimeter
 To minimise the heat losses the copper calorimeter should not be placed too far above the
flame and a lid placed over the calorimeter
 Shielding can be used to reduce draughts
 In this experiment the main sources of error are
o Heat losses
o Incomplete combustion

Calculating heat energy change

 In order to calculate heat energy changes you need to know the mass of the substance being
heated, the temperature change and the specific heat capacity of the substance
 The specific heat capacity, c is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a
substance by 1 °C
 The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g/°C
 The heat energy change, Q, can be calculated by:

 Where:
o Q = the heat energy change, J
o m = the mass of the substance being heated, g
o c = the specific heat capacity, J/g/°C
o ΔT = the temperature change, °C
 The temperature change in degrees Celsius is the same as the temperature change in Kelvin

Calculating molar enthalpy change

 We can compare the amount of energy released per gram and per mole for different fuels
 In both cases, the energy released (Q) is calculated first
 To calculate the energy released per gram of fuel:

energy released per gram= energy released / mass of fuel burned

 To calculate the energy released per mole of fuel:

energy released per mole= energy released / number of moles

  The energy released per mole is also known as the molar enthalpy change
 The units are kJ / mol

Energy level diagrams

 Energy level diagrams are graphical representations of the relative energies of the reactants and
products in chemical reactions
 The energy of the reactants and products are displayed on the y-axis and the progress of the
reaction is shown on the x-axis
 Arrows on the diagrams indicate whether the reaction is exothermic (downwards pointing) or
endothermic (upwards pointing)
 The difference in height between the energy of reactants and products represents the overall
enthalpy change of a reaction

Energy level diagrams

Energy level diagram of an exothermic reaction and an endothermic reaction

 Energy is given out in exothermic reactions

o The energy of the products will be lower than the energy of the reactants, so the change
in energy is negative
o This is represented on the energy level diagram with a downwards arrow as the energy
of the products is lower than the reactants
 Energy is taken in in endothermic reactions
o The energy of the products will be higher than the energy of the reactants, so the
change in energy is positive
o This is represented on the energy level diagram with an upwards arrow as the energy of
the products is higher than the reactants
Bond energies

 During a chemical reaction energy must be taken in to break bonds

o Because energy is being taken in, bond breaking is an endothermic process
 During a chemical reaction, energy is released when new bonds are formed
o Because energy is released, bond making is an exothermic process
 Whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic overall depends on the difference between
the energy needed to break existing bonds and the energy released when the new bonds
are formed

Exothermic reactions

 In an exothermic reaction:
o The energy released when new bonds are formed is greater than the energy taken in to
break bonds
o The change in energy is negative since the reactants have more energy than the
products
o Therefore an exothermic reaction has a negative ΔH value

Making new bonds gives off heat from the reaction to the surroundings

Endothermic reactions

 In an endothermic reaction:
o The energy needed to break existing bonds is greater than the energy released when
new bonds are formed
o The change in energy is positive since the products have more energy than the reactants
o Therefore an endothermic reaction has a positive ΔH value
Bond energy calculations

 Each chemical bond has a specific bond energy associated with it

 This is the amount of energy required to break the bond or the amount of energy given out
when the bond is formed
 This energy can be used to calculate how much heat would be released or absorbed in a
reaction
 To do this it is necessary to know the bonds present in both the reactants and products
 We can calculate the total change in enthalpy for a reaction if we know the bond energies of all
the species involved
 Add together all the bond energies for all the bonds in the reactants – this is the ‘energy in’
 Add together the bond energies for all the bonds in the products – this is the ‘energy out’
 Calculate the enthalpy change using the equation:

Enthalpy change (ΔH) = Energy taken in - Energy given out

Practical: Investigating Temperature Changes

Aim:

 To perform a calorimetry study of the reaction between HCl and NaOH

Apparatus:

 Dilute hydrochloric acid

 Dilute sodium hydroxide solution
 Styrofoam (polystyrene) calorimeter & lid
 25 cm3 measuring cylinder
 Thermometer & stirrer

Simple calorimeter
 A lid is required to prevent heat loss

Method:

1. Using a measuring cylinder, place 25 cm3 of the NaOH solution into the calorimeter
2. Measure and record the temperature of the solution
3. Add 5 cm3 of the dilute HCl and stir
4. Measure and record the highest temperature reached by the mixture
5. Repeat steps 1 – 4 increasing the amount of acid added by 5 cm3 each time

Results:

 Record your results in a suitable table

Volume of acid (cm3) Temperature (oC)

5
10
15
20
25
 Plot a graph of the results and draw a line of best fit, using the graph to determine what volume
of acid causes the biggest change in temperature

Conclusion:

 The larger the difference in the temperature the more energy is absorbed or released

Organic compounds
What is organic chemistry

 Organic chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, and reactions of organic
compounds. Organic compounds are those which contain carbon
 For conventional reasons metal carbonates, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
are not included in organic compounds

What is a hydrocarbon?

 A compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon atoms

Representing Organic Molecules

 Organic compounds can be represented in a number of ways:

o Empirical Formulae
o Molecular Formulae
o General Formulae
o Structural Formulae
o Condensed Structural Formulae

Empirical formulae

The empirical formula shows the simplest possible ratio of the atoms in a molecule

 For example: Hydrogen peroxide is H2O2 but the empirical formula is HO

Molecular formulae

 The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms in a molecule

Molecular formula of butane

The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms in a molecule

General formula
  The general formula shows a ratio of atoms in a family of compounds in terms of 'n' where n is a
varying whole number
o For example, the general formula of a molecule that belong to the alkane family is
CnH2n+2

Displayed formulae

 The displayed formulae shows the spatial arrangement of all the atoms and bonds in a molecule
 This is also known as the graphical formula

Displayed formula of 2-methylbutane

The displayed formula must show every bond in the molecule

Structural formulae

 In a structural formulae enough information is shown to make the structure clear, but most of
the actual covalent bonds are omitted
 Only important bonds are always shown, such as double and triple bonds
 Identical groups can be bracketed together
 Side groups are also shown using brackets

Structural formula of pentane

The structural formula of pentane makes it clear that there are five carbon atoms in the chain and no
other functional groups
Organic terminology

 Three important terms to know in this topic are homologous series, functional
group and isomerism
Homologous Series

 This is a series or family of organic compounds that have similar features and chemical
properties due to them having the same functional group
 All members of a homologous series have:
o The same general formula
o Same functional group
o Similar chemical properties
o Gradation in their physical properties
o The difference in the molecular formula between one member and the next is CH 2

Functional Group

 Functional group: A group of atoms bonded in a specific arrangement that influences the
properties of the homologous series
 Some examples are shown here

Structures and Names of Common Functional Groups

 Isomerism

 Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different displayed formulae
o Eg. propene and cyclopropane

Isomers of C3H6

Isomers of C3H6 show the same molecular formula but different structures. Isomers can show similar
physical and chemical properties or if they have different functional groups, the properties can be
different.
Naming organic compounds

Names of compounds

 The names of organic compounds have two parts: the prefix or stem and the end part (or suffix)
 The prefix tells you how many carbon atoms are present in the longest continuous chain in the
compound
 The suffix tells you what functional group is on the compound

Examples of naming organic molecules

First part of name Second part of name

Name Number of carbon atoms Name Functional group Family
Meth... 1 ...ane None Alkane
Eth... 2 ...ene C=C bond Alkene
Prop... 3 ...anol R-OH Alcohol
But... 4 ...anoic acid R-C=O-OH Carboxylic acid
Pent... 5 ....amine R-NH2 Amine
Hex... 6 ...yl ...anoate R-C=O-O-R Ester
Further rules for naming compounds

 When there is more than one carbon atom where a functional group can be located it is
important to distinguish exactly which carbon the functional group is on
 Each carbon is numbered and these numbers are used to describe where the functional group is
 When 2 functional groups are present di- is used as a prefix to the second part of the name
Naming isomers

Isomers can be distinguished by following the naming rules

Classifying organic reactions

 The reactions of organic compounds can be classified into

o Substitution
o Addition
o Combustion

Substitution

 A substitution reaction takes place when one functional group is replaced by another
o Example: Methane reacts with bromine under ultraviolet light

CH4 + Br2 → CH3Br + HBr

methane + bromine → bromomethane + hydrogen bromide

Addition

 An addition reaction takes place when two or more molecules combine to form a larger
molecule with no other products
o Example: Bromine will react with ethene and the bromine molecule will react and add
across the double bond of the ethene

C2H4 + Br2 → C2H4Br2

ethene + bromine → dibromoethane

Combustion
  This is the scientific term for burning. In a combustion reaction, an organic substance reacts
with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (or carbon monoxide if incomplete combustion) and water.
o Example: Alkenes burn when heated in air of oxygen
 If there is an unlimited supply of air / oxygen, the products are carbon dioxide and water
 This is termed complete combustion

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

 If there is a limited supply of air / oxygen, the products are carbon monoxide and water
o This is termed incomplete combustion

CH4 + O2 → CO + 2H2O
Fractional distillation of crude Oil

How is crude oil separated?

 Crude oil as a mixture is not a very useful substance but the different hydrocarbons that make
up the mixture, called fractions, are enormously valuable, with each fraction having many
different applications
 Each fraction consists of groups of hydrocarbons of similar chain lengths
 The fractions in petroleum are separated from each other in a process called fractional
distillation
 The molecules in each fraction have similar properties and boiling points, which depend on the
number of carbon atoms in the chain
 The size and length of each hydrocarbon molecule determines in which fraction it will be
separated into
 The size of each molecule is directly related to how many carbon and hydrogen atoms the
molecule contains
 Most fractions contain mainly alkanes, which are compounds of carbon and hydrogen with
only single bonds between them

Fractional distillation of crude oil

 Diagram showing the process of fractional distillation to separate crude oil in a fractionating column

How does fractional distillation work?

 Fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column which has a temperature gradient
o It is very hot at the bottom of the column and cooler at the top
 During the process of fractional distillation:
o The crude oil is heated and vapourises
o The vapours of hydrocarbons enter the column which has a temperature gradient
o The vapours of hydrocarbons with high boiling points condense at the bottom of the
column
o The vapours of hydrocarbons with lower boiling points rise up the column and condense
at the top

The Main Fractions

Properties of the main fractions of crude oil

Viscosity

 This refers to the ease of flow of a liquid

 High viscosity liquids are thick and flow less easily
  If the number of carbon atoms increases, the attraction between the hydrocarbon molecules
also increases which results in the liquid becoming more viscous with the increasing length of
the hydrocarbon chain
 The liquid flows less easily with increasing molecular mass

Colour

 As carbon chain length increases the colour of the liquid gets darker as it gets thicker and more
viscous

Melting point/boiling point

 As the molecules get larger, the intermolecular attraction becomes greater

 So more heat is needed to separate the molecules
 With increasing molecular size there is an increase in boiling point

Volatility

 Volatility refers to the tendency of a substance to vaporise

 With increasing molecular size hydrocarbon liquids become less volatile
 This is because the attraction between the molecules increases with increasing molecular size

Trend in boiling point of the main fractions

Fraction Number of carbon atoms Boiling point Boiling point & viscosity increase going down
Refinery gas 1-4 Below 25
Gasoline / petrol 4-12 40-100
Naptha 7-14 90-150
Kerosene / paraffin 12-16 150-240
↓
Diesel / gas oil 14-18 220-300
Fuel oil 19-25 250-320
Lubricating oil 20-40 300-350
Bitumen More than 70 More than 350
What are the fractions used for?

 The petrochemical industry is hugely important for modern society and development
 The fuels that are used in most modern methods of transport (cars, trains, airplanes etc.) are all
based on oil products
 Polymers, lubricants, solvents, detergents and adhesives are all products that are obtained from
crude oil
 The array of fractions in crude oil and the huge range of compounds we can produce from them
all stem from carbon’s ability to form multiple strong covalent bonds with itself leading a huge
number of organic compounds
 The main fractions and their uses are described in the following table:

Uses of Crude Oil Fractions

 Fraction Use
Liquified petroleum gas Domestic heating & cooking
Petrol Fuel for cars (gasoline)
Kerosene Jet fuel (paraffin)
Diesel Diesel engines (gas oil)
Heavy fuel oil Ships & power stations
Bitumen Surfacing roads and roofs
Combustion of fuels

The combustion of fossil fuels

 A fuel is a substance that, when burned, releases heat energy (exothermic reaction)
 The combustion of fossil fuels is the major source of atmospheric pollution
o Fossil fuels include: coal, oil, natural gas, oil shales and tar sands
 Non-renewable fossil fuels are obtained from crude oil by fractional distillation
 Petrol is used as a fuel in cars, kerosene is used to fuel aircraft and diesel oil is used as a fuel in
some cars, trucks and heavy vehicles such as tanks and trains
 Coal is used in power stations and also steel production
 Natural gas consists mainly of methane, CH4
 There are finite amounts of fossil fuels and they all contribute to pollution and global warming
 All these fuels contain carbon, hydrogen and small quantities of sulfur

Combustion products

 The burning of fossil fuels releases the gases carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of
nitrogen and oxides of sulfur
 In addition incomplete combustion of the fuels gives rise to unburned hydrocarbons and carbon
particulates
 When the fuel is a hydrocarbon then water and carbon dioxide are the products formed
 Hydrocarbon compounds undergo complete and incomplete combustion

Complete combustion

 Complete combustion occurs when there is excess oxygen

 For example, the combustion equation for propane is:

C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

Incomplete combustion

 Incomplete combustion occurs when there is insufficient oxygen to burn

 It occurs in some appliances such as boilers and stoves as well as in internal
combustion engines
 The products of these reactions are unburnt fuel (soot), carbon monoxide and water
 Methane for example undergoes incomplete combustion in an oxygen-poor environment:
 2CH4 + 3O2→ 2CO + 4H2O

CH4 + O2→ C + 2H2O

Carbon monoxide

Why is carbon monoxide dangerous?

 Carbon monoxide is a toxic and odourless gas which can cause dizziness, loss of consciousness
and eventually death
o The CO binds well to haemoglobin which therefore cannot bind oxygen
o Oxygen is transported to organs

Carbon monoxide binding to haemoglobin

The high affinity of CO to haemoglobin prevents it from binding to O2

Formation of nitrogen oxides

Nitrogen Oxides

 These compounds (NO and NO2) are formed when nitrogen and oxygen react in the high
pressure and temperature conditions of internal combustion engines and blast furnaces
 Exhaust gases also contain unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide
 Cars are fitted with catalytic converters which form a part of their exhaust systems
 Their function is to render these exhaust gases harmless
 The adverse effects of nitrogen oxides include acid rain as well as producing photochemical
smog and breathing difficulties, in particular for people suffering from asthma.

Formation of sulfur dioxide

Sulfur dioxide

 Fossil fuels are often contaminated with small amounts of sulfur impurities
  When these contaminated fossil fuels are combusted, the sulfur in the fuels
get oxidised to sulfur dioxide

S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)

 The adverse effects of sulfur dioxide include acid rain:

o Acid rain causes corrosion to metal structures, buildings and statues made of carbonate
rocks, damage to aquatic organisms
o It pollutes crops and water supplies, irritates lungs, throats and eyes

Acid rain

How is acid rain formed?

From sulfur dioxide

 The sulfur dioxide produced from the combustion of fossil fuels dissolves in rainwater droplets
to form sulfuric acid

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)

 Sulfuric acid is one of the components of acid rain which has several damaging impacts on the
environment

From nitrogen dioxide

 Nitrogen dioxide produced from car engines reacts with rain water to form a mixture
of nitrous and nitric acids, which contribute to acid rain:

2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) → HNO2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq)

 Lightning strikes can also trigger the formation of nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxides in air
 Nitrogen dioxide gas reacts with rain water and more oxygen to form nitric acid

4NO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)→ 4HNO3 (aq)

 When the clouds rise, the temperature decreases, and the droplets get larger
 When the droplets containing these acids are heavy enough, they will fall down as acid rain

The formation of acid rain

 Formation of acid rain from nitrogen and sulfur oxides
Cracking hydrocarbons

What is cracking?

 Cracking is an industrial process used to break low demand, long chain hydrocarbon
molecules into more useful, small chain hydrocarbon molecules
o Any long chain hydrocarbon can be cracked into smaller chain hydrocarbons
o For example, kerosene and diesel oil are often cracked to produce petrol, alkenes and
hydrogen

Conditions for catalytic cracking

 Catalytic cracking involves heating the hydrocarbon molecules to around 600 – 700 °C
to vaporise them
 The vapours then pass over a hot powdered catalyst of aluminium oxide
 This process breaks covalent bonds in the molecules as they come into contact with the surface
of the catalyst, causing thermal decomposition reactions

Products of cracking
  The molecules are broken up in a random way which produces a mixture of shorter alkanes and
alkenes
o Alkanes are saturated molecules containing carbon-carbon single bonds only
o Alkenes are unsaturated molecules containing carbon=carbon double bonds

Example of cracking

Decane is cracked to produce octane for petrol and ethene for ethanol synthesis
Fraction supply & demand

 Fractional distillation separates crude oil into fractions containing hydrocarbons of similar chain
lengths
 Each fraction has different values for its supply and demand
o Supply is how much of a particular fraction can be produced from refining the crude oil
o Demand is how much customers want to buy
 The demand for certain fractions outstrips the supply so cracking is used to convert excess
unwanted fractions into more useful ones
 You can see from the chart that fuel oil and bitumen are surplus fractions so they are cracked
and modified to produce petrol, kerosene and diesel

Supply & demand of crude oil fractions

Demand for short chain hydrocarbon molecules such as petrol, kerosene and diesel is greater than the
supply, while demand for long chain hydrocarbons such as fuel oil is less than the supply
Alkanes

What are alkanes?

 Alkanes are a group of saturated hydrocarbons

 The term saturated means that they only have single carbon-carbon bonds, there are no double
bonds
 The general formula of the alkanes is CnH2n+2
 Alkanes are generally unreactive compounds but they do undergo combustion reactions, can
be cracked into smaller molecules and can react with halogens in the presence of light
 Methane is an alkane and is the major component of natural gas

Table of alkanes
Halogens & alkanes

 In a substitution reaction, one atom is swapped with another atom

 Alkanes undergo a substitution reaction with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet radiation

The reaction between methane and bromine in the presence of ultraviolet radiation
In the presence of ultraviolet (UV) radiation, methane reacts with bromine in a substitution reaction

 The equation for the reaction is

methane + bromine → bromomethane + hydrogen bromide

CH4 + Br2 → CH3Br + HBr

 Chlorine will also react with alkanes under the same conditions to form chloromethane

methane + chlorine → chloromethane + hydrogen chloride

CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl

 The products belong to a family called halogenoalkanes or haloalkanes

 Halogenoalkanes have many uses a solvents, refrigerants, propellants and pharmaceuticals

Alkenes

What are alkenes?

 Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons

 The general formula of an alkene is CnH2n
 All alkenes contain a double carbon bond, which is shown as two lines between two of the
carbon atoms i.e. C=C
 All alkenes contain a double carbon bond, which is the functional group and is what allows
alkenes to react in ways that alkanes cannot
 The names and structure of the first four alkenes are shown below:

Table of alkenes

Displayed formula Name Molecular formula

ethene C2H4
 propene C3H6

but-1-ene C4H8

pent-1-ene C5H10
The first four members of the alkene homologous series

 Compounds that have a C=C double bond are also called unsaturated compounds
 That means they can make more bonds with other atoms by opening up the C=C bond and
allowing incoming atoms to form another single bond with each carbon atom of the functional
group
 Each of these carbon atoms now forms 4 single bonds instead of 1 double and 2 single bonds
 This makes them much more reactive than alkanes

A carbon-carbon double can break and form a single bond, allowing more atoms to attach to the
carbon atoms
Bromine & alkenes

Bromination of alkenes

 Alkenes undergo addition reactions in which atoms of a simple molecule add across the C=C
double bond
 When bromine is reacted with an alkene a dibromoalkane is formed
 The reaction between bromine and ethene is an example of an addition reaction and forms
dibromoethane
 The same process works for any halogen and any alkene in which the halogen atoms always add
to the carbon atoms across the C=C double bond

Addition of bromine to ethene

 Bromine atoms add across the C=C in the addition reaction of ethene and bromine
Testing for alkenes

Bromine water test

 Alkanes and alkenes have different molecular structures

 All alkanes are saturated and alkenes are unsaturated
 The presence of the C=C double bond allows alkenes to react in ways that alkanes cannot
 This allows us to tell alkenes apart from alkanes using a simple chemical test called the bromine
water test
o Bromine water is used in the test for alkenes as it is safer and easier to handle than
bromine

 Bromine water is an orange coloured solution

 When bromine water is added to an alkane, it will remain as an orange solution as alkanes do
not have double carbon bonds (C=C) so the bromine remains in solution
 But when bromine water is added to an alkene:
o The bromine atoms add across the C=C bond
o The solution no longer contains free bromine so it loses its colour / decolourises

Bromine water test

Diagram showing the result of the test using bromine water with alkanes and alkenes