C-PSYM223 | Lesson 1

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Physiological Psychology

The last frontier in the world and perhaps the greatest one lies within us. - Study of biological behavior that focuses on the nervous system, hormones,
The human nervous system makes possible all that we can do, all we can know, and genetics.
and all that we can experience. Its complexity is immense, and the task of - More than a field of study, it is also a perspective;
studying it and understanding it dwarfs all previous explorations our species has - Synonymous with the term’s biopsychology, psychobiology, physiological
undertaken. A mind, a soul, or a spirit. What is the nature of the human mind? psychology, and behavioral neuroscience (which includes much about
Within our bodies the nervous system plays a central role, receiving information anatomy and chemistry).
from the sensory organs and controlling the movements of the muscles. But what - Examines the relationship between mind and body, nerval mechanisms, and
is the mind, and what role does it play? Does it control the nervous system? Is it influence of heredity.
a part of the nervous system? Is it physical and tangible, like the rest of the body, - Inherited traits: intelligence, emotional patterns, disorders, etc.
or is it a spirit that will always remain hidden? Most of us believe that the mind - Eclectic approach means using a variety of perspectives.
is a phenomenon produced by the workings of the nervous system. We believe - Our heredity serves as our identity, even if it isn’t entirely ours. But, we still
that once we understand the workings of the human body in particular, the build our own blueprint.
workings of the nervous system we will be able to explain how we perceive, how - Biological approach believes behavior to be a consequence of our genetics
we think, how we remember, and how we act. and physiology.
- Only approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, behaviors
from a biological and this physical point of view.

All that is psychological is first physiological.

All thoughts, feelings, and behavior ultimately have a biological cause.

Relevant to the Study of Psychology in Three Ways

1. Comparative Method: Different species of animals can be studied and

compared. This can help in the search to understand human behavior.
2. Physiology: How the nervous system and hormones work, how the brain
functions, how changes in structure and or function can affect behavior.
3. Investigation of Inheritance: What an animal inherits from its parents,
mechanisms of inheritance (genetics).

Biological Psychology or Physiological Psychology

Biological Psychology

- Study of the physiological, evolutionary, and developmental mechanisms of

behavior and experience.

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Physiological Psychology - Example: the ability to inhibit impulses develops gradually from infancy
through teenage years, reflecting gradual maturation of the frontal parts of
- May be considered as a branch of Biological Psychology; it is concerned the brain.
with relationship between brain functioning and behavior - How does it develop within the individual?
- Its basic approach is cognitive, as it deals with brain or mental process; and
reductionist, as it attempts to reduce human behavior to its possible basic 3. Evolutionary Explanation
biological explanations - Reconstructs the evolutionary history of a structure of behavior
Neurobiology - Example: Frightened people get goose bumps (erection of the hairs
especially on their arms and shoulders). Goose bumps are useless to humans
- The study of cells of the nervous system and the organization of these cells because we normally do not have hairs on arms and shoulders or they are
into functional circuits that process information and mediate behavior. short; but in most other mammals, hair erection makes a frightened animal
- It is a sub-discipline of both biology and neuroscience. look larger and intimidating.
- Neurobiological approach in psychology refers to study of the effect of - An evolutionary explanation of goose bumps is that the behavior evolved in
chemicals and electrical impulses in the brain on human behavior. our remote ancestors, and we inherited the mechanism.
- Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is the branch of - Example: mouth activity stimulates speech.
biology that deals with the anatomy, biochemistry, molecular biology, and - How did the capacity for the behavior evolve?
physiology of neurons and neural circuits.
4. Functional Explanation
Behavioral Neuroscience
- Describes why a structure of behavior evolved as it did.
- (also known as biological psychology, physiological psychology, - Within a small, isolated population a gene can spread by accident through a
biopsychology, or psychobiology) is the application of the principles of process called “genetic drift”
biology to the study of genetic, physiological, and developmental - Example: a dominant male with many offspring spreads all his genes,
mechanisms of behavior in humans and non-human animals. including neutral and harmful ones. However, a gene that is prevalent in a
large population presumably has advantage. A functional explanation
identified that advantage.
- Example: many species have an appearance that matches their background.
Four Biological Explanations of Behavior
A functional explanation is that camouflaged appearance makes the animal
1. Physiological inconspicuous to predators.
- Relates a behavior to the activity of the brain and other organs; it deals with - Why did the capacity for this behavior evolve?
the machinery of the body
- Example: the chemical reactions that enable hormones to influence brain
activity and the pathways by which brain activity controls muscle The Nature of Physiological Psychology
contraction.
- How does it relate to the physiology of the brain and other organs? The modern history of physiological psychology has been written by
psychologists who have combined the experimental methods of psychology with
2. Ontogenetic Explanation those of physiology and have applied them to the issues that concern all
- Describes how a structure or behavior develops including the influences of psychologists. Thus, we have studied perceptual processes, control of movement,
genes, nutrition, experiences, and their interactions sleep and waking, reproductive behaviors, ingestive behaviors, emotional
behaviors, learning, and language. In recent years we have begun to study the

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physiology of human pathological conditions, such as addiction and mental of cooling down the emotions derived from the heart. The mind-body problem
disorders. was a stepping stone toward attempting to understand the connection between the
mind and body.
Behavioral neuroscience as a scientific discipline emerged from a
variety of scientific and philosophical traditions in the 18th and 19th centuries. Other philosophers also helped to give birth to psychology, also relating
In philosophy, people like René Descartes proposed physical models to explain its subject to biology. This view that psychological processes have biological (or
animal as well as human behavior. physiological) correlations is the basic assumption of the entire field of biological
psychology. One of the first textbooks in the new field, “The Principles of
Descartes suggested that the pineal gland, a midline unpaired structure Psychology” by William James (1890), argues that the scientific study of
in the brain of many organisms, was the point of contact between mind and body. psychology must be based on an understanding of biology.
Descartes also elaborated on a theory in which the pneumatics of bodily fluids
could explain reflexes and other motor behavior. This theory was inspired by Another debate arose about localization of function or functional
moving statues in a garden in Paris. Electrical stimulation and lesions can also specialization versus equipotentiality which played a significant role in the
show the effect of motor behavior of humans. They can record the electrical development in behavioral neuroscience. As a result of localization of function
activity of actions, hormones, chemicals and effects drugs have in the body research, many famous people found within psychology have come to various
system all which affect ones daily behavior. different conclusions. Wilder Penfield was able to develop a map of the cerebral
cortex through studying epileptic patients along with Rassmussen. Research on
Other philosophers also helped give birth to psychology. One of the localization of function has led behavioral neuroscientists to a better
earliest textbooks in the new field, The Principles of Psychology by William understanding of which parts of the brain control behavior.
James, argues that the scientific study of psychology should be grounded in an
understanding of biology. The term "psychobiology" has been used in a variety of contexts,
emphasizing the importance of biology, which is the discipline that studies
The emergence of psychology and behavioral neuroscience as legitimate organic, neural and cellular modifications in behavior, plasticity in neuroscience,
sciences can be traced from the emergence of physiology from anatomy, and biological diseases in all aspects, in addition, biology focuses and analyzes
particularly neuroanatomy. Physiologists conducted experiments on living behavior and all the subjects it is concerned about, from a scientific point of view.
organisms, a practice that was distrusted by the dominant anatomists of the 18th In this context, psychology helps as a complementary, but important discipline in
and 19th centuries. The influential work of Claude Bernard, Charles Bell, and the neurobiological sciences.
William Harvey helped to convince the scientific community that reliable data
could be obtained from living subjects. The role of psychology in these questions is that of a social tool that
backs up the main or strongest biological science. The term "psychobiology" was
Even before the 18th and 19th century, behavioral neuroscience was first used in its modern sense by Knight Dunlap in his book An Outline of
beginning to take form as far back as 1700 B.C. The question that seems to Psychobiology (1914). Dunlap also was the founder and editor-in-chief of the
continually arise is: what is the connection between the mind and body? The journal Psychobiology. In the announcement of that journal, Dunlap writes that
debate is formally referred to as the mind-body problem. Dualism is the belief the journal will publish research "...bearing on the interconnection of mental and
that mind, and body are different kinds of substances (thought substance and physiological functions", which describes the field of behavioral neuroscience
physical substance) that exist independently but somehow interact. even in its modern sense.
While monism is the belief that the universe consists of only one kind of
existence.

Plato and Aristotle are two of several philosophers who participated in

this debate. Plato believed that the brain was where all mental thought and
processes happened. In contrast, Aristotle believed the brain served the purpose
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C-PSYM223 | Module 2

NEURONS AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Physiological Psychology

Nervous System The nervous system includes both the Central nervous system and
Peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is made up of the brain
The nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory, and and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system is made up of the Somatic
communicating system in the body. It is the center of all mental activity including and the Autonomic nervous systems.
thought, learning, and memory. Together with the endocrine system, the nervous
system is responsible for regulating and maintaining homeostasis. Through its
receptors, the nervous system keeps us in touch with our environment, both
external and internal. Neurons

Like other systems in the body, the nervous system is composed of Neurons are electrically excitable cells that are the structural unit of the
organs, principally the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and ganglia. These, in turn, nervous system. A typical neuron consists of a cell body and neuronal processes
consist of various tissues, including nerve, blood, and connective tissue. Together such as dendrites and axon. The dendrites are short, tapering extensions that are
these carry out the complex activities of the nervous system. the receptive regions and help in conveying incoming messages towards the cell
body. Axons arise from a cone-shaped area of the cell body called axon hillock.
The various activities of the nervous system can be grouped together as These extensions are the conducting region of the neuron. Nerve impulses are
three general, overlapping functions: generated in the axon and transmitted away from the cell body towards the
synapse. The cell body is the major biosynthetic center of the neuron. It contains
• Sensory neurotransmitters and other organelles needed to synthesize proteins and
• Integrative chemicals. The cell body is the focal point for the outgrowth of neuronal process
during embryonic development.
• Motor
A number of anatomically distinct types of neurons have evolved to
Millions of sensory receptors detect changes, called stimuli, which participate in different organismal functions. For example, sensory neurons
occur inside and outside the body. They monitor such things as temperature, light, respond to touch, sound, light, and other sensory inputs. Motor neurons receive
and sound from the external environment. Inside the body, the internal signals from the brain and spinal cord to initiate muscle contractions and affect
environment, receptors detect variations in pressure, pH, carbon dioxide glands. Interneurons act as relays between neurons in close proximity to one
concentration, and the levels of various electrolytes. All of this gathered another.
information is called sensory input.

Sensory input is converted into electrical signals called nerve impulses

that are transmitted to the brain. There the signals are brought together to create Classification of Neurons
sensations, to produce thoughts, or to add to memory; Decisions are made each Neurons can be classified by direction of travel, neurotransmitter
moment based on the sensory input. This is integration. utilized, or electrophysiological properties.
Based on the sensory input and integration, the nervous system 1. Direction of Nerve Impulse
responds by sending signals to muscles, causing them to contract, or to glands,
causing them to produce secretions. Muscles and glands are called effectors The functional classification of neurons is based on the direction the
because they cause an effect in response to directions from the nervous system. action potential (i.e. information) travel relative to the central nervous system.
This is the motor output or motor function. Afferent neurons convey information from tissues and organs into the central

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nervous system (e.g. sensory neurons). Efferent neurons transmit signals from receptors into the axon, and the cell’s soma is located on a little stalk off the main
the central nervous system (CNS) to the effector cells (e.g. motor neurons). trunk.
Afferent and efferent also refer generally to neurons that bring information to or
send information from a brain region. Interneurons connect neurons within Dendrites are branching fibers that get narrower near their ends. (The
specific regions of the central nervous system. term dendrite comes from a Greek root word meaning “tree.” A dendrite
branches like a tree.) The dendrite’s surface is lined with specialized synaptic
2. Neurotransmitter Type receptors, at which the dendrite receives information from other neurons. The
greater the surface area of a dendrite, the more information it can receive. Many
Neurons are also classified by their effect on target neurons. A neuron dendrites contain dendritic spines, short outgrowths that increase the surface area
releases a neurotransmitter that binds to chemical receptors on the target neuron. available for synapses.
The combination of neurotransmitter and receptor properties results in an
excitatory, inhibitory, or modulatory change to the target neuron. For example, The cell body, or soma (Greek for “body”; plural: somata), contains the
the two most common neurotransmitters in the brain (released by 90% of nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria. Most of a neuron’s metabolic work occurs
neurons), glutamate and GABA, have opposing actions. Glutamate acts on here. Cell bodies of neurons range in diameter from 0.005 millimeter (mm) to 0.1
several different types of receptors with largely excitatory effects. GABA acts on mm in mammals and up to a millimeter in certain invertebrates. In many neurons,
several different classes of receptors to exert inhibitory effects. Other types of the cell body is like the dendrites— covered with synapses on its surface. The
neurons include excitatory motor neurons in the spinal cord that release axon is a thin fiber of constant diameter. (The term axon comes from a Greek
acetylcholine and inhibitory spinal neurons that release glycine. word meaning “axis.”)

3. Firing Properties The axon conveys an impulse toward other neurons, an organ, or a
muscle. Axons can be more than a meter in length, as in the case of axons from
A third, less common method of neuron classification is according to your spinal cord to your feet. The length of an axon is enormous in comparison
their electrophysiological characteristics. Neurons that are typically constantly to its width, and in comparison to the length of dendrites. Giorgio Ascoli (2015)
(or tonically) active are called tonic or regular spiking. Neurons that are offers the analogy that if you could expand the dendrite of a reasonably typical
intermittently active are called phasic or bursting. Neurons with high activity neuron to the height of a tree, the cell’s axon and its branches would extend for
rates are classified as fast spiking. more than 25 city blocks.

Many vertebrate axons are covered with an insulating material called a

The Structures of a Neuron myelin sheath with interruptions known as nodes of Ranvier (RAHN-vee-ay).
Invertebrate axons do not have myelin sheaths. Although a neuron can have many
The most distinctive feature of neurons is their shape, which varies dendrites, it can have only one axon, but the axon may have branches. The end
enormously from one neuron to another. Unlike most other body cells, neurons of each branch has a swelling, called a presynaptic terminal, also known as an
have long branching extensions. All neurons include a soma (cell body), and most end bulb or bouton (French for “button”). At that point the axon releases
also have dendrites, an axon, and presynaptic terminals. The tiniest neurons lack chemicals that cross through the junction between that neuron and another cell.
axons, and some lack well-defined dendrites.
Other terms associated with neurons are afferent, efferent, and intrinsic.
A motor neuron, with its soma in the spinal cord, receives excitation An afferent axon brings information into a structure; an efferent axon carries
through its dendrites and conducts impulses along its axon to a muscle. A sensory information away from a structure. Every sensory neuron is an afferent to the rest
neuron is specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a particular type of of the nervous system, and every motor neuron is an efferent from the nervous
stimulation, such as light, sound, or touch. The sensory neuron conducts touch system. Within the nervous system, a given neuron is an efferent from one
information from the skin to the spinal cord. Tiny branches lead directly from the structure and an afferent to another. You can remember that efferent starts with e

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as in exit; afferent starts with a as in admit. If a cell’s dendrites and axon are Electrically charged atoms known as ions maintain the positive and
entirely contained within a single structure, the cell is an interneuron or intrinsic negative charge balance. Calcium contains two positive charges, sodium and
neuron of that structure. For example, an intrinsic neuron of the thalamus has its potassium contain one positive charge, and chloride contains a negative charge.
axon and all its dendrites within the thalamus.
When at rest, the cell membrane of the neuron allows certain ions to
pass through while preventing or restricting other ions from moving. In this state,
sodium and potassium ions cannot easily pass through the membrane. Chloride
Action Potential ions, however, are able to freely cross the membrane. The negative ions inside
How do neurons transmit and receive information? In order for neurons the cell are unable to cross the barrier.
to communicate, they need to transmit information both within the neuron and The resting potential of the neuron refers to the difference between the
from one neuron to the next. This process utilizes both electrical signals as well voltage inside and outside the neuron. The resting potential of the average neuron
as chemical messengers. is around -70 millivolts, indicating that the inside of the cell is 70 millivolts less
The dendrites of neurons receive information from sensory receptors or than the outside of the cell.
other neurons. This information is then passed down to the cell body and on to At this point, the brain has not yet sent the message to the hand to pick
the axon. Once the information has arrived at the axon, it travels down the length up the glass, but the neuron is ready to receive the signal.
of the axon in the form of an electrical signal known as an action potential.

This process, which occurs during the firing of the neurons, allows a
nerve cell to transmit an electrical signal down the axon (a portion of the neuron During the Action Potential
that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body) toward other cells. This
sends a message to the muscles to provoke a response. You’ve decided that you are thirsty and would like a drink of water. Your
brain starts the chain of events to send a message to the muscles in your hand that
For example, say you want to pick up a glass so you can take a drink of you need to pick up the glass.
water. The action potential plays a key role in carrying that message from the
brain to the hand. When a nerve impulse (which is how neurons communicate with one
another) is sent out from a cell body, the sodium channels in the cell membrane
Neurons send messages electrochemically. This means that chemicals open and the positive sodium cells surge into the cell.
cause an electrical signal. Chemicals in the body are "electrically-charged" --
when they have an electrical charge, they are called ions. The important ions in Once the cell reaches a certain threshold, an action potential will fire,
the nervous system are sodium and potassium (both have 1 positive charge, +), sending the electrical signal down the axon. The sodium channels play a role in
calcium (has 2 positive charges, ++) and chloride (has a negative charge, -). generating the action potential in excitable cells and activating a transmission
along the axon. Action potentials either happen or they don't; there is no such
thing as a "partial" firing of a neuron. This principle is known as the all-or-none
law.
Prior to the Action Potential
This means that neurons always fire at their full strength. This ensures
When a neuron is not sending signals, the inside of the neuron has a that the full intensity of the signal is carried down the nerve fiber and transferred
negative charge relative to the positive charge outside the cell. to the next cell and that the signal does not weaken or become lost the further it
travels from the source.

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The message from the brain is now traveling down the nerves to the and concentration levels. They can also affect various psychological functions
muscles in the hand. such as fear, mood, pleasure, and joy.

In most cases, a neurotransmitter is released from what's known as the

axon terminal after an action potential has reached the synapse, a place where
After the Action Potential neurons can transmit signals to each other.
After the neuron has fired, there is a refractory period in which another When an electrical signal reaches the end of a neuron, it triggers the
action potential is not possible. The refractory period generally lasts one release of small sacs called vesicles containing neurotransmitters. These sacs spill
millisecond. their contents into the synapse, where the neurotransmitters then move across the
During this time, the potassium channels reopen and the sodium gap toward the neighboring cells. These cells contain receptors where the
channels close, gradually returning the neuron to its resting potential. Once the neurotransmitters can bind and trigger changes in the cells.
neuron has "recharged," it is possible for another action potential to occur and After release, the neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic gap and attaches
transmit the signal down the length of the axon. to the receptor site on the other neuron, either exciting or inhibiting the receiving
Through this continual process of firing then recharging, the neurons are neuron, depending on the neurotransmitter.
able to carry the message from the brain to tell the muscles what to do—hold the The major types of neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, biogenic
glass, take a sip, or put it down. amines, and amino acids. The neurotransmitters can also be classified based on
Synapse Communication function (excitatory or inhibitory) and action (direct or neuromodulatory).

Once an electrical impulse has reached the end of an axon, the Excitatory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters have
information must be transmitted across the synaptic gap to the dendrites of the excitatory effects on the neuron, meaning they increase the likelihood that the
adjoining neuron. neuron will fire an action potential. Some of the major excitatory
neurotransmitters include epinephrine and norepinephrine.
In some cases, the electrical signal can almost instantaneously bridge
the gap between the neurons and continue along its path. In other cases, Inhibitory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters have
neurotransmitters are needed to send the information from one neuron to the next. inhibitory effects on the neuron; they decrease the likelihood that the neuron will
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that are released from the axon fire an action potential. Some of the major inhibitory neurotransmitters include
terminals to cross the synaptic gap and reach the receptor sites of other neurons. serotonin and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
In a process known as reuptake, these neurotransmitters attach to the receptor site Modulatory neurotransmitters: These neurotransmitters, often referred
and are reabsorbed by the neuron to be reused. to as neuromodulators, are capable of affecting a larger number of neurons at the
same time. These neuromodulators also influence the effects of other chemical
messengers. Where synaptic neurotransmitters are released by axon terminals to
What are Neurotransmitters? have a fast-acting impact on other receptor neurons, neuromodulators diffuse
across a larger area and are more slow-acting.
A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and
balances signals between neurons (also known as nerve cells) and target cells Some neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and dopamine, can create
throughout the body. These target cells may be in glands, muscles, or other both excitatory and inhibitory effects depending upon the type of receptors that
neurons. Billions of neurotransmitter molecules constantly work to keep our are present.
brains functioning, managing everything from breathing to heartbeat to learning

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Types of Neurotransmitters 3. Monoamines

There are a number of different ways to classify and categorize Epinephrine: Also known as adrenaline, epinephrine is considered both
neurotransmitters. In some instances, they are simply divided into monoamines, a hormone and a neurotransmitter. Generally, epinephrine is a stress hormone that
amino acids, and peptides. is released by the adrenal system. However, it functions as a neurotransmitter in
the brain.
Neurotransmitters can also be categorized into one of six types:
Norepinephrine: This naturally occurring chemical is a
1. Amino Acids neurotransmitter that plays an important role in alertness is involved in the body's
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA): This naturally occurring amino fight or flight response. Its role is to help mobilize the body and brain to take
acid acts as the body's main inhibitory chemical messenger. GABA contributes action in times of danger or stress. Levels of this neurotransmitter are typically
to vision, motor control, and plays a role in the regulation of anxiety. lowest during sleep and highest during times of stress.
Benzodiazepines, which are used to help treat anxiety, function by increasing the Histamine: This organic compound acts as a neurotransmitter in the
efficiency of GABA neurotransmitters, which can increase feelings of relaxation brain and spinal cord. It plays a role in allergic reactions and is produced as part
and calm. of the immune system's response to pathogens.
Glutamate: The most plentiful neurotransmitter found in the nervous Dopamine: Commonly known as the feel-good neurotransmitter,
system, glutamate plays a role in cognitive functions such as memory and dopamine is involved in reward, motivation, and additions. Several types of
learning. Excessive amounts of glutamate can cause excitotoxicity resulting in addictive drugs increase dopamine levels in the brain. This chemical messenger
cellular death. This excitotoxicity caused by glutamate build-up is associated with also plays an important role in the coordination of body movements. Parkinson's
some diseases and brain injuries including Alzheimer's disease, stroke, and disease, which is a degenerative disease that results in tremors and motor
epileptic seizures. movement impairments, is caused by the loss of dopamine-generating neurons in
the brain.

2. Peptides Serotonin: A hormone and neurotransmitter, serotonin plays an

important role in regulating and modulating mood, sleep, anxiety, sexuality, and
Oxytocin: This powerful hormone acts as a neurotransmitter in the appetite. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a type of
brain. It is produced by the hypothalamus and plays a role in social recognition, antidepressant medication commonly prescribed to treat depression, anxiety,
bonding, and sexual reproduction. Synthetic oxytocin such as Pitocin is often panic disorder, and panic attacks. SSRIs work to balance serotonin levels by
used as an aid in labor and delivery. Both oxytocin and Pitocin cause the uterus blocking the reuptake of serotonin in the brain, which can help improve mood
to contract during labor. and reduce feelings of anxiety.
Endorphins: These neurotransmitters than inhibit the transmission of
pain signals and promote feelings of euphoria. These chemical messengers are
produced naturally by the body in response to pain, but they can also be triggered 4. Purines
by other activities such as aerobic exercise. For example, experiencing a "runner's Adenosine: This naturally occurring chemical acts as a neuromodulator
high" is an example of pleasurable feelings generated by the production of in the brain and is involved in suppressing arousing and improving sleep.
endorphins.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): Considered to be the energy currency
of life, ATP acts as a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous
systems. It plays a role in autonomic control, sensory transduction, and
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communication with glial cells. Research suggests it may also have a part in some When neurotransmitters are affected by disease or drugs, there can be a
neurological problems including pain, trauma, and neurodegenerative disorders. number of different adverse effects on the body. Diseases such as Alzheimer's,
epilepsy, and Parkinson's are associated with deficits in certain neurotransmitters.

Health professionals recognize the role that neurotransmitters can play

5. Gasotransmitters in mental health conditions, which is why medications that influence the actions
Nitric oxide: This compound plays a role in affecting smooth muscles, of the body's chemical messengers are often prescribed to help treat a variety of
relaxing them to allow blood vessels to dilate and increase blood flow to certain psychiatric conditions.
areas of the body. For example, dopamine is associated with such things as addiction and
Carbon monoxide: This colorless, odorless gas can have toxic and schizophrenia. Serotonin plays a role in mood disorders including depression and
potentially fatal effects when people are exposed to high levels of the substance. OCD. Drugs, such as SSRIs, may be prescribed by physicians and psychiatrists
However, it is also produced naturally by the body where it acts as a to help treat symptoms of depression or anxiety.
neurotransmitter that helps modulate the body's inflammatory response. Medications are sometimes used alone, but they may also be used in
conjunction with other therapeutic treatments including cognitive-behavioral
therapy.
6. Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine: This is the only neurotransmitter in its class. Found in

both the central and peripheral nervous systems, it is the primary neurotransmitter Drugs That Influence Neurotransmitters
associated with motor neurons. It plays a role in muscle movements as well as Perhaps the greatest practical application for the discovery and detailed
memory and learning. understanding of how neurotransmitters function has been the development of
drugs that impact chemical transmission. These drugs are capable of changing
the effects of neurotransmitters, which can alleviate the symptoms of some
When Neurotransmitters Do Not Work Right diseases.
As with many of the body's processes, things can sometimes go awry. It • Agonists vs Antagonists: Some drugs are known as agonists and
is perhaps not surprising that a system as vast and complex as the human nervous function by increasing the effects of specific neurotransmitters. Other drugs and
system would be susceptible to problems. referred to as antagonists and act to block the effects of neurotransmission.
A few of the things that might go wrong include: • Direct vs Indirect Effects: These neuro-acting drugs can be further
broken down based on whether they have a direct or indirect effect. Those that
• Neurons might not manufacture enough of a particular neurotransmitter
have a direct effect work by mimicking the neurotransmitters because they are
• Neurotransmitters may be reabsorbed too quickly very similar in chemical structure. Those that have an indirect impact work by
acting on the synaptic receptors.
• Too many neurotransmitters may be deactivated by enzymes
Drugs that can influence neurotransmission include medications used to
• Too much of a particular neurotransmitter may be released treat illness including depression and anxiety, such as SSRIs, tricyclic
antidepressants, and benzodiazepines.

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Illicit drugs such as heroin, cocaine, and marijuana also have an effect
on neurotransmission. Heroin acts as a direct-acting agonist, mimicking the
brain's natural opioids enough to stimulate their associated receptors. Cocaine is
an example of an indirect-acting drug that influences the transmission of
dopamine.

How Do These Drugs Act On The Nervous System?

These drugs act by 5 basic ways:

• drugs stimulate the release of neurotransmitter and enhances action

• drugs combine with neurotransmitters preventing their breakdown and
enhancing their action
• drugs mimics neurotransmitter and enhance their action
• drugs block the release of neurotransmitter and decrease their action
• drugs blocks receptors so neurotransmitters are unable to act

Examples of drugs that act on the nervous system

• Caffeine is a stimulant that is found in coffee and acts by blocking the action
of adenosine, a chemical that inhibits the release of neurotransmitters.
• Nicotine in tobacco enhances the action of acetylcholine and acts as a
stimulant.
• Drugs like Thorazine affect cognitive or thinking processes.
• Amphetamines are similar to noradrenalin (NA) and stimulate the release of
NA and dopamine in brain.
• Cocaine blocks the uptake of dopamine, so it is present in the synaptic cleft
longer. Use of cocaine thus leads to hallucinations and other neurological
effects.
• Methamphetamine (Ice) acts similarly as cocaine.
• Marijuana (Cannabis sativa) acts on the neurotransmitter serotonin.
• Depressant effects are seen with tranquillizers like barbiturates and
benzodiazepines as well as with alcohol. These act by action of the inhibitory
transmitter GABA.

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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Physiological Psychology

The central nervous system is made up of the brain, its cranial nerves CNS. The CNS also sends messages to the rest of the body to control movement,
and the spinal cord. Together, they form, as the name suggests, the literal center actions, and responses to the environment.
of the body’s communication system.
Although the brain, like any other organ, needs to receive nutrients from the
Protective barriers surround them, including bone (skull and spine) and blood, many chemicals cannot cross from the blood to the brain. The blood brain
membraneous tissue known as meninges. Additionally, the brain and spine are barrier is the mechanism that excludes most chemicals from the vertebrate brain.
suspended in cerebrospinal fluid. Glial cells, also known as glia or neuroglia, are The barrier protects the nervous system from viruses and many dangerous
non-neuronal cells in the central and peripheral nervous systems that provide chemicals. (Hagenbuch, Gao, & Meier, 2002).
support and protection for neurons. They play several crucial roles in maintaining
the health and functionality of the nervous system. The term glia, derived from a Most cells use a variety of carbohydrates and fats for nutrition, but vertebrate
Greek word meaning “glue,” reflects early investigators’ idea that glia was like neurons depend almost entirely on glucose, a sugar.
glue that held the neurons together. Although the human brain constitutes only about 2 percent of the body’s weight,
Glia outnumbers neurons in the cerebral cortex, but neurons outnumber it uses about 20 percent of its oxygen and 25 percent of its glucose.
glia in several other brain areas, especially the cerebellum. Overall, the numbers The brain has three major divisions—the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the
are almost equal. forebrain.

Types Three Major Divisions of the Brain

Astrocytes wrap around the synapses of functionally related axons. 1. Hindbrain
Tiny cells called microglia act as part of the immune system, removing viruses The hindbrain, the posterior part of the brain, consists of the medulla, the pons,
and fungi from the brain. They proliferate after brain damage, removing dead or and the cerebellum. The medulla and pons, the midbrain, and certain central
damaged neurons. structures of the forebrain constitute the brainstem.
Oligodendrocytes in the brain and spinal cord and Schwann cells in the • Brainstem: Consists of the medulla, pons, midbrain, and certain central
periphery of the body build the myelin sheaths that surround and insulate certain structures of the forebrain.
vertebrate axons. They also supply an axon with nutrients necessary for proper • Medulla (medulla oblongata): Controls breathing, heart rate, vomiting,
functioning. coughing, and other vital reflexes through the cranial nerves, a set of twelve
Radial glia guides the migration of neurons and their axons and dendrites during nerves that carry sensory and motor information to the head. Just as the lower
embryonic development. When embryological development finishes, most radial parts of the body connect to the spinal cord via sensory and motor nerves,
glia differentiate into neurons, and a smaller number differentiate into astrocytes the head and the organs connect to the medulla and adjacent areas by 12 pairs
and oligodendrocytes. of cranial nerves (one of each pair on the right side and one on the left). The
cranial nerves originating in the medulla control vital reflexes such as
The CNS processes every sensation and thought that you experience. Receptors breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing. Because
throughout the body gather sensory information and pass it on to the opiate receptors, which suppress activity, are abundant in the medulla,
opiates can produce a dangerous decrease in breathing and heart rate.
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• Pons (Latin for "bridge"): Brain structure that lies anterior and ventral to the the contralateral side, by way of axons to the spinal cord and the cranial nerve
medulla. Like the medulla, the pons contains nuclei for several cranial nuclei.
nerves. Axons in the pons cross from one side of the brain to the other.
The outer portion is the cerebral cortex. Below the cortex are several subcortical
• Reticular Formation and Raphe System lie in both the pons and medulla.
areas:
Both systems affect attention and arousal.
• Cerebellum: Organizes sensory information that guides movement. The • Limbic System: Comprised of the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus,
cerebellum as important for “balance and coordination.” True, people with hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus. The limbic system is involved
cerebellar damage are clumsy and lose their balance, but the functions of the in motivational and emotional behaviors.
cerebellum extend far beyond balance and coordination .People with damage • Thalamus: The thalamus and the hypothalamus form the diencephalon. The
to the cerebellum have trouble shifting their attention back and forth between rest of the forebrain makes up the telencephalon. The thalamus provides the
auditory and visual stimuli (Courchesne et al., 1994). They have difficulty main source of information to the cerebral cortex. Most sensory information
with timing, such as judging whether one rhythm is faster than another. The is first processed in the thalamus before going to the cerebral cortex. The one
cerebellum is also critical for certain types of learning and conditioning. exception is olfactory information.
• Hypothalamus: Small structure containing many distinct nuclei. Sends
messages to the pituitary gland, altering its release of hormone. Important
2. Midbrain for motivated behavior (i.e., eating, drinking, etc.) and temperature
regulation.
As the name implies, early in development the midbrain is in the middle • Pituitary Gland: Endocrine (hormone-producing) gland attached to the
of the brain. The midbrain is more prominent in reptiles, amphibians, and fish.
base of the hypothalamus.
The roof of the midbrain is called the tectum. (Tectum is the Latin word • Basal Ganglia: A group of subcortical structures including the caudate,
for “roof.” The same root occurs in the geological term plate tectonics.) The putamen, and globus pallidus. Deterioration of the basal ganglia is prominent
swellings on each side of the tectum are the superior colliculus and the inferior in Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.
colliculus. Both are important for sensory processing —the inferior colliculus for • Basal Forebrain: Structures in the dorsal surface of the forebrain, including
hearing and the superior colliculus for vision. Under the tectum lies the the nucleus basalis, a key part of the brain’s arousal system.
tegmentum, the intermediate level of the midbrain. (In Latin, tegmentum means • Hippocampus: A large structure between the thalamus and the cerebral
a “covering,” such as a rug on the floor. The tectum covers the tegmentum, but cortex, mostly toward the posterior of the forebrain. This structure is
the tegmentum covers several other midbrain structures.) Another midbrain important for new memory storage.
structure ,the substantia nigra, gives rise to a dopamine-containing pathway that
facilitates readiness for movement.

3. Forebrain

The forebrain, the most prominent part of the mammalian brain, consists
of two cerebral hemispheres, one on the left and one on the right(see Figure 3.11).

Each hemisphere is organized to receive sensory information, mostly

from the contralateral(opposite) side of the body. It controls muscles, mostly on

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The Cerebral Cortex about eye, head, and body positions and passes it on to brain areas that
control movement.
c. Temporal Lobe: Located laterally in each hemisphere, near the temples; it
is the primary target for auditory information. In humans the temporal lobe
(usually the left hemisphere) is involved in comprehension of spoken
language. The temporal lobe also contributes to complex aspects of vision,
including perception of movement and recognition of faces. The temporal
lobe is also implicated in emotional and motivated behaviors.
d. Frontal Lobe: Located at the most anterior area of the cerebral cortex and
extends to the central sulcus. Contains the primary motor cortex and
prefrontal cortex.
i. Precentral Gyrus (also known as the primary motor cortex):
Located just anterior to the central sulcus. Specialized for the
control of fine motor movements, primarily on the contralateral side
of the body.
The cerebral cortex consists of the cellular layers on the outer surface of
ii. Prefrontal Cortex: The most anterior portion of the frontal lobe.
the cerebral hemispheres. The corpus callosum and anterior commissure: Two
Forms a large portion of the brain in large-brained species. Receives
bundles of axons that allow the two brain hemispheres to communicate with one
information from all of our senses. In general, species with a larger
another. The cerebral cortex constitutes a higher percentage of the brain in
cerebral cortex devote a larger percentage of it to the prefrontal
primates (monkeys, apes, and humans) than in other species of comparable size.
cortex . For example, it forms a larger portion of the cortex in
humans and the great apes than in other species (Semendeferi, Lu,
Schenker, & Damasio, 2002). Neurons in the prefrontal cortex have
Organization of the Cerebral Cortex huge numbers of synapses and integrate an enormous amount of
The cerebral cortex contains up to six distinct laminae (layers of cell information.
bodies that lie parallel to the surface of the cortex and are separated from each iii. Prefrontal Lobotomy: Disconnecting the prefrontal cortex from the
other by layers of fibers). Cells in the cerebral cortex are also arranged in columns rest of the brain to control psychological disorders. This practice
(cells with similar properties, organized perpendicular to laminae). was almost completely abandoned after effective drug therapies
became available. Prefrontal lobotomies commonly resulted in a
The cerebral cortex can be divided into four lobes named for the skull loss of the ability to plan and take initiative, memory disorders,
bones that lie over them: occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal. distractibility, and a loss of emotional expression. In addition,
people with prefrontal damage lost their social inhibitions and often
a. Occipital Lobe: Posterior (caudal) portion of the cerebral cortex; part of the acted impulsively.
visual pathway system. Primary Visual Cortex (Striate cortex): The most
posterior region of the occipital lobe. Destruction of any part of the striate
cortex causes cortical blindness.
b. Parietal Lobe: Lies between the occipital lobe and the central sulcus (one Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex
of the deepest grooves in the surface of the cortex). Postcentral Gyrus or An analysis of thousands of studies concluded that the prefrontal
primary somatosensory cortex: Lies posterior to the central sulcus; the cortex has three major regions (de la Vega, Chang, Banich, Wager, & Yarkoni,
primary target for touch sensations and information from muscle-stretch 2016). The posterior portion is associated mostly with movement. The middle
receptors and joint receptors. The parietal lobe monitors all the information zone pertains to working memory, cognitive control, and emotional reactions.
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Working memory is the ability to remember recent events, such as where you location as the dummy’s mouth (Bonath et al., 2007; Bruns, Liebnau,& Röder,
parked your car or what you were talking about before an interruption. People 2011).
with damage to the prefrontal cortex have trouble on the delayed-response task,
in which they see or hear something, and then have to respond to it after a delay. In contrast, if you watch a poorly dubbed foreign language film, the
The anterior zone of the prefrontal cortex is important for making decisions, lips do not move at the same time as the speech, and you perceive that the words
evaluating which of several courses of action is likely to achieve the best did not come from those lips.
outcome. When you decide whether to do something, you consider the difficulty
of the action, the probabilities of success and failure, and how valuable the
possible reward would be to you, all things considered. For example, the chance Spinal Cord
to win a pizza becomes less valuable if you have just finished a meal. An
The spinal cord is the part of the CNS within the spinal column. The
opportunity to win a few extra credit points is valuable if you think you are on
spinal cord communicates with all the sense organs and muscles except those of
the borderline between two grades, but less valuable otherwise. If you have a
the head.
choice between spending money now and saving it for later, you try to compare
the possibility of current pleasure and the possible need for money later. Cells in Each segment of the spinal cord sends sensory information to the brain
the prefrontal cortex respond to all these complex factors (Hunt et al., 2012; and receives motor commands from the brain. All that information passes through
Wallis, 2012). tracts of axons in the spinal cord. If the spinal cord is cut at a given segment, the
brain loses sensation from that segment and below. The brain also loses motor
People with prefrontal cortical damage often make decisions that seem
control over all parts of the body served by that segment and the lower ones.
impulsive, because they failed to weigh all the likely pros and cons.

How do various brain areas combine to produce a unified experience?

The question of how various brain areas produce a perception of a

single object is known as the binding problem, o large-scale integration problem.
In an earlier era, researchers thought that various kinds of sensory information
converged onto what they called the association areas of the cortex. Their guess
was that those areas associate one sensation with another, or current sensations
with memories of previous experiences. Later research found that relatively few
cells combine one sense with another (Blanke, 2012). Even when they do, they
don’t fully answer the question of how we bind sensory information together.
In the cross section through the spinal cord shown ,the H-shaped gray
Although researchers cannot fully explain binding, they know what is matter in the center of the cord is densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites
necessary for it to occur: It occurs if you perceive two sensations as happening at .Many neurons from the gray matter of the spinal cord send axons to the brain or
the same time and in approximately the same place. For example, when a skilled to other parts of the spinal cord through the white matter, containing myelinated
ventriloquist says something and makes the dummy’s mouth move at the same axons.
time, you perceive the sound as coming from the dummy.

As part of this illusion, the visual stimulus alters the response of the
auditory cortex, so that the sound really does seem to come from the same

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PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Physiological Psychology

Peripheral Nervous System Overall, the PNS is essential for sensory perception, motor control,
autonomic regulation, and maintaining the body's internal balance. Its proper
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) connects the Central Nervous functioning is vital for overall health and well-being.
System (CNS) to the rest of the body, facilitating communication between the
brain, spinal cord, and peripheral organs. Part of the PNS is the somatic nervous system, which consists of the
axons conveying messages from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) plays a crucial role in the overall to the muscles. Another part of the PNS, the autonomic nervous system, controls
functioning of the human body. Here are some key points highlighting its the heart, intestines, and other organs. The autonomic nervous system has some
importance: of its cell bodies within the brain or spinal cord and some in clusters along the
1. Communication Network: The PNS serves as a communication network sides of the spinal cord.
that connects the Central Nervous System (CNS) to the rest of the body. It The autonomic nervous system consists of neurons that receive
transmits sensory information from the body to the CNS and carries motor information from and send commands to the heart, intestines, and other organs.
commands from the CNS to the muscles and glands. Its two parts are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
2. Sensory Input: The PNS is responsible for detecting sensory stimuli from
the external environment and internal organs. This includes sensations such The sympathetic nervous system, a network of nerves that prepare the
as touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception (awareness of body organs for a burst of vigorous activity, consists of chains of ganglia just to the left
position). and right of the spinal cord’s central regions (the thoracic and lumbar areas).
3. Motor Output: The PNS controls voluntary and involuntary movements by These ganglia have connections back and forth with the spinal cord. Sympathetic
transmitting motor signals from the CNS to the muscles. This allows for axons prepare the organs for “fight or flight,” such as by increasing breathing
coordinated movements and reflex actions. and heart rate and decreasing digestive activity. Because the sympathetic ganglia
4. Autonomic Functions: The autonomic division of the PNS regulates are closely linked, they often act as a single system “in sympathy” with one
involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, and blood another, although certain events activate some parts more than others. The sweat
pressure. It ensures that vital bodily functions are maintained without glands, the adrenal glands, the muscles that constrict blood vessels, and the
conscious effort. muscles that erect the hairs of the skin have sympathetic input but no
5. Homeostasis: The PNS helps maintain homeostasis by regulating the body's parasympathetic input.
internal environment. It adjusts physiological processes in response to
changes in the external environment, ensuring stability and balance. The parasympathetic nervous system, sometimes called the “rest and
6. Reflex Actions: The PNS enables quick reflex actions that protect the body digest” system, facilitates vegetative, nonemergency responses. The term para
from harm. For example, the withdrawal reflex allows you to quickly pull means “beside” or “related to,” and parasympathetic activities are related to, and
your hand away from a hot surface. generally the opposite of, sympathetic activities. For example, the sympathetic
7. Adaptation and Survival: The PNS allows the body to adapt to different nervous system increases heart rate, and the parasympathetic nervous system
situations and environments. It prepares the body for "fight or flight" decreases it. The parasympathetic nervous system increases digestive activity,
responses during stressful situations and promotes relaxation and recovery whereas the sympathetic nervous system decreases it. The parasympathetic
during restful periods. system also promotes sexual arousal, including erection in males. Although the
sympathetic and parasympathetic systems produce contrary effects, both are
constantly active to varying degrees, and many stimuli arouse parts of both
systems.

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The parasympathetic nervous system’s axons release the Neuroplasticity or brain plasticity is defined as the ability of the nervous
neurotransmitter acetylcholine onto the organs. Most sympathetic nervous system to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by
system axons release norepinephrine, although a few, such as those onto the sweat reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections. A fundamental property of
glands, use acetylcholine. Because the two systems use different transmitters, neurons is their ability to modify the strength and efficacy of synaptic
certain drugs excite or inhibit one system or the other. For example, over-the- transmission through a diverse number of activity-dependent mechanisms,
counter cold remedies exert most of their effects by blocking parasympathetic typically referred to as synaptic plasticity.
activity or increasing sympathetic activity. Because the flow of sinus fluids is a
parasympathetic response, drugs that block the parasympathetic system inhibit
sinus flow. The side effects of cold remedies stem from their pro-sympathetic, How Neuroplasticity Works
anti-parasympathetic activities: They increase heart rate, blood pressure, and
arousal. They inhibit salivation and digestion. Certain decongestant pills The first few years of a child's life are a time of rapid brain growth. At
containing pseudoephedrine have been withdrawn or restricted because of their birth, every neuron in the cerebral cortex has an estimated 2,500 synapses, or
potential for abuse. small gaps between neurons where nerve impulses are relayed. By the age of
three, this number has grown to a whopping 15,000 synapses per neuron.
Below is the diagram of the bodily functions of each system.
The average adult, however, only has about half that number of
synapses. Why? Because as we gain new experiences, some connections are
strengthened while others are eliminated. This process is known as synaptic
pruning.

Neurons that are used frequently develop stronger connections. Those

that are rarely or never used eventually die. By developing new connections and
pruning away weak ones, the brain can adapt to the changing environment.

Characteristics of Neuroplasticity

1. Age and Environment Play a Role

While plasticity occurs throughout the lifetime, certain types of changes

are more predominant at specific ages. The brain tends to change a great deal
during the early years of life, for example, as the immature brain grows and
organizes itself.

Generally, young brains tend to be more sensitive and responsive to

experiences than much older brains. But this does not mean that adult brains are
Brain Plasticity not capable of adaptation.

'Plasticity is the ability of any structure weak enough to change by an Genetics can have an influence as well. The interaction between the
external stimulus, however strong enough not to mould at a once', and the nervous environment and genetics also plays a role in shaping the brain's plasticity.
tissue in the human brain is allocated with a tremendous capacity of plasticity.
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2. Neuroplasticity Is an Ongoing Process How Neuroplasticity Was Discovered

Plasticity is ongoing throughout life and involves brain cells other than Beliefs and theories about how the brain works have evolved
neurons, including glial and vascular cells. It can occur as a result of learning, substantially through the years. Early researchers believed that the brain was
experience, and memory formation, or as a result of damage to the brain. "fixed," while modern advances have shown that the brain is more flexible.

While people used to believe that the brain became fixed after a certain
age, newer research has revealed that the brain never stops changing in response
to learning. Early Theories

In instances of damage to the brain, such as during a stroke, the areas of Up until the 1960s, researchers believed that changes in the brain could
the brain associated with certain functions may be injured. Eventually, healthy only take place during infancy and childhood. By early adulthood, it was believed
parts of the brain may take over those functions and the abilities can be restored. that the brain's physical structure was mostly permanent.

In his 2007 book, "The Brain that Changes Itself: Stories of Personal
Triumph From the Frontiers of Brain Science," which took a historical look at
3. Brain Plasticity Has Limitations early theories, psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Norman Doidge suggested that this
belief that the brain was incapable of change primarily stemmed from three major
It is important to note, however, that the brain is not infinitely malleable. sources:
Certain areas of the brain are largely responsible for certain actions. For example,
there are areas of the brain that play critical roles in movement, language, speech, An ancient belief that the brain was much like an extraordinary machine,
and cognition. capable of astonishing things yet incapable of growth and change. The inability
to actually observe the microscopic activities of the brain. The observation that
Damage to key areas of the brain can result in deficits in those areas people who had suffered serious brain damage were often unable to recover
because, while some recovery may be possible, other areas of the brain simply
cannot fully take over those functions that were affected by the damage. Early on, psychologist William James suggested that the brain was
perhaps not as unchanging as previously believed. Way back in 1890, in his book
"The Principles of Psychology," he wrote, "Organic matter, especially nervous
4. Problems With Brain Plasticity tissue, seems endowed with a very extraordinary degree of plasticity."22
However, this idea went largely ignored for many years.
Brain changes are often seen as improvements, but this is not always the
case. In some instances, the brain's structure and function can be negatively
influenced or changed. Modern Theories
For example, brain plasticity can be problematic when it allows In the 1920s, researcher Karl Lashley found evidence of changes in
detrimental changes caused by substance use, disease, or trauma (including brain neural pathways of rhesus monkeys. By the 1960s, researchers began to explore
injury or traumatic experiences that result in post-traumatic stress disorder or cases in which older adults who had suffered massive strokes were able to regain
PTSD). Even lead poisoning can negatively impact brain plasticity.19 functioning, demonstrating that the brain was more malleable than previously
There are also some medical conditions that can limit or hinder brain believed. Modern researchers have also found evidence that the brain is able to
plasticity. Among them are a variety of pediatric neurological disorders such as rewire itself following damage.
epilepsy, cerebral palsy, tuberous sclerosis, and Fragile X syndrome

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Modern research has demonstrated that the brain continues to create new
neural pathways and alter existing ones in order to adapt to new experiences,
learn new information, and create new memories.

Thanks to advances in technology, researchers are able to get a never-

before-possible look at the brain's inner workings. As the study of modern
neuroscience flourishes, research has demonstrated that people are not limited to
the mental abilities they are born with and that damaged brains are often quite
capable of remarkable change.

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