Photo credit: AngloAmerican

INTRODUCTION TO
GEOMETALLURGY
White Paper
 INTRODUCTION TO
GEOMETALLURGY

Abstract

Geometallurgy is an interdisciplinary approach that plays a pivotal role in any project’s evaluation or proposed
mining operation. It focuses on spatially characterizing the different material types or domains within a deposit,
considering their impact on processing, mining performance, and environmental and closure aspects.

This white paper is an introduction to geometallurgy and is intended to be a reference for practitioners unfamiliar
with aspects of the subject. The white paper is intended to provide an understanding of all geometallurgical
elements into one document, using them to lay out a roadmap for future Global Mining Guidelines Group (GMG)
geometallurgy guidelines.

This white paper includes a detailed definition of geometallurgy along with an overview of the key elements
associated with the discipline, including:

• Common data reporting

• Representative sampling
• Geological characterization
• Metallurgical and environmental characterization
• Data consolidation and data quality assurance
• Model development
• Model evaluation
• Project optimization
• Reconciliation
 INTRODUCTION TO
GEOMETALLURGY

CONTENTS
Abstract

1. What is Geometallurgy?..............................................................1

1.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Purpose.................................................................................................................... 1

1.3 GMG’s Geometallurgy Program Exclusions........................................................... 2

2. Background.................................................................................2

3. Activity-Based Workflow – First Iteration....................................3

4. Activity-Based Workflow – Subsequent Iteration/Brownfield......8

5. Specific Areas of Geometallurgical Guidance..............................8

5.1 Common Data Reporting......................................................................................... 8

5.2 Representative Sampling........................................................................................ 9

5.3 Geological Characterization.................................................................................... 9

5.4 Metallurgical and Environmental Characterization............................................... 9

5.5 Data Consolidation and Data Quality Assurance................................................... 9

5.6 Model Development................................................................................................. 9

5.7 Model Evaluation................................................................................................... 10

5.8 Project Optimization.............................................................................................. 10

5.9 Reconciliation........................................................................................................ 10

6. Conclusion................................................................................11

About Global Mining Guidelines Group........................................... 12

 INTRODUCTION TO
1 GEOMETALLURGY

1. What is Geometallurgy?

Geometallurgy is an interdisciplinary practice that plays a pivotal role in any mining project evaluation or mining
operation. It focuses on spatially characterizing different materials or domains within a deposit, considering their
impact on processing and mining performance, as well as environmental and closure aspects. By integrating
geological, mineralogical, mining, metallurgical, environmental, and economic parameters, geometallurgy
aims to reduce technical and operational risk during project evaluation and production. Ultimately, the goal of
geometallurgy is to maximize the economic value of an orebody by sufficiently characterizing different material
types to inform predicted project and operational outcomes through a comprehensive understanding of the data
generated.

1.1 Introduction
The growth of geometallurgy has been largely organic resulting in different levels of capability and maturity
across the industry, limited development of industry-wide systems and guidelines, and limited opportunities for
collaboration. However, the industry’s resources and operating context are changing and becoming more available
because of:

•A n increased focus on data-driven technologies and systems to allow the ability to maintain productivity in
the face of deeper, more complex orebodies, and realize the opportunities provided by AI.
• Greater focus on resource characterization to support future processing options.
•M ore focus on waste and tailings characterization to understand and manage closure costs and
environmental impact, in line with increased community expectations.

1.2 Purpose
The purpose of this white paper is to provide a general overview of current geometallurgical practices in industry,
intended for practitioners unfamiliar with aspects of geometallurgy.

This white paper, and future geometallurgy guidelines published, aim to advance the geometallurgy discipline
through a structured approach by breaking the extensive field into manageable, focused guidelines (see Section
5 for a list of future guidelines). These guidelines will advance
the industry by providing recommended best practices that
have been agreed upon by experts in the field.

By integrating geological,
mining, metallurgical,
environmental, and economic
parameters, geometallurgy
aims to reduce technical and
operational risk during project
evaluation and production.

Photo credit: AngloAmerican

 INTRODUCTION TO
2 GEOMETALLURGY

1.3 GMG’s Geometallurgy Program Exclusions

The aim of this white paper, and future guidelines is to describe the geometallurgical concept and the activities
that directly link geology and mineralogy to metallurgical performance. As such, the following areas will be
excluded, while recognizing they can have direct impacts on the success of a geometallurgy program:

Topics that deal exclusively with geological studies, such as geological formation
Geology processes, mineral deposits, and tectonic processes, unless they directly influence
metallurgical outcomes.

While mineralogical analysis is crucial, studies that do not directly connect to processing
Mineralogy performance, metallurgical response, concentrate specification, and tailings/waste rocks
behaviour are out of scope.

 etallurgical
M Development and optimization of metallurgical processes that do not involve variability
Process due to geological considerations. The focus will remain on how geological factors
Development impact metallurgical performance prediction and by extension overall plant design.

Strategic planning and operational aspects of mining that do not directly affect or
Mine Planning
consider metallurgical performance.

The exclusion of these above areas ensures that these publications remain concentrated on the critical
intersection of geology and metallurgy, providing clear, actionable insights for enhancing mineral, mining,
and metallurgical processing based on geological data. This focused approach will help practitioners apply
geometallurgical principles effectively without the dilution of discipline specific topics.

2. Background

The economic extraction of minerals required for the eventual production of raw material and useful finished
goods begins with an understanding of the material to be mined, known as orebody knowledge. The tools,
methodologies, and extent of work used to characterize an orebody have evolved over the past 20 years in concert
with the advancement of the tools available for this work and the increasing mineralogical complexity of the
deposits themselves.

Historical orebody characterization has consisted of extensive spatial drilling to obtain interval-based assay,
geology, mineralogy, alteration, geotechnical and hydrogeological parameters, and rock quality information. This
data is used to determine characteristics of the different geological material types (domains) and their respective
mineralogical characteristics for resource estimation, and result in the selection of composite samples for
subsequent metallurgical characterization testing. Metallurgical characteristics such as ore hardness, abrasion
index, flotation or leach recovery, concentrate quality, or anode quality are a few of these parameters. Specific
characterization testing is typically tailored to an individual project as determined by individuals experienced in the
type of deposit and processes proposed.

To address the increasing geological, mineralogical, and metallurgical complexity of orebodies, this historical
composite-based approach has advanced. It is now common practice to include specific sub-composites based
on understood differences in materials, material properties, or metallurgical response as informed by early-stage
test work. These sub-composites and their determined characteristics are important to informing plant design,
potential planned design changes over the proposed life of mine, production performance over the life of mine,
and economic predictions required to make appropriate business decisions.
 INTRODUCTION TO
3 GEOMETALLURGY

The current common practice in industry also includes the use of a series of continuous intervals along a drill hole,
referred to as variability samples, distributed across the proposed mining areas. These variability samples are
intended to capture the differing response with respect to geological heterogeneity over the proposed life of mine
to inform decision-making. The number of variability samples are intended to:

•  e proportional to the impact of the material on mining decision making from each identified domain and
B
covering the compositional range of each domain, to ensure that characterization is sufficiently detailed in
relation to the relative importance of the material over the proposed life of mine.
• Consider a higher sample density in the payback period for the proposed life of mine, to ensure this critical
economic phase is sufficiently derisked.
• Cover a range of economic and marginal grade, as well as areas just outside of the pit shell available at
the time of sampling, to ensure potential future changes to the mine plan and subsequent operational
practice can be informed.

These variability samples are then processed through a wide set of characterization analyses and tests spanning
a full range of discipline areas, developing a detailed and spatially attributed data set that is used in mining project
development activities. It is important to note that sample selection, characterization and testing, and analysis is
conducted in an iterative manner.

3. Activity-Based Workflow – First Iteration

Greenfield projects typically begins with the spatial drilling of a target location and the collection of drill core data,
interval assays, and mineralogical information. The first characterization and analysis are typically conducted
by geology and mineralogy specialists where the available data is used to develop geological models defining
the project in terms of grade and impurities, and geology including lithologies, alteration, mineralization, and
geotechnical features. Both numerical modelling and advanced data analytics techniques are used in some cases
to refine these base geological models. The concept of activity-based workflow is used to describe both the
sequential steps undertaken by different disciplines, combined with geometallurgy being an iterative process. In
later stage iterations when mining and metallurgical characteristics are available, these advanced modelling and
analytical techniques are used to help inform predictive outcomes for
material types identified.

There are three critical differentiations between historical orebody Geometallurgy is an

characterization and geometallurgical orebody characterization: evolving practice. There
are no established
•  he increased number of spatially discrete material
T geometallurgical standards
characterization data points. for the collection, retention,
• The increased data available for each discrete material sample.
• The increased application of data analytics and advance
and processing of data.
modelling techniques that are possible with larger data sets.

It is important to note that geometallurgy is an evolving practice.

Several mining companies, universities, service providers, and industry organizations have established their own
approaches to developing orebody knowledge under the umbrella term of geometallurgy. There are no established
geometallurgical standards for the collection, retention, and processing of data that have received industry-wide
acceptance.
 INTRODUCTION TO
4 GEOMETALLURGY

A greenfield project typically includes the following major actions with respect to characterization testing and
predictive modelling:

•  eological and mineralogical characterization of materials and the development of geological models
G
defining the project in terms of grade and impurities, geology including lithology, alteration, mineralization
among others, to inform block models, and geotechnical features.
• Mining specialists use the data provided by the geology, geochemistry, and mineralogy testing to inform
mining sequencing and phasing, as well as overall mining area disturbance. This in turn assists in the
development of initial planning for waste stockpiles, mine dewatering, and a further range of physical
project considerations.
• Geometallurgical and metallurgical specialists use the data from geological, geochemical and
mineralogical analysis, and mining activities to inform sample selection for material characterization
related to key processing inputs, material process response testing, flowsheet development, and product
material characterization testing. This information is subsequently used in process plant design, recovery
predictions, product quality predictions, and to develop spatial geometallurgical models.
• Environmental specialists use information and samples from geological, geochemical and mineralogical
analysis, mining and metallurgical activities to conduct material characterization tests for source control,
waste streams, stockpiles, tailings materials, water quality, and a range of discipline specific predictive
modelling activities. The information is also used to develop spatial geometallurgical models.

First characterization and analysis

Geological and mineralogical characterization of materials and use of data

to inform block model development.

Mining specialists use data for mining sequencing and phasing,

and overall area disturbance.

Geometallurgical and metallurgical specialists use data to inform sample

selection for material characterization, material process response testing,
flowsheet development, and product material characterization testing.

Environmental specialists use information and samples to conduct material

characterization tests, waste streams, stockpiles, tailings materials, water
quality, and a range of discipline specific modelling activities.

Figure 1. High-level overview of greenfield actions with respect to characterization testing and predictive modelling.
 INTRODUCTION TO
5 GEOMETALLURGY

A thorough evaluation will utilize information from orebody characterization, grade and mitigating factors, mine
design, metallurgical testing and product quality, and environmental characterization, to inform capital, revenue
and operating costs for the project.

Experience shows that a successful geometallurgy program first requires the establishment of a cross-functional
team to lead the project. This team has a mandate to meet regularly to discuss and evaluate developments
from diverse perspectives and project stages including geology, mining, metallurgy, environmental, finance, and
stakeholders, depending on the project. The geometallurgy program incorporates diverse data of variable scale,
dimension, time horizon and significance. As such, the continuous communication of results are important for
realistic projections, resource allocation and risk/opportunity identification as the operation progresses through
various stages.

As key material characterization information and modelling results are obtained, they are proactively shared to
promote project alignment. However, after the completion of work during the first iteration of a project by geology,
geochemistry, mineralogy, mining, metallurgy, environmental, and marketing specialists, the overall project
is brought together in a unified project configuration with the appropriate economic evaluations for business
decisions to be made. This is generally part of an overall project optimization phase that can result in rework of
individual components or individual discipline areas. Project optimization typically informs work planning for
subsequent iteration stages in a geometallurgical program.

This optimization stage is often the point where preliminary spatial and predictive modelling is updated based on
mining, metallurgical, environmental, marketing and economic information that only becomes available near the
end of the stage. This critical exercise requires close coordination between disciplines.
 6 INTRODUCTION TO
GEOMETALLURGY

Geometallurgy

Geology and
Mineralogy Mining Environmental
•L aboratory scale mineral
•G eologically informed processing test work to • Informed decision made
selection of samples and determine one response • Mining sequence • Information and samples based on data and
testing • Hardness for testing to determine predicitions presented.
•P roposed feed grade for
• Multi-element assays environmental risks
• Recovery processing
• Lithology •C  haracterize types of
•C oncentrate Grade
waste
• Alteration
• Acid Rock Drainage (ARD) Project Economics
• Mineralization Metallurgy
• Geotechnical features
• Block model development

•M  ulti-disciplinary feedback feeds into fit-for-purpose data collection •P lant design based on
• Geologically informed selection of samples for metallurgical and proxy test work mineral response and
• Development of spatial geometallurgical block model mine plan
• This conveys the spatially varying response (building on the one response from • Mass and water balance
Metallurgy)
• Equipment sizing
•P lant layout

Plant Design

FIgure 2. Major steps involved with in a greenfield project with respect to characterization and predictive modelling.
 INTRODUCTION TO
7 GEOMETALLURGY

Reconciliation represents the step where additional field drilling data, material characterization information, or
operational data is systematically compared against the predictive models. This validation process ensures the
models accurately reflect the behaviour of the orebody as the project progresses through study phases and to
operations. Areas exhibiting poor reconciliation signal potential shortcomings in the models. These discrepancies
and uncertainties can become apparent due to various factors, such as:

• Incomplete data
• Inherent variability stemming from complex deposits
• Unforeseen operational challenges
• Known and deliberate operational changes

In these cases, additional data collection or sampling becomes necessary. Reconciliation fosters an iterative
process; therefore, if data does not fully support the original interpretations, the sampling, test work, and/or
models should be revisited. When resolving the above uncertainties and increasing data density as projects
progress from early-stage development to approval and execution, decisions generally form the basis for:

• Targeted drilling
• Data collection
• Material characterization
• Modelling

This can be applicable in subsequent iterations of the geometallurgical program.

This iterative approach for operational geometallurgy is illustrated in Figure 3:

Figure 3. Iterative approach of a geometallurgy workflow with interactions between geological and metallurgical disciplines. Reproduced from
Frenzel et al. (2023) with permission of Elements Magazine (Mineralogical Society of America).
 INTRODUCTION TO
8 GEOMETALLURGY

4. Activity-Based Workflow – Subsequent Iteration/Brownfield

Once the first iteration stage of a geometallurgical program is complete, subsequent stage iterations are more
readily informed by cross-discipline data. This is particularly true for data analytics and predictive modelling
activities. At the beginning of the first iteration of a geometallurgical program, material classifications and
predictive modelling are limited to geological types. Either at the end of the first iteration or in subsequent
iterations, material characteristic or response characterization from other discipline areas can be incorporated
into material type and predictive modelling (often considering a multi-typing approach for materials). For
instance, one geological material type can represent multiple comminution response types as determined through
testing. Similarly, flotation response domains can span multiple geological domains. This is also true of mining,
environmental, product quality, and economic characterization and modelling.

In many cases, brownfield operations, expansion, or life extension projects have not undergone geometallurgical
development. In these cases, significant historical production information can be used to develop spatial material
characterization and models. Brownfield projects can typically be considered as subsequent iterations from a
geometallurgical standpoint.

5. Specific Areas of Geometallurgical Guidance

Nine areas of geometallurgy are proposed as the subject areas for future GMG guidelines.

Note that individual companies can have internal specifications with respect to required data to be included in
programs to achieve appropriate sanction. These requirements will vary by company, and it is the responsibility of
practitioners to ensure that their requirements are met.

5.1 Representative Sampling

The objective of representative sampling is to obtain samples that will accurately represent the deposit in terms
of physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics. Representative sampling should consider existing
orebody knowledge and conform to the Theory of Sampling. The first iteration will generally incorporate available
geological, metallurgical, and mineralogical data, if existent. Sampling methodologies, processing (such as
sampling reduction, preparation, and transportation) and analytical methods (including analytical techniques
and quality assurance and quality control) should be determined and can be limited by the available drillholes. At
subsequent iterations, the sampling will be guided by the results of the first iteration which might have highlighted
areas of less confidence, higher ore variability, or higher tonnage/volume as well as the follow-up type of testing.
A dedicated geometallurgical drill program might be required to provide a larger number, mass, or spatially well
distributed samples during the subsequent iterations.

Photo credit: AngloAmerican

 INTRODUCTION TO
9 GEOMETALLURGY

5.2 Geological Characterization

The objective of the geological characterization is to ensure the samples collected are thoroughly described,
both from a qualitative and quantitative point of view. Qualitative characterization includes lithology, alteration,
and mineralization. Quantitative and semi-quantitative characterization includes geochemical, mineralogical, and
geotechnical analyses and tests. The first iteration will depend on the overall deposit knowledge and geological
concept at the time of sampling. This iteration is an opportunity to capture data that is normally not collected
during routine logging and assaying. It can include specific geochemical analysis such as elemental speciation,
deleterious elements, mineralogy using different methods, including hyperspectral data. The subsequent iteration
analysis is guided by the results from the first iteration and other findings from orebody knowledge studies
conducted on the deposit as well as metallurgical testing.

5.3 Metallurgical and Environmental Characterization

The primary purpose of this work is to develop throughput predictions, recovery and product quality predictions,
a data set that is used for life of mine modelling, process design, assessing tailings and waste rock disposal
methods, and identifying health and environmental risks related to the mine life and post closure. They include,
but are not limited to air quality, water quality, water flows and volumes, and land usage. First iteration testing
is dependent on sample availability. The scope of the test program is defined by geological and mineralogical
characterization and likely limited to laboratory and bench-scale batch tests that may include comminution,
flotation, leaching, dewatering, and ARD. Subsequent iteration testing is defined by results from first iteration
testing and may include variability tests on individual samples, testing domain composite samples, locked cycle
tests, pilot scale tests, and test programs to quantify byproduct values and quantify deleterious elements issues.

5.4 Common Data Reporting

A fundamental principle of geometallurgy is to test a higher volume of samples than has previously been sourced
and to relate metallurgical response to ore properties. The large number of samples and tests typically results
in large data sets that contain valuable data. Related disciplines in the mining value chain, such as geology and
mining engineering, also manage large data sets; however, these disciplines have a wide range of commercial
software applications tailored for their specific data types. There are no commercial applications specifically
tailored to managing geometallurgical and mineralogical data, perhaps due to the lack of standardization in the
reporting of geometallurgical and mineralogical test results which can create a barrier to the development and
commercialization of data management applications.

5.5 Data Consolidation and Data Quality Assurance

Data consolidation takes valuable data and turns it into useful information for each iteration’s analysis and testing.
For this, the data (independent on the tool used for exploratory data analysis) should be validated via a data quality
assurance program and subsequently evaluated by data analysis. At each iteration, the process should follow
rigorous protocols and standardization, so the data can be traceable, appended, and used after each iteration.

5.6 Model Development

The first iteration will seek to identify deposit domains that will provide understanding of the metallurgical
behaviours with respect to the geological parameters obtained during the characterization stage (geochemistry,
mineralogy, geotechnical, etc.). The identity of these domains can be obtained with statistical and geostatistical
modelling and modelling and analysis methods and models. Further sampling will be informed by the first iteration
models. During the subsequent iterations, when a larger number of samples has been collected and tested,
 INTRODUCTION TO
10 GEOMETALLURGY

modelling and analysis methods can be developed to predict metallurgical responses throughout the deposit
and further refine or modify the domains. It can also quantify uncertainties, populate to block models, and inform
further sampling. Simulations can be applied to assess and manage geometallurgical uncertainty and incorporate
nonlinear features. All of these models can be updated periodically with new samples.

5.7 Model Evaluation

The objective of the model evaluation stage is to obtain feedback as to whether the model honours the data. A
model evaluation is done comparing the actual data with the predicted data using cross-validation methods that
will assess the robustness of the model. Different types of geometallurgical models can require different metrics
such as accuracy, precision, and truthfulness. A risk assessment should be conducted to assess overfitting,
sample representativity and correlation significance. Because of the nature of a model, it will likely never be
perfect; therefore, an uncertainty tolerance should be quantified. If the model performs poorly against actual data,
more samples and/or a review of the domain in question may be required.

5.8 Project Optimization

With first and subsequent iterations, projects and processes might have the potential to be optimized. The
combination of representative sampling and appropriate testing, along with the underlying understanding of
geological drivers of performance, allows an orebody to be assessed under different mining and processing
configurations. This can require specific geometallurgical sampling and testing to respond to specific questions.
Because this stage is also dependent on financial, marketing, regulatory factors, and more, an overall assessment
of the optimization potential should occur before embarking on project optimization.

5.9 Reconciliation
The purpose of reconciliation is to validate, calibrate, and ultimately improve the geometallurgical models
and forecasts. The information obtained from reconciliation can provide fundamental indicators to an
operation’s performance and inform improvements in planning and operations. To assess the contribution of
the geometallurgy model, a reconciliation process should be carried out at regular intervals. Geometallurgical
reconciliation can be done at the mining stage and/or processing stage and can occur spatially and temporally.
Geometallurgical reconciliation is a process designed to test the geometallurgy forecasts based on the actual
material mined and processed. Geometallurgy performance predictions are compared to actual results for a given
period.

Photo credit: AngloAmerican

 INTRODUCTION TO
11 GEOMETALLURGY

Conclusion

Well-structured and appropriate geometallurgical programs play a crucial role in optimizing mining processes
and ensuring projects are executed according to plan and budget. This is particularly relevant considering the
increasing geological complexity of orebodies, cost pressures throughout the industry, and environmental,
sustainability and governance goals. Whilst technology, industry, environmental circumstances, and material/ore
types change, the fundamental ore properties do not. Thorough characterization of orebody variability, in relation
to the mining processes affected by it, equips the company with the information needed for optimal decision
making throughout life of mine – from exploration to mine closure, rehabilitation, and future use.

Pockets of geometallurgical excellence exist throughout the industry and the practice has demonstrated tangible
value. However, the range in program designs, inputs and outputs can result in markedly differing efficacy levels
across operations. Gathering best practices into several guidelines aims to provide professionals with a reference
to inform tailored geometallurgical programs. This ranges from initial, first iteration workflows that broadly
characterize geometallurgical variability in relation to known geological domains, to subsequent iterations that
streamline data collection for optimal geometallurgical characterization and value-add.

Documenting the methods available to collect, store, interpret, and implement geometallurgical data, as well
as the cross-disciplinary collaboration needed, aims to promote program success and the advancement of
geometallurgy.
 INTRODUCTION TO
12 GEOMETALLURGY

About Global Mining Guidelines Group

Global Mining Guidelines Group (GMG) is a network of representatives from mining companies, original equipment
manufacturers (OEMs), original technology manufacturers (OTMs), research organizations and academics, consultants,
regulators, and industry associations around the world who collaborate to tackle challenges facing our industry. GMG aims to
accelerate the improvement of mining performance, safety, and sustainability by enabling the mining industry to collaborate
and share expertise and lessons learned that result in the creation of guidelines and related documents, such as white papers
like this one, that address common industry challenges.

Interested in participating or have feedback to share? GMG is an open platform, and everyone with interest and expertise in the
subject matter covered can participate. Participants from GMG member companies have the opportunity to assume leadership
roles. Please contact GMG at [email protected] for more information about participating or to provide feedback on this
white paper.

Publication Information: Publication date: 2025-02-19

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Credits
The following organizations and individuals were involved in the preparation of this white paper at various stages including
content definition, content generation, and review. Please note that the white paper does not necessarily represent the views of
the organizations listed below.

Project Group: Introduction to Geometallurgy White Paper

Working Group: Mineral Processing Working Group
Project Leader: Keith Merriam, Teck Resources Limited

Organizations Involved in the Preparation of this White Paper

AcQuire, ALS, AngloGold Ashanti, AngloAmerican, Ausenco, AXT Minerology, BHP, Bluecoast Metallurgy, Bureau Veritas (BV),
Boliden, Caspeo, CMD Consulting, Cornell University, Erzlabor, Evolution Mining, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Federal
University of Minas Gerais, Freeport-McMoRan, Glencore, HZDR, Helmholtz Institute Freiberg (HIF), Magotteux, Mineral
Solutions Pty Ltd., MMG, Newmont, Novo Resources, Orway Mineral Consultants, Resource Modeling Solutions, Rio Tinto,
SGS Lakefield, Teck Resources Limited, Tescan Orsay Holding, Transmin Metallurgical Consultants, University of Cape Town,
University of Queensland, Vale, VBKom, XPS