Unit 2 Junction Diodes

UNIT 2
Junction diodes are used all around us. Their
applications touch our lives in many ways: In

JUNCTION
ordinary DC power supplies in our homes, digital
displays, chips inside computers and

DIODES
communication systems, light emitting diodes that
light up our festivals, solar cells in solar panels,
etc. In this unit, you will learn the basic physics of
junction diodes that makes them so all pervading.
Source of pictures: https://en.wikipedia.org/
The individual attributions are given below.

Structure

2.1 Introduction 2.3 Other Junction Diodes

Expected Learning Outcomes The Zener Diode
2.2 The p-n Junction Diode LED
p-n Junction Formation and Barrier Potential Solar Cell
I-V Characteristics of a p-n Junction Diode Photodiode
The p-n Junction Diode as a Rectifier 2.4 Summary
2.5 Terminal Questions
2.6 Solutions and Answers

STUDY GUIDE
You have learnt about the p-n junction diode in your school physics courses and Experiment 9 of the
core Laboratory course BPHCL-134. You have also obtained the I-V characteristics of a p-n junction
diode experimentally, and interpreted them. So, you know the concepts of Secs. 2.2.1 and 2.2.2. You
will learn how p-n junction diode is used as a rectifier and other junction diodes such as the zener diode,
LED, solar cell and photodiodes in Secs. 2.2.3 and 2.3, which maybe new for you. While studying this
unit, focus on the way each diode is doped and constructed, and the physics underlying its working.
These are what make the I-V characteristics of the diodes suitable for specific applications. You should
understand their similarities and their differences. Make your own notes, answer all SAQs and Terminal
Questions on your own to learn the concepts of this unit well.
Source of pictures above: All pictures in this unit have been taken from https://commons.wikimedia.org/
Individual attributions for the above pictures are: Digital display: Beyond silence; LED TV: Rico Shen; Computer chip:
JulianVilla 26; Solar panel: AleSpa - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=29290121.

“A scientist is happy, not in resting on … attainments, but

in the steady acquisition of fresh knowledge.” Max Planck

35
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 1, you have learnt the basic physics of intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors. In this unit, you will learn about semiconductor devices called
junction diodes, of which the p-n junction diode is the most well known to
you. You have performed Experiment 9 in BPHCL 134 for drawing and
interpreting the I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode. You have learnt the
basic physics of the p-n junction diode in Secs. 9.3 and 9.4 of Experiment 9.

Junction diodes have a mind-boggling variety of applications in diverse fields.

For example, these are used in digital displays (in watches, LED TVs or
computer panels), solar panels, voltage regulators, complex chips inside
domestic appliances, computer and internet hardware, laser diodes, counters,
detectors, communication systems, smoke detectors, remote controls of TVs,
and so on.

While studying this unit, you will realise that the working and I-V characteristics
of semiconductor devices are determined by how these are constructed. It is
indeed remarkable how so many semiconductor devices can be constructed to
have specific I-V characteristics for desired applications. Continuous research
and innovation lead to newer materials for junction diodes, and widens the
scope of their applications.

In this unit, you will first revise the basic physics of p-n junction diodes. We
begin the unit by explaining the formation of p-n junction and the concept of
barrier potential (Sec. 2.2.1), which is a revision of Sec. 9.3 of Experiment 9.
We also explain the I-V characteristics of p-n junction diodes in Sec. 2.2.2 and
briefly discuss the application of p-n junction diodes as rectifiers in Sec. 2.2.3.
You will learn about this application in detail in Unit 12.

In Sec. 2.3, we explain the construction, working and the I-V characteristics of
some important junction diodes such as the zener diode, light emitting diode
(LED), solar cell and photodetector. We also acquaint you with their numerous
applications around us. In the next unit, you will learn about another
all-pervasive semiconductor device, the junction transistor.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

❖ explain the formation of the p-n junction and the concepts of depletion
region and barrier potential;

❖ describe the working of a p-n junction diode, draw its I-V characteristics
and interpret them;

❖ explain briefly how the p-n junction diode acts as a rectifier; and

❖ discuss the construction (in brief), working and I-V characteristics of

zener diode, LED, solar cell and photodiode, and list their applications.

36
 Unit 2 Junction Diodes
2.2 THE p-n JUNCTION DIODE
A p-n junction diode was the first semiconductor device constructed with
n-type and p-type semiconductors. It is based on the discovery of the p-n
barrier by R S Ohl, an American engineer, in 1939. All diodes (including LEDs,
solar cells, photodiodes, etc.) followed from the pioneering work done by Ohl.

Understanding the physics of a p-n junction is important because it is the

basic building block of most semiconductor devices, for example, junction
diodes like zener diode, LEDs, solar cells, photodiodes, transistors, and
integrated circuits. Actually, the electronic action of a semiconductor device
takes place at the sites of the p-n junctions in it. So, you must learn what
actually happens at and near the p-n junction.

A p-n junction is formed from a single intrinsic semiconducting crystal when

controlled amounts of donor and acceptor impurities are added to it. The
boundary or interface between the n-type and p-type parts of the crystal is
called the p-n junction (Fig. 2.1a). A p-n junction diode is a two-terminal
device formed by this kind of doping (Fig. 2.1b).

p-n junction

p-type n-type
p n
silicon silicon

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.1: a) A p-n junction is the interface formed when a single intrinsic
semiconducting crystal is doped with controlled amounts of donor and
acceptor impurities so that holes are the majority charge carriers on the
p-side and electrons on the n-side; b) p-n junction diode.

In Fig. 2.1a, we show only the majority charge carriers on both sides.
However, remember that minority charge carriers (holes in n-side and
electrons in p-side) do exist in the doped crystal.

2.2.1 p-n Junction Formation and Barrier Potential

Note from Fig. 2.1a that the n-region of the semiconducting crystal has a
greater concentration of electrons and its p-region has a greater concentration
of holes. So, a concentration gradient exists in the semiconductor. You
have learnt in Sec. 1.4 of Unit 1 that this leads to diffusion of electrons and
holes from regions of respective higher carrier concentration to lower carrier
concentrations. Therefore, electrons diffuse from the n-region to the p-region
and holes diffuse from the p-region to the n-region (see Fig.2.2a).
REMEMBER: Such an exchange of mobile carriers occurs mainly in a narrow
region around the junction.

Now think: Will this process continue till such time as the number of electrons
or holes in both regions becomes equal? The answer is, no, it will not. Why? 37
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
To answer this question, we ask: What happens when electrons diffuse from
the n-region to the p-region? Note from Fig. 2.2b that positively charged donor
ions are left behind near the p-n junction on its n-side. Similarly, when holes
diffuse from the p-region to the n-region, negatively charged acceptor ions are
left behind near the junction on its p-side. Thus, the diffusion of electrons and
holes leads to the accumulation of positive and negative ions near the junction
(Fig. 2.2b).
Negative acceptor
Positive donor Depletion region
Diffusion ions
ions

p-region n-region p-region n-region p-region n-region

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.2: a) Diffusion of electrons and holes across the p-n junction;
b) accumulation of negative acceptor ions and positive donor ions
near the p-n junction; c) depletion region.

What happens when positive donor ions and negative acceptor ions
accumulate near the junction? We see that an electric field is established near
the p-n junction. This electric field prevents further movement of majority
charge carriers across the junction: electrons from the n-side to the p-side
and holes from the p-side to the n-side.

The electrostatic potential associated with this electric field is known as the
p-n junction barrier potential. It is called the barrier potential because it prevents further
p-region n-region movement of majority charge carriers across the p-n junction when there is
no external electric field. Barrier potential is a characteristic of the
semiconductor material. It is typically 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge. It cannot
be measured with the help of a voltmeter.

As a result, a narrow region near the junction is depleted of mobile charge

Barrier potential of carriers. It is called the depletion region or space-charge region as no
depletion region mobile charge carriers are present in it (Fig. 2.2c). The width of the
Fig. 2.3: Barrier potential depletion region depends on how heavily each side is doped with donor and
due to depletion region. acceptor impurities, respectively. Typically, it is about 0.5 m thick. So, the
depletion region acts like a barrier that opposes the flow of electrons
from the n-region and holes from the p-region.

What is the polarity of the barrier potential? Refer to Fig. 2.3. The barrier
potential is of such polarity that it opposes the diffusion of electrons from n to
p-region and the diffusion of holes from p to n-region. Note from the figure that
the barrier potential makes the p-side negative with respect to the n-side.

However, the barrier potential helps the movement of minority charge carriers.
So, holes from n-region can move to p-region and electrons from p-region to
the n-region. The movement of minority charge carriers constitutes a small
drift current depending only on the numbers of minority charge carriers. It is
38 almost independent of the value of the barrier potential (Fig. 2.4a).
 Unit 2 Junction Diodes
So, as the barrier potential builds up, the diffusion current due to majority
charge carriers decreases until thermal equilibrium is reached. At thermal
equilibrium, the minority carrier drift current equals the diffusion current
and the net current across the junction is zero.

The barrier potential then reaches its steady state value and does not
increase any more (see Fig. 2.4b). Let us just give you an idea of the
corresponding electric field: For a typical barrier potential (V) of the order of
0.7 V and the barrier width (d) of the order of 0.5 micron, the magnitude of the
electric field E is of the order of 106 V m−1 since E = V / d.

Hole drift
Hole diffusion
n

p n Barrier
potential

Electron drift Diffusion current = Drift current

Electron diffusion

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.4: a) Hole and electron diffusion and drift across the p-n junction; b) at thermal equilibrium, the
diffusion current equals the drift current and the barrier potential reaches a steady state value.

An actual p-n junction diode is shown in Fig. 2.5 along with its symbol.
Anode Cathode
The question now is: How do we overcome the barrier potential so that
current can flow across the junction? In the next section, you will revise
how the p-n junction diode is biased for current to flow through it and its I-V
(a)
characteristics.

2.2.2 I-V Characteristics of a p-n Junction Diode

(b)
You have drawn the I-V characteristics of the p-n junction diode in Experiment
9 of BPHCL 134. Recall what you did to obtain the curve. You applied an p n
external voltage to the diode to forward bias it, measured the current with
increasing voltage. Then you reverse biased the diode and measured the Anode Cathode
current with increasing voltage. In this section, we explain the physical
processes occurring in the forward and reverse biased p-n junction diode, (c)
which result in its I-V characteristic curve.
Fig. 2.5: a) An actual
Forward biasing of the p-n junction diode p-n junction diode with
its anode (p-side) and
In Fig. 2.6, we show a p-n junction diode with an external battery/power supply cathode (n-side) shown;
connected to it. Notice that the positive terminal of the battery is connected to b) circuit symbol of a
its p-side and the negative terminal to its n-side. This is the forward biasing p-n junction diode;
c) anode and cathode in
of the diode. Such a biasing helps to decrease the barrier potential as the
a p-n junction diode.
external battery opposes it. Compare Figs. 2.3 and 2.6 and note the opposite
polarities of the barrier potential and forward biasing voltage. When the
external voltage exceeds the barrier potential, it becomes easier for the 39
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
electrons and holes to cross the p-n junction. Electrons in the n-region
recombine with the positive ions, and holes recombine with the negative ions
near the junction. This reduces the width of the depletion region, which results
in majority charge carrier flow across the junction. Electrons on the n-side and
holes on the p-side of the material encounter a reduced barrier potential at the
junction due to the decreased width of the depletion region. Further, electrons
are attracted to the positive voltage applied to the p-side, and holes to the
negative voltage applied to the n-side of the p-n junction diode.

As the applied voltage is increased, the width of the depletion region

decreases further until a large number of electrons flow through the junction
from the n-region to the p-region and holes from the p-region to the n-region.
This gives rise to a current in the diode from the p-region to the n-region called
the forward current. The forward current in the diode is typically of the order
of a few milliamperes for applied voltages of less than 1 V. The forward
current rises exponentially [see Eq. (2.1a) on the next page]. The drift current
due to minority charge carriers also flows across the junction.

IF

Fig. 2.6: Forward biasing of a p-n junction diode.

In forward bias, the p-n junction diode offers low resistance to the flow of
current. The value of the junction resistance, called the forward resistance,
is in the range 10  to 30 .

Reverse biasing of the p-n junction diode

When the terminals of the battery are reversed, that is, we connect the p-end
to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-end to its positive terminal as
in Fig. 2.7, the p-n junction diode is said to be reverse biased.

IR

Fig. 2.7: Reverse biasing of a p-n junction diode.

In this case, the electrons in the n-region and the holes in the p-region move
away from the junction, which means that no current should flow across the
40
Unit 2 Junction Diodes
junction. But is it really so? Does no current flow at all when the junction is
reverse biased? Actually, a small current does flow across the junction. This is
the drift current due to minority charge carriers, which remains unaffected.
The minority charge carrier drift current is called the reverse saturation
current or leakage current. It is of the order of a few nanoamperes to
microamperes. So, in reverse bias, the p-n junction diode offers high
resistance to the flow of current in the range 10 k to 100 k.

Let us write the expressions for the forward current and reverse saturation
current through the diode.

The forward current is given by:

 qV 
If = Is exp  , (2.1a)
 kBT 

where Is is the reverse saturation current, V, the applied voltage, k B , the

Boltzmann constant and T, the temperature.

Under reverse biasing, the diode current is just the reverse saturation current
flowing in the opposite direction:

I r = − Is (2.1b)

Combining Eqs. (2.1a and b), we can write the expression for the diode
current as:
 qV 
I = Is exp  − 1 (2.2)
 kBT 

The derivation of these equations is beyond the scope of this course (it is
done in the basic solid state physics courses). Fig. 2.8 shows the I-V
characteristics of a p-n junction diode.

Fig. 2.8: I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode.

Note that for the first few tenths of a volt in forward bias, the current through
the diode is very small; the diode does not conduct. When the applied voltage
becomes greater than the barrier potential, (0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge), the
current through the diode starts increasing rapidly. The forward voltage at 41
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
which the flow of the current through the p-n junction of the diode
increases rapidly is called the knee voltage. When we extrapolate the
linear part of the forward bias characteristic curve to meet the x-axis, it
intercepts the x-axis at a point. The intercept gives the value of knee voltage.

Note that the I-V characteristic curve of the p-n junction diode is not a straight
line. We say that the p-n junction diode is a nonlinear device, that is, the
current through it does not vary linearly with applied voltage.

The slope of the curve in the region V > 0 gives the forward resistance.

When the diode is reverse biased, the current is very small (~ microamperes)
for voltages less than the breakdown voltage. At breakdown voltage, which
is the maximum reverse bias voltage that can be applied to a p-n junction
diode, the current increases rapidly. You have learnt about breakdown due to
impact ionisation in a semiconductor in Sec. 1.4.2 of Unit 1. This is called the
avalanche breakdown. Note that at this point of the curve, the breakdown
voltage remains almost constant for a large change in the current. You will
learn more about this in the next section. Let us now briefly discuss the
application of p-n junction diode as a rectifier. You will learn about it in detail in
Unit 12 of this course.

2.2.3 The p-n Junction Diode as a Rectifier

A large number of electronic circuits require dc voltage for operation. Usually,
the alternating voltage or ac from the mains supply is converted into direct
voltage or dc. The rectifier is a major component of such instruments
(Fig. 2.9), which converts an alternating current (ac) into direct current (dc).
Fig. 2.9 shows an ideal dc, which is obtained after filter circuits filter the output
of a p-n junction diode which is shown later in Fig. 2.10.

Rectifier
dc
ac

Fig. 2.9: A rectifier with p-n junction diodes and filters converts ac into dc.

One important application of a p-n junction diode is as a rectifier. You may

ask: How does a p-n junction diode act as a rectifier?

You have learnt in Sec. 2.2.2 that the p-n junction diode allows electric current
to flow in a circuit only in one direction when it is forward biased but not in
the opposite direction when it is reverse biased (the reverse saturation current
is extremely small). Here we consider an ideal diode for which the reverse
current is zero and the forward resistance is also zero. This unique property of
the p-n junction diode (stemming from its I-V characteristics) allows it to act
like a rectifier.

So, suppose a sinusoidal alternating voltage source is connected in the circuit

shown in Fig. 2.10. Then, during the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal
voltage, the p-n junction diode is forward biased and electric current flows
through the circuit.
42
Unit 2 Junction Diodes
During the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal voltage, the diode is reverse
biased and no current flows through the circuit.

Thus, current flows across the diode and in the circuit only for the half positive
cycle of AC input and the output of the diode is not an alternating signal (see
Fig. 2.10). Rather, it is a truncated signal. The output is not a direct current or
voltage. But this is just to give you an idea of how a p-n junction diode acts as
a rectifier. You will learn the details about this in Unit 12.

VS VL

Rectifier
t t

Fig. 2.10: Action of p-n junction diode as a rectifier; a sinusoidal input voltage is
converted to a unidirectional pulsating output voltage.

You may now like to revise the concepts of Sec. 2.2 before you study about
other diodes. Solve SAQ 1.

SAQ 1 - p-n Junction diode

1. What happens to the depletion region when the i) forward biasing

voltage, and ii) the reverse biasing voltage across a p-n junction diode is
increased?

2. A forward voltage of 0.5 V is applied across a Ge p-n junction diode. Will

current flow in the diode?

3. The knee voltage of GaAs is 1.2 V. When will a diode made of GaAs start
conducting?

Let us now study some other types of junction diodes.

2.3 OTHER JUNCTION DIODES

The zener diode is
In this section, you will learn about some other special purpose junction
named after Clarence
diodes, which have applications in many fields. These are: Zener diode, LED, M. Zener (1905 –1993)
solar cell and photodetector. For each one of these diodes, we explain their who was an
construction, working and I-V characteristics. American theoretical
physicist. He first
2.3.1 The Zener Diode described the
breakdown of electrical
The ordinary p-n junction diode about which you have studied in Sec. 2.2 insulators. His
does not operate in the breakdown region. But the zener diode is research on
designed for operation in the breakdown region. It is the mainstay of breakdown was used
later by Bell Labs to
voltage regulators as you will learn in Unit 12. Zener diodes are actually very
develop the zener
heavily doped p-n junction diodes made of silicon. In a zener diode, both diode.
p-type and n-type silicon are doped more heavily than in an ordinary
p-n junction diode. Its construction is like the p-n junction diode shown in 43
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
Fig. 2.3 except that the depletion region in the zener diode is very thin
(<1 micron) due to heavy doping. So, when a small reverse bias voltage of
about 5 to 6V is applied, the corresponding electric field in the depletion region
V 6V
of width d is very high: E = = = 6  10 6 V m −1 .
d −6
10 m

The I-V characteristics of a zener diode are shown in Fig. 2.11. Let us
understand the working of a zener diode that gives rise to these
characteristics.

In the forward region, the zener diode conducts current from around 0.7 V
(knee voltage for silicon) like a conventional p-n junction diode. At reverse
voltages between zero and breakdown voltage (the leakage region), a small
leakage current flows through the diode.

A zener diode is designed to operate in the breakdown region of its

I-V characteristics. Manufacturers vary the doping levels of silicon diodes to
manufacture zener diodes with breakdown voltages ranging from 2 V to
200 V.
I

Avalanche
Zener
Effect
Effect

Fig. 2.11: I-V characteristics of a zener diode.

Note that Fig. 2.11 shows two breakdown regions: Zener breakdown and
avalanche breakdown. These are different effects corresponding to different
breakdown voltages that result from the differences in doping levels. You have
learnt about the phenomenon of breakdown in Sec. 1.4.2 of Unit 1. The basic
physics is the same.

Zener breakdown

Let us understand: What happens when the p-side and n-side of the p-n
junction diode are doped heavily? Heavy doping of the p-n junction diode
results in a relatively thin depletion region. Why is it so?

This is because due to heavy doping, a large number of electrons and holes
diffuse and so, a large number of positively charged donor ions and
negatively charged acceptor ions accumulate near the junction. This results
in a strong electric field across the junction. Since the electric field is very
strong, only a thin depletion region is enough to prevent further diffusion of
electrons and holes across the junction.

Now, if we reverse bias the diode, the electric field in the depletion region
44 becomes much stronger, and generates electron-hole pairs in large numbers
Unit 2 Junction Diodes
in the diode. This causes a rapid increase in the diode current and results in
breakdown in the diode. You have learnt about this kind of breakdown due to
high electric fields in Sec. 1.4.2. So, even at lower reverse voltages of 2 or
3 V, minority charge carriers flow across the junction and increase the
reverse current.

This phenomenon of breakdown at lower reverse voltages is called zener

breakdown. Zener breakdown voltages are typically 2 V to less than 6 V.
Remember that zener breakdown takes place due to very strong electric
fields and a thin depletion region caused by heavy doping. However, the
increase in reverse current in zener breakdown is not as rapid and sudden as
in avalanche breakdown, which involves impact ionisation about which also
you have learnt in Sec. 1.4.2.

Avalanche breakdown

Zener diodes with less heavily doped p-type and n-type regions have wider
depletion layers and, therefore, higher breakdown voltages (greater than 6 V).
Notice in Fig. 2.11 that at voltages less than the reverse breakdown voltage,
small reverse leakage current flows. As the reverse voltage approaches the
reverse breakdown voltage, the electrons and holes ionised by the strong
electric field collide with other atoms creating more electron-hole pairs,
which ionise more atoms. This is the process of impact ionisation as you
know from Sec. 1.4.2. A large number of electron-hole pairs created by impact
ionisation result in a very rapid rise in the reverse current in the diode and
breakdown. This process is called avalanche breakdown.

Note from Fig. 2.11 that avalanche breakdown occurs at much higher voltages
than zener breakdown. Notice also that the avalanche breakdown region has (a)
a very sharp knee characterised by an almost vertical increase in reverse
current. Therefore, the voltage is almost constant over most of the breakdown Anode Cathode
region for a large range of reverse current. So, large changes in diode current
result in very small changes in diode voltage.
(b)
Note further that, in zener breakdown, electrons and holes are created due to
Fig. 2.12: a) An actual
very strong electric field. It does not involve impact ionisation, which occurs in zener diode; b) circuit
avalanche breakdown. symbol of a zener
diode.
So, when a zener diode is reverse biased and the source voltage is greater
than the breakdown voltage of the diode, its output voltage remains constant
for a large variation in current. That is what makes the zener diode suitable for
its application as a voltage regulator as you will learn in Unit 12. The symbol of
zener diode is shown in Fig. 2.12. You may now like to solve an SAQ to fix
these ideas about a zener diode.

SAQ 2 - Zener diode

Distinguish between a zener diode and a conventional p-n junction diode.

What is the main difference between the processes that lead to zener
breakdown and avalanche breakdown? Explain your answers.

45
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
Let us now discuss the light emitting diode or LED.

2.3.2 LED
An LED or light emitting diode is a p-n junction diode that emits light when
it is forward biased. You may like to know: How are LEDs constructed?
How do LEDs work?

LEDs are constructed using heavily doped p-n junction diodes made of
special compounds of semiconductors. Due to heavy doping, the depletion
Table 2.1: Some region in LEDs is very thin as you have learnt in Sec. 2.3.1. Electrons and
typical LED materials
holes recombine in the junction region and emit light because these materials
that give rise to
different colours
have band gaps suitable for light emission. We will explain this point shortly.
(wave lengths in nm) Some of these materials are listed in Table 2.1, along with the colours
produced by them in light from an LED.
LED Colour
material Depending upon the application, the desired colour and brightness of light,
Gallium Red efficiency, etc., manufacturers decide the size, material to be used, extent of
Phosphide doping of the LEDs, etc. Figs. 2.13a and b are schematic diagrams showing
(610 – 760)
the construction of an LED. Metal contacts are provided through wires
Gallium Yellow
Arsenide attached to the LED and then it is encased in a hard plastic shell, which also
Phosphide acts as a lens to focus the light emitted by the diodes (as in Fig. 2.13b).
(570-590)
Lens/case
Gallium Green Reflective cavity
Indium Light
Emission of light
Phosphide
(500-570)
Cathode
Indium Violet
Anode Anode p-layer
Active
gallium p region
Nitride n-layer
(400-450) substrate

n Recombination of Anode

Cathode electrons and holes

Negative terminal Positive terminal
at the junction
The most useful (a) (b)
semiconducting Fig. 2.13: a) Schematic diagram showing construction of LED; b) actual
materials for LEDs are construction schematic of an encased LED.
the ones with direct
band gaps. In such You may be wondering: Why materials other than silicon or germanium are
semiconductors, needed to construct light emitting diodes?
electrons and holes on
either side of the band The answer lies in the working of LEDs. Let us understand its working based
gap have the same on its structure shown in Fig. 2.13a. You have learnt about generation and
value of crystal recombination of electron-hole pairs in semiconductors and p-n junction
momentum and thus diodes. The energy of photons in the visible region corresponds to 2 to 3 eV.
direct recombination of
You can do the calculations of corresponding wavelengths yourself using the
electrons and holes is
possible. The detailed relation E = hc /  or work out SAQ 3e. Recall that you have done such
explanation of the calculations in BPHCT-137 and BPHET-141.
physics of direct band
gap semiconductors is In p-n junction diodes made of materials like gallium arsenide phosphide
beyond the scope of (GaAsP) and gallium phosphide (GaP) that have direct band gap (read the
this course. margin remark), energy is emitted in the form of light (rather than heat) when
electron-hole pairs recombine in the thin junction region. By suitably
46 doping semiconducting materials like gallium arsenide, phosphorus, LEDs that
Unit 2 Junction Diodes
radiate red, green, yellow, orange, violet light or infrared are produced. You
may have seen these colours in strings of LEDs in festival lights. If the
semiconductor is translucent (colourless), then light is radiated through the
junction. Such a junction diode becomes a source of light and is called a
light emitting diode (LED). Blue LEDs and the circuit symbol of an LED are
shown in Figs. 2.14a and b.

Let us explain the process of emission of light in detail with the help of the (a)
energy band diagram. LED is basically a forward biased p-n junction diode in
which the depletion region width and the resulting potential barrier across the Anode Cathode
junction are reduced. Electrons from the n-type region and holes from the
p-type region flow more readily across the junction into the opposite type
(b)
region. Thus, minority charge carriers are effectively injected across the
junction by the application of the external voltage and a current is formed. The Fig. 2.14: a) An actual
increased concentration of minority charge carriers in the opposite type region LED; b) circuit symbol
in the forward biased LED leads to recombination of charge carriers across of LED.
the band gap.

Fig. 2.15 shows this process for a direct band gap semiconducting material.
Note in Fig. 2.15 that the normally empty electron states in the conduction
band of the p-type material and the normally empty hole-states in the valence
band of the n-type material are populated with electrons and holes,
respectively. These injected charge carriers recombine across the band gap
and the energy released by this electron-hole recombination is equal to the
band gap energy. It is released as light in the visible region for suitable
semiconducting materials. An LED begins to emit light when voltage of more
than 2 or 3 V is applied in the forward direction.

Electrons
Potential barrier
Light

Band gap
Light

Holes

p-type n-type
Fig. 2.15: Energy band diagram showing emission of light in an LED.
Thus, spontaneous light emission by charge carrier recombination is the
working principle of an LED. The I-V characteristics of an LED are the same
as those of an ordinary p-n junction diode (see Fig. 2.11). However, LEDs are
operated only in the forward bias, never in reverse bias. If operated in
reverse bias, LEDs are damaged.

You may like to know: How are the colours in LEDs produced? Recall from the
physics course entitled Waves and Optics (BPHCT-137) that each colour of
light has a unique wavelength. The wavelength of light emitted by an LED
depends on the band gap of the semiconducting materials used for
constructing it.

47
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
The band gaps in LEDs correspond to energies of electromagnetic radiation in
the near infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet regions depending on their
applications. In fact, the light emitted from an LED is not monochromatic but
its spectral width is so small that our eyes perceive it as a single colour.

Initial LEDs were made from GaAs semiconductors, which emitted infrared
and red wavelengths. Continuous advances in materials science have
resulted in LEDs that emit light in a variety of colours used for lighting and
display purposes. Now-a-days, there are quantum dot LEDs. Recall that you
have learnt about quantum dots in Unit 9 of the course Elements of Modern
Physics (BPHET 141). You know that quantum dots are semiconductor
nanocrystals and can be tuned to emit any colour in the visible and infrared
radiation.

LEDs have many applications all around us: For general lighting in homes and
surroundings, in strings of festival lights, garden lights, automobile headlamps,
TV displays, traffic signals, camera flashes, advertising, medical devices,
Fig. 2.16: Applications
biological detection, water purification, etc. (see Fig. 2.16). LEDs are ideal for
of LEDs in automobile
lamps and for lighting high-speed data transmission (as in infrared remote controls and optical fibre
homes and streets. communications) or information display in small battery-powered devices.
Source of pictures: LEDs have almost replaced the incandescent bulbs for lighting due to their low
commons.wikimedia.org power consumption. Infrared LEDs have applications in burglar alarms, night
vision devices, etc.

You should now revise the ideas presented in this section by attempting
SAQ 3.

SAQ 3 - LED

Give short answers to the following questions:

a) Explain the process of emission of light by an LED.

b) List four semiconducting materials used for constructing LEDs.
c) Which region of the I-V characteristics do LEDs operate in? Why?
d) On what semiconductor parameter does the colour of the light
emitted by an LED depend upon? Explain.
e) What band gaps will produce green and violet lights having
wavelengths550 nm and 380 nm, respectively, in an LED?

We now introduce another very useful junction diode, the solar cell.

2.3.3 SOLAR CELL

The solar cell finds applications in solar energy generation. Solar cells are
arranged in large groups of thousands, called solar arrays, and used for
electricity generation. The arrays convert sunlight into electrical energy, which
is used everywhere in many cities to power homes, industries, markets and
other public places, transportation, etc. (see Fig. 2.17). In fact, entire cities in
the developed world run on solar energy produced by solar arrays.
48
Unit 2 Junction Diodes
So, the solar cell is a very useful junction diode, which converts sunlight
into electrical energy. It is manufactured in such a way that the voltage
developed across it can be used to provide electric supply. Or we can draw
current from it. Let us explain its construction, working and I-V characteristics.

Fig. 2.17: Solar arrays comprising thousands of solar cells.

Solar cells are p-n junction diodes constructed so that the side of the diode
exposed to the sunlight is very thin. So, if the n-side of the diode is exposed to
the Sun, the n-type layer is very thin on top of a thick p-layer (you will
understand why when you learn about the working of a solar cell). Suitable
metallic contacts in the form of thin wires for current flow or voltage tapping
are connected to the cell. The solar cell has an antireflective coating to reduce
reflection and enable maximum absorption of sunlight (see Fig. 2.18). The
solar cell is covered with a transparent film or toughened glass to allow light to
fall on it and to protect it from dust, rain, snow, etc. You can see an animation
of the process at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell#/media/File:Solartce3.gif

Sunlight falling on the cell

+ Anti reflecting
n coating
Load

p Generation of
electron-hole pairs

Fig. 2.18: Construction of a solar cell.

Initially, solar cells were made using silicon but these cells had a low efficiency
of 15%. Since the average energy of photons in the sunlight is about 1.5 eV,
GaAs is also used to manufacture solar cells because of its band gap, which (a)
is 1.42 eV. Later advances in materials science have led to solar cells made
up of organometallics having increased efficiency. However, silicon is still
used in large solar panels because it is inexpensive and rugged. Figs. 2.19a
and b show a close-up of a solar cell in a solar array and its symbol.

Let us now describe the working of a solar cell. In a solar cell, photons of (b)
energy equal to or more than the band gap of the semiconductor material are Fig. 2.19: a) A single
made to fall on the junction region of the diode to produce free electrons and solar cell; b) circuit
electron-hole pairs. You may ask: Why should light fall especially in the symbol of solar cell.
49
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
junction region? The answer is that if light were to fall in the n-region or
p-region, it would simply create electron-hole pairs that would recombine
immediately. But we would not like this to happen because then we would not
be able to create a significant potential difference across the diode.

What we wish to do is increase the barrier potential to a significant level to use

the diode as a voltage source. You will understand this point when you
understand what happens when photons fall in the junction region. Refer to
Fig. 2.18. When sunlight falls on the junction region through the thin n-layer,
and the energy of the photons is greater than the band gap, electrons are
freed from the covalent bonds; electron-hole pairs are created in the region.
These electron-hole pairs do not recombine immediately. Why?

It happens due to the barrier potential or the electric field across the junction.
Its polarity is such that electrons in the junction region move to the n-side and
holes move to the p-side of the diode (see Fig. 2.20a). So, the number of
electrons in the n-region increases making it more negative. Similarly, the
number of holes in the p-region increases making it more positive. What is the
result? A voltage is generated across the diode. This is known as
photovoltaic voltage because we are using photons to generate voltage:
[photo (from photons) + voltaic from voltage)]. The process in which light is
used to generate voltage is called the photovoltaic effect.

But can this movement of electrons to the n-region and holes to the p-region
continue forever? The answer is no, it cannot. This is because electrons that
accumulate in large numbers in the n-region will repel other electrons moving
to the n-side, and so will holes repel other holes entering the p-side. These will
move back towards the depletion region and recombine. So, the photovoltaic
voltage does not increase infinitely but is limited to a maximum value.
p-n junction
Light falling on p-n junction Holes Electrons
Holes Electrons +ve −ve
+ve −ve

p n

p n
ISC
Barrier potential of
LED
depletion region

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.20: a) Working of a solar cell; b) flow of current.
Now, what will happen if we attach two metallic contacts to the n- and p-ends
of the diode and connect them with a wire to some device, say, an LED?
Refer to Fig. 2.20b. Electrons will flow towards the positive side of the
potential barrier, setting up a current in the circuit and recombine with holes in
the p-region. But since sunlight is falling continuously on the junction,
electron-hole pairs will be continuously created and electrons will keep
flowing. This results in a continuous, constant current flow (ISC) in the circuit.
The LED will glow continuously! Notice that there is no external battery and
yet current is flowing in the circuit. How? This is because the solar cell is
50 itself a battery!
Unit 2 Junction Diodes
To sum up, photons falling in the depletion region create electron-hole
pairs. Before these charge carriers recombine, electrons move to the n-region
and holes to the p-region due to the strong electric field at the junction. Thus,
electrons accumulate in the n-region and holes in the p-region, resulting
in the photovoltaic voltage across the diode. When a device is connected
in a circuit across the diode, current flows in it.

Let us now understand the I-V characteristics of a solar cell shown in

Fig. 2.21. Initially the external voltage is zero, and so the circuit is an open
circuit. If we do not connect any wires, the circuit is open, the current is zero.
But you see that the p-end of the diode is positive. This is a forward bias. So,
when current is zero, we have a positive maximum photovoltaic voltage
across the diode. This is denoted by Voc . It is the maximum open circuit
voltage when the current through the solar cell is zero.

I
Dark current

Isc
V
Voc

Increasing light intensity

Fig. 2.21: I-V characteristics of a solar cell.

Now, we short-circuit the solar cell, that is, just connect a wire across its ends
by removing the LED in Fig. 2.20b. We see that a constant current flows in the
circuit. It is the maximum current in the circuit due to the solar cell’s
photovoltaic voltage.

This is called the maximum short-circuit current and we denote it by Isc . It

depends on the intensity of the incident sunlight. The more the numbers of
photons, higher is the maximum short-circuit current in the solar cell. This is
shown by other curves in Fig. 2.21.

Note that the maximum short-circuit current is flowing when the externally
applied voltage is zero. Why is it negative in the I-V characteristic curve?

Since electrons flow towards the n-end inside the solar cell, in the external
circuit, electrons flow from the n-end to the p-end to complete the circuit. This
is opposite to the case of the conventional p-n junction diode shown in
Fig. 2.6, where the electrons flow from the negative end of the battery towards
the n-end of the diode, and emerge out of the diode from its p-end. Hence, the
current flowing in the solar cell circuit is opposite (negative) as compared to
the forward biased p-n junction diode. Therefore, Isc is a negative current.

Now what will happen when we increase the externally applied voltage, which
forward biases the solar cell? The current in the solar cell will decrease since
the applied voltage is opposite to the photovoltaic voltage, and decreases the 51
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
potential difference across the solar cell. When the applied voltage equals the
photovoltaic voltage, current in the solar cell becomes zero. You may like to
end this section with an SAQ to fix these ideas in your mind.

SAQ 4 - Solar cell

a) What is a solar cell?

b) Explain the working principle of a solar cell, in brief.
c) State one difference in the materials used for making solar cell and LED.

2.3.4 Photodiode
A photodiode is the ordinary p-n junction diode that generates electric current
when light falls on it. Semiconducting materials such as Si, Ge, InGaAs, PbS
are used for making different types of photodiodes. A photodiode is
constructed to optimize its sensitivity to light incident on it for greater current
flow. It is also known as photodetector or photosensor. It operates in the
reverse biased mode and converts light energy into electrical energy.
The underlying principle of a photodiode is the photoelectric effect about
which you have studied in Unit 4 of the course BPHET-141. When light falls
on a reverse biased photodiode, electric current due to minority charge
carriers is generated in it. The photodiode is constructed as shown in
Fig. 2.22.
Radiation Silicon nitride
Anode coating

Diffusion mask
of silicon
p region p-n junction
dioxide
n region

Cathode
Fig. 2.22: Construction of a photodiode.

Actually, all p-n junction diodes can function as photodiodes when light falls on
them. You may ask: How? Let us explain the mechanism.

Recall from the discussion in Sec. 2.2 that the reverse current in a p-n junction
diode is largely made up of minority charge carriers. As you know these
carriers are generated at room temperatures or higher temperatures. At room
temperatures, valence electrons acquire enough thermal energy to break free
from covalent bonds in the semiconductor and electron-hole pairs are
produced. Although the lifetime of minority charge carriers is small, these
contribute to the reverse current while they exist.

Light energy has the same effect on generation of minority charge carriers as
thermal energy. When a beam of light of energy greater than the band gap of
the semiconductor is incident on a p-n junction diode, it can break covalent
bonds, and produce electron-hole pairs. The more is the light that falls on the
52 diode, the larger is the reverse current. So, the reverse current in the diode
Unit 2 Junction Diodes
depends on the number of photons of appropriate energy falling on it. The
reverse current is called the photocurrent.

In many p-n junction diodes, this is an unwanted effect as these will not
function correctly if they are illuminated by unwanted light of appropriate
energy that can produce reverse current. This is prevented by encasing them
in opaque packaging so that no electromagnetic radiation reaches the
junction.

Exactly the opposite is done in a photodiode. Photodiodes are constructed

with a window or optical fibre connection to allow light to reach the sensitive
region in the device. In actual construction, photodiodes may contain optical
filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or small surface areas.

Light falling on the photodiode produces free electrons and holes that
increase the reverse current through it. The larger the number of photons,
i.e., greater the intensity of light, greater is the number of minority charge
carriers produced, and larger is the reverse current. Typically, the reverse
current in photodiodes is of the order of tens of microamperes.

As you may have guessed by now, photodiodes operate in the reverse

biased region of the I-V characteristic curve, which is the same as Fig. 2.11
with a larger reverse current (see Fig. 2.23). Recall that in a reverse biased
diode, the p-side is connected to the negative terminal and the n-side to the
positive terminal of the power source or the battery. Remember that in most
applications of a photodiode, the reverse voltage is nowhere near the
breakdown voltage.

V (V) Reverse bias Forward bias

Dark current

Reverse current

I (A)

Fig. 2.23: I-V characteristics of a photodiode.

In Fig. 2.23, notice that the topmost curve is labelled as the dark current. This
is the small reverse current that flows when no light is incident on the
(a)
photodiode. Also, note that the reverse current increases as the intensity of
the incident light is increased.
Anode Cathode
To sum up, a photodiode is a p-n junction diode that converts light into
electrical current, which is generated when photons of appropriate energy are
(b)
incident on the p-n junction producing minority charge carriers. A photodiode
is also called a photo-detector, light detector and photo-sensor. Fig. 2.24 Fig. 2.24: a) A few
shows an actual photodiode and its symbol. actual photodiodes;
b) circuit symbol of
From this description, you can visualise many applications of photodiodes, photodiode.
53
wherein we need to convert light into an electrical current. Can you now see
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
that the solar cell is a large area photodiode? You may now like to revise
what you have learnt in this section. Try SAQ 5.

SAQ 5 - Photodiode

a) How is a photodiode different from an ordinary p-n junction diode?

b) Calculate the maximum wavelength of photons that can be detected by
a photodiode made by a semiconductor of band gap 3.0 eV.
c) What is dark current in a photodiode?
d) Does the photodiode operate in the breakdown region?

We end this section by listing a few applications of photodiodes. Photodiodes

are used in many electronic products around us such as compact
disc players, smoke detectors, infrared remote control devices used to control
televisions, air conditioners, camera light meters, medical devices, etc. One of
the commonest uses of photodiodes is in switching on street lights after dark,
or room lights when anyone enters it.

Photodiodes are also used as photodetectors in charge-coupled devices

(used to collect light from the stars in huge telescopes), photoconductors, and
photomultiplier tubes.

Let us now summarise the contents of this unit.

2.4 SUMMARY

Concept Description

p-n junction and ◼ A p-n junction is formed from a single intrinsic semiconducting crystal when
p-n junction diode, controlled amounts of donor and acceptor impurities are added to it. It has
barrier potential the following features:
and depletion
region • The boundary or interface between the n-type and p-type parts of the
crystal is called the p-n junction. A single p-n junction is a diode, which
is a two-terminal device formed by such doping.
• Due to the concentration gradient in the diode, diffusion of majority
charge carriers takes place across the p-n junction, which leads to the
accumulation of positive and negative ions near the junction. As a
result, an electric field is created near the junction preventing further
movement of majority charge carriers.
• The electrostatic potential associated with this electric field is known as
the barrier potential. The barrier potential makes the p-side negative
with respect to the n-side in the diode.
• Since movement of majority charge carriers across the p-n junction is
prevented by the barrier potential, it results in the formation of a region
near the junction where no mobile charge carriers are present. This
54 is known as the depletion region or space-charge region.
Unit 2 Junction Diodes

I-V characteristics ◼ The I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode have the following features:
of a p-n junction
diode • When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, that is, its p-side is
positive with respect to the n-side by the externally applied voltage, a
forward current typically of the order of a few milliamperes flows in the
diode for applied voltages of less than 1 V beyond the knee voltage.
The knee voltage is defined as the forward voltage at which the flow of
the current through the p-n junction of the diode increases rapidly. The
diode offers low forward resistance to the flow of current in
forward bias.
• When the p-side of the p-n junction diode is negative with respect to its
n-side, it is reverse biased. A very small leakage current or reverse
saturation current due to drift of minority charge carriers, of the order
of nanoamperes to microamperes for large values of the reverse
voltage flows in a reverse biased p-n junction diode. In reverse bias,
the diode offers high resistance to the flow of current. At
breakdown voltage, the maximum reverse bias voltage that can be
applied to a p-n junction diode, the current increases rapidly.
• Since a p-n junction diode allows current to flow only in one direction, it
can function as a rectifier, which is a device that converts ac into dc.
Zener diode ◼ Zener diodes are constructed like conventional p-n junction diodes made
of silicon but are very heavily doped, so that their depletion region is
thin giving rise to high electric fields across the junction. This results in the
following features of the I-V characteristics of a zener diode:
• In the forward region, the zener diode conducts current like a
conventional p-n junction diode. When the diode is reverse biased,
high electric field in the depletion region results in breakdown. A zener
diode operates in the breakdown region of its I-V characteristics.
• When a zener diode is reverse biased and the source voltage is greater
than the breakdown voltage of the diode, its output voltage remains
constant for a large variation in current making it useful for voltage
regulation.
• Breakdown occurs due to two mechanisms in the zener diode: Zener
breakdown, and avalanche breakdown.
• Zener breakdown occurs when the diode is reverse biased at typical
voltages of 2 V to less than 6 V. This happens because the reverse
bias increases further the high electric field in the thin depletion region,
which creates a large number of electron-hole pairs resulting in rapid
increase of current (breakdown).
• Avalanche breakdown occurs in less heavily doped p-n junction
diodes having wider depletion layers and, therefore, higher breakdown
voltages (greater than 6 V). It happens due to impact ionisation
caused by collisions of electrons freed by the high electric field, with
other atoms.

55
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices

LED (light ◼ An LED or light emitting diode is a p-n junction diode that emits light
emitting diode) when it is forward biased. It has the following features:
• LEDs are constructed using heavily doped p-n junction diodes, due to
which their depletion region is very thin. Energy is emitted in p-n
junction diodes in the form of light (rather than heat) when
electron-hole pairs recombine in the thin junction region.
• LEDs emit light because these are made of special type of
compound semiconductors with direct band gaps in the range 2eV to
3eV. The wavelength of radiation emitted by an LED depends on the
band gap of the semiconducting materials used for constructing it.
• LEDs can emit light of various colours in the visible region, and
radiation in near infrared and near ultraviolet regions.
• The I-V characteristics of an LED are the same as those of an ordinary
p-n junction diode. LEDs are always operated in the forward bias,
never in reverse bias. LEDs are damaged if operated in reverse
bias.
• LEDs are used in a variety of applications such as general lighting,
displays in devices, medical devices, biological detection, water
purification, high-speed data transmission, burglar alarms, night vision
devices, etc.
Solar cell ◼ The solar cell is a junction diode, which converts sunlight into
electrical energy. It is manufactured in such a way that the voltage
developed across it can be used to provide electric supply. Or we can draw
current from it. It has the following features:
• Solar cell is constructed so that the side of the diode exposed to the
sunlight is very thin. So, if the n-side of the diode is exposed to the Sun,
the n-type layer is very thin on top of a thick p-layer. The solar cell has
an antireflective coating to reduce reflection and enable maximum
absorption of sunlight. It is covered with a transparent film or toughened
glass to allow light to fall on it.
• In a solar cell, photons of energy equal to or more than the band gap of
the semiconductor material are made to fall specifically on the junction
region of the diode. Photons of appropriate energy produce free
electrons and electron-hole pairs in the depletion region. The electron-
hole pairs do not recombine immediately because the barrier potential
drives electrons in the junction region to the n-side and holes to the
p-side of the diode making the n-region more negative and the p-region
more positive. Thus, a voltage is generated across the diode, which is
called the photovoltaic voltage. The process in which light is used
to generate voltage is called the photovoltaic effect. A load
connected to the solar cell allows flow of current in the circuit.
• When the external voltage is zero, and no wires are connected across
the solar cell terminals, the circuit is an open circuit. There is a
positive maximum open circuit photovoltaic voltage (Voc ) across

56 the diode when the current in it is zero. This is a forward bias

Unit 2 Junction Diodes
voltage. When the solar cell is short-circuited, and the externally
applied voltage is zero, a constant maximum short-circuit current
(Isc ) flows in the circuit, which increases with the intensity of the
incident sunlight.
• When the solar cell is forward biased by an external voltage, the current
in the solar cell decreases since it is opposite to the photovoltaic
voltage, and decreases the potential difference across the solar cell.
When the applied voltage equals the photovoltaic voltage, current in the
solar cell becomes zero.

Photodiode ◼ A photodiode is the ordinary p-n junction diode that generates electric
current when light falls on it. It operates in the reverse biased mode
and converts light energy into electrical energy. It is also known as
photo-detector, light detector and photo-sensor. It has the following
features:
• Photodiodes are constructed with a window or optical fibre connection
to allow light to reach the sensitive region in the device. In actual
construction, photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and
may have large or small surface areas.
• A beam of light of appropriate energy incident on a reverse biased
photodiode produces electron-hole pairs and increases the reverse
current. This reverse current is called the photocurrent and it increases
with the intensity of light. Typically, the reverse current in photodiodes is
of the order of tens of microamperes.
• In most applications of a photodiode, the reverse voltage is much
less than the breakdown voltage.
• Photodiodes are used as light sensors in many electronic products, in
charge-coupled devices, as photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.

2.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain the rectifier action of a p-n junction diode on the basis of its I-V
characteristics.
2. Fill in the blanks in the following Table:

Junction diode Usually constructed of Bias useful for intended

which materials applications
p-n junction diode
Zener diode
LED
Solar cell
Photodiode
3. a) Using appropriate words or phrases, fill in the blanks in the following
statements about zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown:
57
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
Zener breakdown occurs at .....V, whereas avalanche breakdown
occurs at .....V. Zener breakdown occurs in ..........doped p-n junction
diodes having ...... depletion regions, whereas avalanche breakdown
occurs in ....... doped p-n junction diodes having ......... depletion
regions. Zener breakdown occurs due to.......................Avalanche
breakdown occurs due to........................
b) Explain briefly how the I-V characteristics of a zener diode suggest its
use for voltage regulation.
4. a) Which materials are used for constructing LEDs, and why?
b) Draw the I-V characteristics of an LED.
5. Give short answers to the following questions:
a) Why is the top layer in a solar cell thin?
b) How does a solar cell function like a battery?
c) Explain the terms open circuit voltage and short circuit current for a
solar cell. When are their values maximum?
d) Why does the short circuit current increase in a solar cell with the
intensity of light?
6. Explain the underlying principle of a photodiode. What features in its
construction are responsible for its function as a photodiode?
7. Write the name of the junction diode against each of the applications
listed below:
a) TV display..............
b) Converting AC into DC……………….
c) Providing energy for lighting, heating, etc………….
d) Detecting fire with smoke………………
e) Protecting appliances by keeping voltages constant for fluctuations in
power supply………………….
f) Collecting light in huge telescopes………….
g) Water purification………..
h) Provide energy for transportation………….

2.6 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions

1. a) The depletion region width i) decreases when the forward biasing

voltage across a p-n junction diode is increased and ii) increases when
the reverse biasing voltage across it is increased.
b) The knee voltage of a Ge p-n junction diode is 0.3 V. So, current will
flow when the external bias is 0.5 V.
c) A diode made of GaAs will start conducting when its forward biasing
58 voltage exceeds the knee voltage 1.2 V.
Unit 2 Junction Diodes
2. The following features distinguish a zener diode from a conventional
p-n junction diode:
• Their doping. The zener diode has heavily doped p and n regions
compared to a conventional p-n junction diode, which results in a thin
depletion region compared to the normal diode.
• The conventional p-n junction diode allows current to flow only in one
direction while zener diode allows current to flow in both directions (in
the reverse direction beyond the breakdown voltage).
• The conventional p-n junction diode operates at far lower reverse
biasing voltages than the breakdown voltage but the zener diode is
operated at breakdown voltages.
The main difference between zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown
is as follows:
• Zener breakdown is caused at lower voltages (2 V to less than 6 V)
due to high electric fields caused by the thin depletion region in the
diode. The electric field frees electrons from the covalent bonds and
thus creates electron-hole pairs leading to large currents and
breakdown.
• Avalanche breakdown occurs at much higher voltages (> 6 V) due to
impact ionization. Since the depletion region is wider due to less heavy
doping, electrons freed by the high electric field collide continually with
atoms in the semiconducting material and generate a large number of
electron-hole pairs leading to breakdown.
3. a) When electron-hole pairs in the very thin depletion region of heavily
doped forward biased p-n junction diode (LED) recombine, energy is
emitted in the form of light. This happens because semiconducting
materials like gallium arsenide phosphide, gallium phosphide, etc. used
to construct LEDs have direct band gaps suitable for light emission.
Thus, LEDs that radiate red, green, yellow, orange, violet light, near
infrared and near ultraviolet radiations can be produced.
b) The four semiconducting materials used for constructing LEDs are:
Gallium Phosphide, Gallium Arsenide Phosphide, Gallium Indium
Phosphide and Indium Gallium Nitride. Of course, there are many
more materials that are used for producing LEDs.
c) LEDs operate in the forward biased region of the I-V characteristics.
This is because when the LED is forward biased, electrons and holes
are injected into the region across the junction and recombine to emit
light. In the energy band model, we say that spontaneous emission of
light occurs due to recombination of charge carriers across the band
gap.
d) The colour of the light emitted by an LED depends upon the band gap
of the semiconducting material used to manufacture it. If the band gap
equals the energy corresponding to the specific wavelength of the
colour of light, that colour is emitted.
e) The wavelength of green and violet colours in light are 550 nm and
380 nm, respectively. Using the expression E = hc /  and substituting
59
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
the values of h, c (from the Table of Physical Constants given at the
end of this block) and , we get the band gap for green light as:
6.63 10−34  3.0 108 3.6 10−19
E = J = 3.6 10−19 J = = 2.25 eV
550 10−9 1.6 10−19
Band gap for violet light is:
6.63 10−34  3.0 108 5.2 10−19
E = J = 5.2 10−19 J = = 3.27 eV
380 10−9 1.6 10−19
4. a) The solar cell is a p-n junction diode which converts sunlight into
electrical energy. It is constructed so that the side of the diode exposed
to the sunlight is very thin. So, if the n-side of the diode is exposed to
the Sun, the n-type layer is very thin on top of a thick p-layer. The
sunlight is made to fall on the junction region, which leads to the solar
cell functioning as a battery.
b) When sunlight falls on the junction region through the thin n-layer, and
the energy of the photons is greater than the band gap, electron-hole
pairs are generated in the region. Due to the polarity of the barrier
potential across the junction, these electrons and holes do not
recombine in the junction region. Rather electrons move to the n-side
and holes move to the p-side of the diode thereby generating a
potential difference across the diode.
c) The main difference in the materials used for making a solar cell and
an LED is that the LEDs are made of special semiconducting materials
with direct band gaps of 2 V to 3 V corresponding to energies in the
visible, near infrared and near ultraviolet regions. Solar cells are largely
made up of silicon, which has a band gap of 1.12 eV.
5. a) A photodiode is different from an ordinary p-n junction diode in that it
generates electric current when light falls on it. An ordinary p-n junction
diode generates current at thermal energies.
b) The maximum wavelength of photons that can be detected by a
photodiode made by a semiconductor of band gap 3.0 eV is calculated
from E = hc /  with E = 3.0 eV . Substituting the values of h, c and E,
we get:
hc 6.63 10−34  3.0 108
= = m = 4.110−7 m = 410 nm
−19
E 3.0  1.6 10
Note that we have converted eV into joules for this calculation.
c) Dark current in a photodiode is the small reverse current that flows
when no light is incident on the photodiode.
d) The photodiode does not operate in the breakdown region.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Fig. 2.11. It shows clearly that appreciable current flows in the p-n
junction diode when it is forward biased. When it is reverse biased, the
current through it is very small. So, a p-n junction diode allows current to

60
Unit 2 Junction Diodes
flow only in one direction and can be used as a rectifier that converts ac
into dc.
2. Refer to the following Table:

Junction diode Usually constructed of which materials Bias useful for intended
applications
p-n junction diode Si, Ge, GaAs Both forward and reverse
bias but at reverse voltages
less than breakdown
voltages
Zener diode Si Reverse bias at breakdown
voltages
LED Gallium Phosphide, Gallium Arsenide Only in the forward bias
Phosphide, Gallium Indium Phosphide,
Indium Gallium Nitride and many more
materials with appropriate direct band gaps
Solar cell Largely Si Forward bias
Photodiode Si, Ge, Indium Gallium Arsenide, Lead Reverse bias
Sulphide
3. a) Zener breakdown occurs at 2V to less than 6V, whereas avalanche
breakdown occurs at more than 6V. Zener breakdown occurs in heavily
doped p-n junction diodes having very thin depletion regions, whereas
avalanche breakdown occurs in less heavily doped p-n junction diodes
having wider depletion regions. Zener breakdown occurs due to
electron-hole generation caused by high electric fields whereas
Avalanche breakdown occurs due to due to electron-hole generation
caused by impact ionization in high electric fields.
b) At the breakdown voltage in the reverse biased region of the I-V
characteristics of a zener diode, voltage remains constant for a large
variation in current. So, even if the current varies by large amounts, the
voltage across the load connected in parallel with the zener diode
remains constant. Therefore, it can be used for voltage regulation.
4. a) Some examples of semiconducting materials used for constructing
LEDs are: Gallium Phosphide, Gallium Arsenide Phosphide, Gallium
Indium Phosphide and Indium Gallium Nitride because these materials
have direct band gaps suitable for emission of radiation in the visible,
near infrared and near ultraviolet regions which lend them to specific
applications of LEDs.
b) See Fig. 2.11 in the forward biased region.
5. a) The top layer in a solar cell is thin so that sunlight falling on it reaches
the junction region without creating electron-hole pairs in the n- or
p-region constituting the top layer, so that electron-hole pairs are
created only in the junction region.
b) A solar cell functions like a battery due to the following process:
When sunlight falls on the junction region of a solar cell through its thin
top layer, and the energy of the photons is greater than the band gap, 61
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
electron-hole pairs are created in the region. These electron-hole pairs
do not recombine immediately because of the polarity of the barrier
potential, which makes electrons in the junction region to move to the
n-side and holes to the p-side of the diode. So, the number of electrons
in the n-region increases, making the n-end of the solar cell more
negative and the number of holes in the p-region increases making it
more positive at its p-end. Thus, a voltage is generated across the
diode. The solar cell functions as a voltage source or a battery from
which current can be drawn across a load.
c) Open circuit voltage in a solar cell is the voltage across the solar cell
when no wires connect its two terminals, and its value is maximum
when the current through the solar cell is zero. Short circuit current in a
solar cell is the current due to its photovoltaic voltage when the cell is
short circuited by joining wires to its terminals. It is maximum when the
externally applied voltage is zero.
d) The short circuit current increases in a solar cell with the intensity of
light because the number of photons falling on the junction increases
with the intensity of light. Hence, the number of electron-hole pairs
created increases resulting in an increase in the current.
6. The underlying principle of a photodiode is based on the photoelectric
effect. The photoelectric effect is that when light of appropriate energy
falls on a metal, it leads to emission of electrons from metals, which
constitute a current. Similarly, when light of appropriate energy (greater
than or equal to the band gaps) falls on a reverse biased photodiode, it
generates electrons and holes, which are available for conduction. And
so, current flows in the photodiode. Photodiodes are constructed like
conventional p-n junction diodes. But whereas conventional p-n junction
diodes are packaged in opaque casings to prevent light falling on them,
photodiodes are constructed with a window or optical fibre connection to
allow light to reach the sensitive region in the device. A photodiode may
also contain optical filters, built-in lenses to facilitate its functioning.
7. a) TV display: LED
b) Converting ac into dc: conventional p-n junction diode
c) Providing energy for lighting, heating, etc.: Solar cells in solar panels
d) Detecting smoke: Photodiode
e) Protecting appliances by keeping voltages constant for fluctuations in
power supply: Zener diode
f) Collecting light in huge telescopes: Photodiode
g) Water purification: LEDs
h) Provide energy for transportation: Solar cells in solar panels

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