KPR INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

U21PH201 MATERIAL SCIENCE

UNIT – I: CONDUCTING MATERIALS

Classical free electron theory - expression for electrical conductivity - thermal conductivity –
Wiedemann-Franz law - Drawbacks-Fermi distribution function-density of energy states
CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY:

 This theory was developed by Drude and Lorentz.

 According to this theory, a metal consists of electrons which are free to move about
in the crystal molecules of a gas it contains mutual repulsion between electrons is
Ignored and hence potential energy is taken as zero.
 Therefore the total energy of the electron is equal to its kinetic energy.
 In the absence of electric field (E=0), the free electrons in meta move in random
directions and collide with each other.
 During this collision no loss of energy is observes since the collisions are elastic.
 When electric field is applied, (E  0 ) the free electrons are accelerated in the direction
opposite to the direction of applied electric field, as shown.

BASIC TERMS INVOLVED IN THE FREE ELECTRON THEORY:

Drift Velocity (Vd):

The drift velocity is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electron in
particular direction, due to the applied electric field.

Average dis tan ce travelled by the electron

Drift Velocity 
Time taken

Vd  (ms 1 )
t
Mobility (  ):

The mobility is defined as the drift velocity (Vd) acquired by the electron per unit

electric field (E).

Vd 2 1 1
 m V s
E
Mean free path (  ):

The average distance travelled by an electron between two successive collisions.

  c c
c  Root mean square veleocity.
Collision time ( c ):

The time taken by the free electron between two successive collisions.

c 
v
 Relaxation time (  ):
The time taken by the electron to reach equilibrium position from disturbed position in

the presence of electric field.

 Dis tan ce travelled by electron 

  
vd  Drift velocity 
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY:
Definition

The electrical conductivity is defined as the quantity of electricity flowing per unit area per unit
time at a constant potential gradient.

Expression for electrical conductivity:

 When an electric field (E) is applied to a conductor the free electrons are
accelerated and give rise to current (I).

 The current flowing through a conductor per unit area in unit time is given
by (Current density) of electrons is

J n vd ( e)
J n e vd ....................................................(1)
n number of electrons per unit volume

e charge of the electrons.

Drift Velocity (Vd )

Accelaration of an electron due to electricfield a
Relaxation time ( )

Vd
a =

vd a ...............................................(2)
The force experienced by the electron due to electric field is
 F e E.........................................................(3)
From Newton 's second law of motion, the force acquired by
electrons can be written as
F m a...........................................................(4)
Comparing Equation 3 & 4
eE ma
eE
a .......................................................(5)
m
Substituting equation (5) in equation (2)
eE
vd ................................................(6)
m
Substituting equation (6) in equation (1)
eE
J n ( e)
m
n e2 E
J ....................................................(7)
m

According to point form of ohm 's law: J E

J Current density
Electrical conductivity
E Electric field
J
The electrical conductivity ( ) ..................................(8)
E
Subsitute J value from equation (7)
n e2 E
mE
n e2
electrical conductivity ( ) ....................................(8)
m

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (K):

Definition:

The thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of heat flowing through an unit

area per unit temperature gradient.

Consider a metal bar with two planes A and B separated by a distance „2 ‟ from C.
Here T1 is hot end and T2 is cold end. ie., T1 > T2
The amount of heat conducted by the rod from end A to B is

K A(T1 T2 ) t
Q ............................................(1)
2

Q Coefficient of thermal conductivity

A Area of cross sec tion of the rod.
T1 T2 Temperature difference between A &B

t Time for conduction

mean free path
Q.2
K ..............................................(2)
(T1 T2 )
Let as assume that there is equal probability for the electrons to move in all the six
directions.

Then, on average of 1/6 nv electron will travel in any one direction.

v Thermal velocity of free electron

n Free electron density

Number of electrons crossing per unit area in unit time at C is

1
C
n v......................................................(3)
6
From kinetic theory of gases
1
Kinetic energy of electron at A m v2
2
3K B T1
2

1
Kinetic energy of electron at B m v2
2
3K B T2
2
KB Boltzmann constant

The heat energy transferred per

unit area per unit time from A to B = number of electrons Average K.E of electron
moving from A to B

1 3
n v. K B T1
6 2
1
n v K B T1....................................(4)
4

The heat energy transferred per unit area per unit time from end B to A

1 3
n v. K B T2
6 2
1
n v K B T2 ....................................(5)
4

The net heat transferred from A to B per unit area per unit time across „C‟ is

1 1
Q n v K BT1 n v K BT2
4 4
1
Q n v K B (T1 T2 )...........................(6)
4

Substituting equation 6 in equation

1 n v K B (T1 T2 ).2
K
4 (T1 T2 )
n v KB
K ........................................(7)
2

For metals, Re laxation time ( ) Collision time ( c )

v ...........................................................(8)

Substituting equation (8) in equation (7)

n v KB v
K
2
n v2 K B
K ...................................(9)
2
WIEDEMANN-FRANZ LAW AND LORENTZ NUMBER

The ratio between the thermal conductivity (K) and electrical conductivity (σ) of a metal
is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal.

K
LT

K Thermal conductivity
Electrical conductivity
T Absolute temperature
L Lorentz number
n v2 K B
K 2
n e2
m
K m v2 K B 1 3
2
(K.E of an electron m v 2 KB T
2e 2 2
2
K 3 KB
T
2 e
2
3 1.38 10 23 8 2
L L 1.12 10 W K
2 1.602 10 19

SUCCESS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

It is used to
 verify Ohm‟s law.
 explain electrical conductivity (σ) and thermal conductivity (K) of metals.
 derive Widemann-Franz law.
 explain the optical properties of metal.

DRAWBACKS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY:

 It is a macroscopic theory.

 According to classical free electron theory, all the free electrons will absorb energy, but
the quantum free electron theory states that only few electrons will absorb energy.
 This theory cannot explain the Compton effect, Photo-electric effect, para- magnetism
and ferromagnetism, etc.,
 This theory cannot explain the electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators.
  The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific heat are not
matched.

K
 According to classical free electron theory, is constant at all temperature but

experimental values shows that it is not constant.

QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY:

Somerfield developed a new theory in which he included some of the features of classical
free electron theory along with quantum mechanical concepts and fermi dirac statistics. It
is a microscopic theory.

POSTULATES OF QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

 The available free electrons are fully responsible for electrical conduction in metal.
 The electrons move in a constant potential inside metal.
 They cannot come out from the metal surface.
 The electrons have wave nature.
 Quantum free electron theory obey Fermi-Dirac statistics
 The velocity and energy distribution of the electron is given by Fermi-Dirac
distribution function
 The loss of energy occurs due to interaction of free electron with the other free
electron.
 Electrons are distributed in various energy levels according to Pauli‟s Exclusion
principle.

FERMI DIRAC STATISTICS

 The particles are indistinguishable.

 Electrons which obey fermi dirac statistics are called as fermions.
 Each energy state can have only one particle with one spin.
 The number of energy state should be greater than or equal to no. of particles.
 The total energy of system is the sum of all energies of particles.

FERMI ENERGY AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Fermi energy level is the maximum energy level up to which the electrons can be filled at
0K.
IMPORTANCE
 It acts as a reference level which separates the vacant and filled states at 0K.
 It gives the information about the filled electrons states and empty states.
 At 0 K, electrons are filled below Fermi energy level and above Fermi energy level
 it will be empty.
 When temperature is increased, few electrons gain the thermal energy and it goes
to higher energy levels.

FERMI FUNCTION:

The distribution of electrons among the energy levels as a function of temperature, the
probability of finding an electron in a particular energy state of energy E is given by

1
F(E)
E EF
1 exp
K BT
F(E) Fermi distribution function
E Energy of the level being occupied
E F Fermi Energy
KB Boltzmann Constant
T Absolute Temperature

Effect of temperature on Fermi Function

At 0 K and E E F At 0 K and E EF At 0 K and E EF

E E F Means E E F ve E E F Means E EF ve E E F Means E EF 0
1 1 1
F(E) F(E) F(E)
1 exp( /0) 1 exp( /0) 1 exp(0/0)
1 1
1 F(E) F(E)
F(E) 1 exp ( ) 1 exp (0)
1 exp ( )
1 1 1 1
1 F(E) 0 F(E) 0.5
F(E) 1 1 exp ( ) 1 exp (0) 1 1
1 0 F(E) 0% F(E) 50%
F(E) 100 % It means that 0% probability for It means that 50% probability
It means that 100% probability the electrons not to be filled for the electrons to occupy the
for the electron to be filled within the fermi energy level. Fermi energy level.At 0 K
within the fermi energy level energy states above E F are
empty and below E F are filled.

Variation Fermi function with temperature:

  Fermi function shows that at 0 Kelvin all the energy states below EF0 are filled and
all those above it are empty.
 When the temperature is raised slowly from absolute zero, the fermi distribution
function smoothly decreases to zero as shown.
 This is due to the supply of thermal energy within the range of KBT. The electrons
below the fermi level take the energy and goes to higher energy state.
 Hence at any temperature (T), empty states will also be available below EF0.

DENSITY OF STATES:

 The Fermi function gives only the probability of filling up of electrons on a given
energy state. It does not give the information about the number of electrons that
can be filled in a given energy state.
 In order to fill the electrons in an energy state we should know the number of
available energy states so called density of states.

 Density of state is defined as the number of energy states per unit volume in an
energy interval of a metal. It is used to calculate the number of charge carriers per
 unit volume of any solid.
Number of energy states between E and E dE Z(E)dE
N(E)dE
Volume of the metal V

 To find the energy levels in a cubical metal piece and to find the number of
electrons that can be filled in the given energy level, let us consider a sphere of
radius „n‟ in the space.
 The sphere is further divided into many shells and each of the shell represents a
particular combination of quantum numbers and therefore represents a particular
energy value.
 Let us consider two energy values E and E+dE. The number of energy states
between E and E+dE can be found by finding the number of energy states between
the shells of radius n and n+dn.
 Since nx,ny and nz will have only positive values, we have to take only one octant
of the sphere. (1/8th of sphere volume)
1 4 3
The number of energy states within a sphere of radius 'n ' due to an octant n ..........(1)
8 3
The number of energy states within
1 4
a sphere of radius n dn due to an oc tan t (n dn)3 ................................................(2)
8 3
The number of available energy states between the shells of radius „n‟ and „n dn‟ is
1 4
Z(E) dE (n dn)3 ......................................(3)
8 3
The number of availablestates with in the energy dE is
1 4 4 3
Z(E) dE (n dn)3 n
8 3 3
1 4
Z(E) dE n3 3n 2dn 3n dn 2 dn 3 n3
8 3
1 4
Z(E) dE 3n 2dn 3n dn 2 dn 3
8 3
Since the higher powers of dn is very small, dn 2 and dn 3 terms can be neglected.
1 4
Z(E) dE (3n 2dn) ........................................(4)
8 3
n 2 dn
Z(E) dE
2
n ndn
Z(E) dE ..................................................(5)
2
The allowed energy level value(Particle in a box)
n2 h2
E ...................................................(6)
8m L2
2 8m L2 E
n
h2
1
8m L2 E 2
n ..........................................(7)
h2
h2
dE 2 n dn
8m L2
8m L2
n dn dE...............................................(8)
2h 2
Substitute equation (7) & (8) in equation (5)
1
2
8m L E 2
8m L2
Z(E) dE dE
2 h2 2h 2
3
8m L2 2 1
2
Z(E) dE E dE.................................(9)
4 h2
L3 Volume of metal piece (L3 1 Per unit volume)
3
8m 2 1 2
The number of available energy states per unit volume Z(E) dE E dE......(10)
4 h2
Each energy level consists of 2 electrons with different spin (P auli exclusion principle)
3
8m 2 1
Density of states Z(E) dE 2. E 2 dE
4 h2
3
8m 2 1
Z(E) dE E 2 dE......................................................................(11)
2 h2
PART-A

1. Define Drift velocity of electrons.

2. Define mobility of electrons.

3. Define mean free path.

4. Define Collision time and relaxation time.

5. What are the Sources of resistance in metals?

6. Distinguish between Electrical conductivity and Thermal conductivity.

7. Distinguish between relaxation time and collision time.

8. Give the postulates of classical free electron theory.

9. What are the drawbacks of classical free electron theory?

10. List the success of classical free electron theory?

11. State Widemann-Franz law.

12. Define Fermi level, Fermi energy and this importance.

13. Write the Fermi function and give its importance.

14. Sketch the Fermi distribution curve at 0 K and at any temperature T K (or) how does
Fermi function varies with temperature?

15. Give the microscopic form of ohm‟s law.

Part-B& C

1. Describe the classical free electron theory of metals and derive an expression for
electrical conductivity.
2. Deduce an expression thermal conductivity of a metal.
3. Explain widemann-Franz law and deduce Lorentz number.
4. What are demerits of classical free electron theory?
5. What is density of states? Derive an expression for density of states in a metal.
6. Describe Fermi-Dirac statistics and explain how Fermi function varies with
Temperature.
 UNIT –II SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS

Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor– carrier concentration in n-type and p-type

semiconductors (Qualitative) –Applications of semiconductors–Solar Cell-LED-Hall
effect –Hall effect and its experimental determination.
INTRODUCTION:

A semiconductor has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator.

PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS:

1. The resistivity of semiconductors lies between a conductor and an Insulator.

(It various from 10-4 to 0.5  m).

2. At 0 K it behaves as insulator.

3. They have negative temperature Coefficient of resistance. (when the temperature is

increased large number of charge carriers are produced due to breaking of covalent bonds
and hence these electrons move freely and gives rise to conductivity).

4. In semiconductors, both electrons and holes are charge carriers.

  e   h
e  Conductivity due to electron
h  Conductivity due to hole

5. If we increase the temperature of semiconductor, its electrical conductivity also

increases.

6. They have an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band 0 K.

7. They are formed by a covalent bonds.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Based on the purity, semiconductor is classified into two types.

1. Intrinsic semiconductors or Elemental semiconductors

2. Extrinsic semiconductors or Compound semiconductors.

Intrinsic semiconductors:

 A pure semiconductor without any impurities is known as an intrinsic

semiconductor.Example: Ge, Si (In the form of pure)
 These are made from single element. They also known as indirect band gap
 semiconductors.
 These are the IV group element in the periodic table.
Compound Semiconductors:

 The Compound Semiconductor is a semiconductor compound composed of

elements from two or more different groups of the periodic table.
 They also known as direct band gap semiconductors. i.e., III – V group, II – VI
group and IV – VI group. Example : GaAs, GaP,

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE TYPE OF IMPURITY:

i) N-type semiconductor
ii) P-type semiconductor
Difference between N-type and P-type semiconductor

S.No N-Type P-Type

1 It is donor type It is acceptor type
2 Impurity atom is pentavalent Impurity atom is trivalent
3 Donor level lies close to the Acceptor level lies close to the top of the

bottom of the conduction band valence band.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ELEMENTAL AND COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS

S.No Elemental Semiconductors Compound Semiconductors

These are made from single element. These are made from compound
(mixed) element.
1
2 These are made from IV group These are made from III and V [or] II and VI
and VI group elements elements.
3 These are called as indirect band gap These are called as direct band gap
semiconductor (electron-hole semiconductor (electron-hole recombination
recombination takes place through traps) takes place directly)
4 Heat is produced in the recombination Photons are emitted during
recombination
5 Life time of charge carriers is more Life time of charge carriers is less due to
due to indirect recombination direct recombination.
6 Current amplification is more Current amplification is less.
7 These are used for making diodes, These are used for making LED, laser
transistor, etc. diodes, etc.
8 Example : Si,Ge, etc., Example: GaAs, InP, etc.,

CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Intrinsic semiconductor: Pure form of semiconductor

 At 0 K pure semiconductors behave as insulator.

 Temperature above 0 K  electrons move from valance band to conduction band.
 Intrinsic semiconductor  Conductivity due both electrons in conduction band & holes
in valance band.

Density of electrons in conduction band (ne)

ne Z(E).F(E) dE...............................................(1)
Ec

Ec Minimum energy of conduction band.

Maximum energy for conduction band
3
8m*e 2 1
2 dE................................( 2)
Z(E) dE E
2 h2
Z(E) Density of states.
m*e Mass of free electron in conduction band.
Equation 2 can be written as
3
8m*e 2 1
2 dE.........................(3)
Z(E) dE E Ec
2 h2
From Fermi function (Pr obabilty of finding electron )
1
F(E ) ..............................................(4)
E EF
1 exp
K BT
EF Fermi Energy
KB Boltzmann Constant
T Absolute Temperature
Substituting equation (3) & (4) in equation (1)
3 1
8m*e 2
E Ec 2
ne 2
.dE.........................(5)
2 h E c 1 exp
E EF
K BT
 E EF E EF E EF
exp 1 so 1 exp exp
K BT K BT K BT
3 1
8m*e 2
E Ec 2
ne .dE
2 h2 Ec exp
E EF
K BT
3 EF E
8m*e 2 1
2e K BT
ne E Ec .dE.............................(6)
2 h2 Ec

Let E Ec x K BT
E Ec x K BT dE K BT dx
Limits : When E Ec ; x 0 & When E ;x
Equation (6) becomes
3 E F E c x K BT
8m*e 2 1
2e K BT
ne 2
x K BT K BT .dx
2 h Ec
3 3 E F Ec
8m*e 2 1 2 K BT
ne x) 2 (K
BT e e x .dx
2 h2 Ec
3 E F Ec
8m*e K BT 2
K BT 1
2 e x .dx
1
2 e x .dx
ne 2
e ( x) ( x)
2 h Ec Ec
2

3 E F Ec
8m*e K BT 2
K BT
ne e
2 h2 2
3 E F Ec
1 8m*e K BT 2
K BT
ne e
4 h2
Density of electrons in conduction band
3 E F Ec
2 m*e K BT 2
K BT
ne 2 e .....................(7)
h2

DENSITY OF HOLES IN VALENCE BAND:

F(E)  Pr obability of filled state (electron)
1  F(E)  Pr obability of unfilled state (hole)
Density of holes in valence band (n h )
Ev
nh   Z(E).1  F(E) dE ................................................................(8)

  Minimum energy of valence band & E v  Maximum energy for valence band
3
  8m*h  2
 Ev  E 
1
Z(E) dE   2 
2 dE.............................................(9)
2 h 
 E  EF 
exp 
1  K BT 
1  F(E)  1  
 E  EF   E  EF 
1  exp   1  exp  
 K BT   K BT 
E  EF  E  EF 
 1  1  exp   1
K BT  B 
K T
 E  EF 
1  F(E)  exp   .........................................................(10)
 K BT 
Substituting F(E) & Z(E) in equation (1)
3
  8m*h  2 E v  E  EF 
 2    E v  E  2 exp 
1
nh   dE.................(11)
2  h    K B T 
Let E v  E  x K BT
E  E v  x K BT
dE  K BT dx
Limits : When E  ; x  
When E  E v ; x  0
Equation (4) becomes
3
  8m*h  2 E v  E v x K BT  E F 
 2    K BT  2 exp    K BT  dx
1
nh 
2  h    K B T 
(Limit interchanged  ve sign get cancelled)
3
 8m*h  2 
 1  E  EF  x
 K BT 
3
nh 
2
 2   x 2 2 exp  v
 K BT 
 e dx
 h  Ev
3
  8m*h K BT   E  EF    1 
  x 2 e  x dx   
2 1
nh 
2

h2
 exp  v
 K BT 
 x 2 e x dx
E 2 
  Ev  v 
 3
  8m*h K BT  2
 E  EF  
nh    exp  v 
2  h2   K BT  2
3
1  8 m*h K BT   E  EF   32  3 
 
2 1 1
n h    exp  v  8  8 8  2
2 1 3
8   2 2 8
2 1
4 h2   K BT    
Density of holes in valence band
3
 2 m*h K BT  2
 E  EF 
n h  2   exp  v  .................................................(12)
 h2   K B T 

Variation of Fermi energy level and carrier concentration with temperature in an

intrinsic semiconductor.

From equation (7) & (12)

 E F Ec   E v E F 

m   
3   3  
2  K BT  2  K BT 
*
e e  m*h e
 E F Ec 
3  
 m*h  2
e B 
K T
  
m*e  E v E F 
   
e B 
K T

3  E F Ec E v  E F 
 m*h  2  
 e 
K BT
 * 
 me 
3  2E F  E c  E v 
 m*h  2  
 *   e 
K BT

 me 
Take log on both sides
  2E F Ec E v  
3  m*h   
  log  e
K BT
log  *

2  me   
 
3  m*h  2E F  E c  E v
log  *  
2  me  K BT
3  m*h 
2E F  E c  E v  K BT log  * 
2  me 
Ec  E v 3  m*h 
EF   K BT log  * 
2 4  me 
E  Ev
At T  0  E F  c
2
 Intrinsic carrier concentration (Law of mass action)

3 3
 2 m*e K BT  2
 E F  E c   2 m*h K BT  2
 E  EF 
n i2  n e n h  2  2  exp   2   exp  v 
 h   K BT   h2   K BT 
3
 2 K BT 
 
3
4  Eg /K BT
n i2  4 * *
 me m h e ................................................................(13)
 h 2

3
 2  K BT 
 
2 3
4  E g /2K BT
ni  2   m*e m*h e ............................................................(14)
 h2 
Equation (13) law of mass action (Product of n e n h  n i2  cons tan t)

MOBILITY AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INTRINSIC

SEMICONDUCTOR:

 The electrical conductivity (  ) of an intrinsic semiconductor in terms of mobility of

charge carrier is

i  n i e(e   h )..............................................................(15)
n i  Intrinsic carrier concentraion
e  Ch arg e of an electron.
e  Mobility of electrons.
 h  Mobility of holes.
CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS IN N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

N-Type Semiconductor:

 If pentavalent (Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony) impurities are doped with

pure semiconducting material the free electrons are produced.
 Each impurity atom donates one free electron. Thus this type of semiconductor
is called as N-type semiconductor.

Density of electrons in the intrinsicsemiconductor is

3
 2  m*e K B T  2  EF  EC 
ne  2  2  exp   ...................................................(1)
 h   K BT 
m*e  Effective mass of electron.
K B  Boltzmann cons tan t.
h  Planck 's cons tan t.
T  Absolute temperature.
E C  Conduction energy level.
E F  Fermi energy level.
E d  Energy of the donar level.

Let N D  Number of donar ions.

Density of holes in the donar level is
N(E d )dE  Z(E d )dE 1  F(E d ) 

1
n h  N D 1  ....................................................................(2)
 Ed  EF 
1  exp  
 K BT 

 E  EF 
1  exp  d 1
 K BT 
n h  ND
 E  EF 
1  exp  d 
 K BT 

Donar level is below fermi level E d  E F / K BT  1

 E  EF 
n h  N D exp  d  .............................................................................(3)
 K BT 

 Number of electrons per unit   Number of holes per unit volume 

 volumein conduction band [1]   in donar energy level [3] 
  
 3
 2  m*e K B T  2  E  EC   Ed  EF 
2 2  exp  F   N D  exp  
 h   K BT   K BT 
 E  EC 
exp  F 
 K BT   ND
 Ed  EF   2  m *
K T 
3
2
exp   e B
 K BT 
2  h2 
 
 E  EC  Ed  EF  ND
exp  F   3
 K BT   2  m*e K B T  2
2 
 h2 
 2E  E C  E d  ND
exp  F   3
 K BT   2  m*e K B T  2
2 
 h2 

Take log on both sides

  2E  E C  E d   ND
Log  exp  F    Log 3
  K B T   2  m*e K B T  2
2 
 h2 

2E F  E C  E d ND
 Log 3
K BT  2  m*e K B T  2
2 
 h2 
ND
(2E F  E C  E d )  K BT Log 3
 2  m*e K B T  2
2 
 h2 

ND
2E F  E C  E d  K BT Log 3
 2  m*e K B T  2
2 
 h2 

E c  E d K BT ND
EF   Log 3
.................(4)
2 2  2  m*e K B T  2
2 
 h2 
Substitute the value of equation (4) in equation (1)
   
  
  E c  E d K BT ND  
  Log 3   EC 
 2 2  2  m*e K B T  2  
3
 2   
 2  m*e K B T  2   h2  
ne  2  2  exp  

 h 
 
 K BT 
 
 
 
 

 
3  
 2  m*e K B T  2  E  Ed  2 EC K T ND 
ne  2  2  exp  c  B Log 3 
 h  
2 K BT 2 K BT  2  m*e K B T  2 
 2  
  h2  

 
3  
 2  m*e K B T  2  E  Ec 1 ND 
ne  2  2  exp  d  Log 3 
 h  
2 K BT 2  2  m*e K B T  2 
 2  
  h2  

  
3   1 
 2  m*e K B T  2  Ed  Ec    Nd 2 
ne  2   exp    exp  Log 3 
 h2   2K BT    1 2m K T 
* 4

e B
  2 
2
2  
   h  

3 1
 2  m*e K B T  2  Ed  Ec  ND 2
ne  2   exp   3
 h2   2 K BT  1 2  m*e K B T  4
2  2

 h2 

3
3 4

2  2  m*e K B T  2  2  m*e K B T 
1  E  Ec 
ne  1 ND 
2
   exp  d 
2 2  h2   h2   2 K BT 

3
 2  m*e K B T  2  E  Ec 
ne   2 ND 
1
2
 2  exp  d 
 h   2 K BT 
 E d  E c  E, E  Ionization energy
3
 2  m*e K B T  4  E 
ne   2 ND 
1
  exp   .......................................(5)
2
2
 h   2 K BT 

Variation of Fermi level with Temperature and impurity concentration for N-Type
semiconductor:

Ec  Ed
1.At T  0 K, E F  , thefermi level in n type semiconductor lies exactly
2
at the middle of the donar level and the top of the conduction band.

2) When temperature increases, some of the electrons move from valence band to donor
energy level [ED]. Therefore the Fermi level shifts upward. At high temperature 500 K,
the Fermi level reaches intrinsic level ED.

3) If the impurity atoms are increased from 1021 atoms /m3 to 1024 atoms / m3, the electron
concentration increases and hence the Fermi level decrease.

CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

P-Type Semiconductor:

 If trivalent (Aluminium, Gallium, Indium) impurities are doped with pure

semiconducting material the holes are produced.
 Thus each impurity atom hole is ready to accept an electron. Thus this type of
semiconductor is called P-type semiconductor.
Density of holes in the valence band is
3
 2  m*h K B T  2  E  EF 
nh  2  2  exp  V  ...................................................(1)
 h   K BT 
m*h  Effective mass of hole.
K B  Boltzmann cons tan t.
h  Planck 's cons tan t.
T  Absolute temperature.
E V  Valance energy level.
E F  Fermi energy level.
E a  Energy of the acceptor level.
Let N A  Number of acceptor ions.
Density of electrons in the acceptor level is
N(E a ) dE  Z(E a ) dE F(E a )
 1
ne  NA  ....................................................................(2)
 Ea  EF 
1  exp  
 K BT 
Acceptor level is above fermi level E a  E F  1
1
ne  NA  .........................................................................(3)
 Ea  EF 
exp  
 K BT 
 Number of holes per unit   Number of electron per unit volume 
 volumein valence band [1]   in accepter energy level [3] 
  
3
 2  m*h K B T  2  E  EF  1
2  exp  V   NA 
 h 2
  K BT   E  EF 
exp  a 
 K BT 
 E  EF   Ea  EF  NA
exp  V   exp    3
 K BT   K BT   2  m*h K B T  2
2 
 h2 
 E  EF  Ea  EF  NA
exp  V   3
 K BT   2  m*h K B T  2
2 
 h2 
 E  E a  2E F  NA
exp  V   3
 K BT   2  m*h K B T  2
2 
 h2 
Take log on both sides
  E  E a  2E F   NA
Log  exp  V    Log 3
  K B T   2  m*h K B T  2
2 
 h2 
E V  E a  2E F NA
 Log 3
K BT  2  m*h K B T  2
2 
 h2 
NA
(E V  E a  2E F )  K BT Log 3
 2  m*h K B T  2
2 
 h2 
 NA
 2E F   E V  E a  K BT Log 3
 2  m*h K B T  2
2 
 h2 
E V  E a K BT NA
EF   Log 3
.................(4)
2 2  2  m*h K B T  2
2 
 h2 
Substitute the value of equation (4) in equation (1)

  
  
  E V  E a K BT NA 
 EV   2

2
Log 3 
   2  m*h K B T  2  
3
  2  
 2  m*h K B T  2   h2  
nh  2   exp 
 h 2
  
 
 K BT 
 
 
 
 

 
3  
 2  m*h K B T  2  2 E  EV  Ea K T NA 
nh  2  2  exp  V  B Log 3 
 h  
2 K BT 2 K BT  2  m*h K B T  2 
 2  
  h2  

 
3  
 2  m*h K B T  2  EV  Ea 1 NA 
nh  2  2  exp   Log 3 
 h  
2 K BT 2  2  m*h K B T  2 
 2  
  h2  
  
3   1 
 2  mh K B T 
* 2
 EV  Ea    NA 2 
nh  2   exp  2 K T  exp  Log 3 
 h2   B   1 2m K T 
* 4

h B
  2 2
 
   h2  
 3 1
 2  m*h K B T  2  E  Ea  NA 2
nh  2  2  exp  V  3
 h   2 K BT  1  2  m*h K B T  4
2 
2

 h2 
3
3 4

2 1  2  m KB T   2  m KB T 
* 2 *
 E  Ea 
nh  1
NA 2  h
  
h
exp  V 
2 2  h2   h2   2 K BT 
3
 2  m*h K B T  2  EV  Ea 
n h   2 NA  
1
  
2
exp
 h2   2 K BT 
E V  E a  E, E  Ionization energy
3
 2  m*h K B T  4  E 
n h   2 NA 
1
2
 2  exp   .......................................(5)
 h   2 K BT 

Variation of Fermi level with Temperature and impurity concentration for P-Type
semiconductor:

EV  Ea
At T  0 K, E F  , thefermi level in p type semiconductor lies
 2
exactly at the middle of the acceptor level and the top of the valance band.
 When temperature increases, some of the electrons from valence band will go to
acceptor energy level [EA]. Therefore the Fermi level shifts upward. At high
temperature 500 K, the Fermi level reaches intrinsic level Ei.
 If the impurity atoms are increased from 1021 atoms /m3 to 1024 atoms / m3 the hole
concentration increases and hence the Fermi level decrease.
APPLICATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTORS:

 Semiconductors are used to make diode, transistor, LED, solar cell etc.,
 , Temperature sensors used in air conditioners are made with semiconductors.
 CPUs that operate personal computers are also made with semiconductors.
 Many digital consumer products in everyday life such as mobile phones / smart
phones, digital cameras, televisions, washing machines, refrigerators
and LED bulbs also use semiconductors.
 Semiconductors play a central role in the operation of bank ATMs, trains, the
internet, communications.
 The number of car-mounted semiconductor devices has been increasing steadily.
SOLAR CELL

 A solar cell is basically a P-N junction diode which converts solar energy (light
energy) into electrical energy.
 Common materials for solar cells includes silicon, gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
indium Arsenide (In As) and cadmium Arsenide (Cd As).& the most common is
silicon.
 For silicon, the band gap (the energy necessary to transfer an electron from the
upper valence level to the conduction band) is 1.12 eV.
 The maximum theoretical efficiency of a solar cell depends on this band gap. For
silicon, the maximum efficiency is 22%.
Construction:

 A solar cell consists of P-N junction diode made of Si [Fig. (a) &(b) gives the
schematic symbol of a solar cell.
 The inward arrow indicates the incoming light. The P-N diode is packed in a can
with glass window on top so that light may fall upon P and N type materials.
 The thickness of the P-region is kept very small so that electrons generated in this
region can diffuse to the junction before recombination takes place.
  Thickness of N-region is also kept small to allow holes generated near the surface
to diffuse to the junction before they recombine.
 A heavy doping of P and N regions is recommended to obtain a large photo
voltage.
 A nickel plated ring is provided around the P-layer which acts as the positive
output terminal. A metal contact at the bottom serves as the negative output
terminal.
Working

 The working of a solar cell may be understood from Fig.

 When light radiation falls on a P-N junction diode, photons collide with valence
electrons and impart them sufficient energy enabling them to leave their parent
atoms. Thus electron-hole pairs are generated in both the P and N sides of the
junction.
 These electrons and holes reach the depletion region W by diffusion [(a)] and are
then separated by the strong barrier field existing there.
  However, the minority carrier electrons in the P-side slide down the barrier
potential to reach the N-side and the holes in the N-side move to the P-side
[Fig.(b)].
 Their flow constitutes the minority current which is directly proportional to the
illumination and also depends on the surface area being exposed to light.
 The accumulation of electrons and holes on the two sides of the junction [Fig.(c)]
gives rise to an open circuit voltage Voc which is a function of illumination.
 The open-circuit voltage produced for a silicon solar cell is typically 0.6 volt and
the short-circuit current is about 40 mA /cm2 in bright noon day sun light.
Characteristics

Typical V-I characteristics of a solar cell, corresponding to different levels of illumination

are shown in Fig. Maximum power output is obtained when the cell is operated at the
knee of the curve.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

 A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a junction diode which emits light when it is
forward biased. The principle behind LED is electroluminescence.
 The process of injecting electrons and holes into the n-type and p-type materials is
known as injection electroluminescence.
Principle

 Electrons are charge carriers in a semiconductor and it absorbs energy when an

electric energy is applied.
  The total energy of the charge carrier electrons increases and hence, they are
excited to the higher energy state (E2).
 The excited electrons in the higher energy states stay there only for a few seconds
and after the mean lifetime eventually return back to the ground state energy level
(E1).
 During this process, a spontaneous emission of the radiation of light takes place.
The energy of the emitted photon (hν) is equal to the energy of band gap (Eg) of
materials, i.e.,
Eg h
hc
Eg

1.24
( m).....................................(1)
Eg

Equation (1) indicates that the wavelength of emitted photons depends on the energy gap
in the semiconductor.

 Thus, the energy gap of a semiconductor plays a major role in selecting a suitable
material for LED applications. The type of material is also an important factor to
be considered for the materials selection.
Operation

 LED is a forward biased p-n junction diode. When it is forward biased suitably, it
emits visible light.
 During the forward biasing, the charge carriers namely, electrons and holes, are
injected respectively into the anode and cathode regions.
  The recombination of the charge carriers, namely, the electrons from the n-side
and the holes from the p-side, takes place at the junction.
 During the recombination, the difference in the energy is given up in the form of
heat and light radiation, i.e., photons.
 The energy of light radiation depends on the strength of recombination. Thus, the
diode current controls electroluminous efficiency of the LED.
 The emitted light is very small in intensity and is of the order of microampere
range.
 The emitted light colour depends on the types of materials used. For example,
materials like GaAs, GaP and GaAsP are used to produce infrared, red or green
and red or yellow colours.

HALL EFFECT:

When conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current is placed in a

transverse magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction
normal to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as “Hall
effect” and the generated voltage is called “Hall voltage”.
Hall effect in n-type semiconductor Hall effect in p-type semiconductor

Let us consider n-type semiconductor in which Let us consider p-type semiconductor in which
current flows along x-direction (Left to right) & current flows along x-direction (right to left) &
magnetic field is applied along z- direction. magnetic field is applied along z- direction.

Hall voltage is developed along -y-direction. Hall voltage is developed along +y-
direction.

Due to applied magnetic field electron move

Due to applied magnetic field hole move
towards downward direction.
towards downward direction.
Electrons move (right to left) with velocity v &
Holes move (right to left) with velocity v &
accumulate on face 1, potential difference is
accumulate on face 1, potential difference is
established between face 1 & face 2.
established between face 1 & face 2.
Force due to potential difference   e E H .... 1
Force due to magnetic field   Bev .  2 
e  Ch arg e of electron
E H  Hall field
v  Velocity of electrons
B  Magnetic field
 At Equilibrium eqn 1  eqn  2  Force due to potential difference  e E H .... 1
 e E H   Be v Force due to magnetic field  Bev .  2 
e  Ch arg e of hole
E H  B v.......................(3)
E H  Hall field
Current density in x  direction is
v  Velocity of holes
J x  n e ev
B  Magnetic field
Jx
v ........................(4) At Equilibrium eqn 1  eqn  2 
ne e
e E H  Be v
Substituting eqn (4) in eqn (3)
BJ E H  B v....................(3)
E H  x .........................(5)
ne e Current density in x  direction is
 1  J x  n h ev
EH  R H Jx B  RH   
 ne e  J
v  x ......................(4)
R H  Hall coefficient negative for nh e
n  type semiconductor.(Voltage developed in  ve Substituting eqn (4) in eqn (3)
y direction) BJ
E H  x .....................(5)
nh e
 1 
EH  R H Jx B  H
R  
 nh e 
R H  Hall coefficient  ve for p  type
semiconductor. (Voltage developed in
 ve y direction)

Hall experiment:
 Let us consider a semiconductor slab with thickness„t‟ and breadth „b‟. Current is passed
through the semiconductor along the x-direction with the help of battery.

 The current is measured with the help of ammeter.

 A rheostat (variable resistor) is connected in the circuit to control current passing
through the semiconductor.
 The slab is placed between the pole of an electromagnet.(current -x-axis & magnetic
field-z-axis).

 The hall voltage (VH) is generated and measured by placing two probes at the center
of the top and bottom faces of the slab (y-axis) using multimeter.

 If B is the magnetic field applied & VH  Hall voltage produced, then Hall
coefficient
VH b
RH 
Ix B

Applications of Hall Effect:

1. The sign (N-type (or) P-type) of charge carriers can be determined.

2. The carrier concentration of semiconductor can be determined.
 1   1 
ne     and n h   
 e RH   eRH 
3. It is used to find the mobility of charge carriers. (Electrons & holes)
4. It is used to design magnetic flux meters and multipliers on the basis of hall
voltage.
5. It can be used to determine the power flow in an electromagnetic wave.
Part-B

1. Define intrinsic semiconductor. Give examples.

2. List the properties of semiconductor.
3. Distinguish between direct band gap and indirect band gap semiconductors
4. Compare donor impurities and acceptor impurities.
5. What is meant by compound semiconductor? Give an example.
6. Explain the concept of holes in semiconductor.
7. State law of mass action.
8. What happens when the temperature increase in the case of semiconductor
and conductor?
9. Write the expression for electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor.
10. Give the carrier concentration of an intrinsic semiconductor.
11. Compare N-type and P-type semiconductors
12.Write the expression for carrier concentration in N-type semiconductor.
13.Write the expression for carrier concentration in P-type semiconductor
14. What is pair production in semiconductor?
15. List the applications of Hall effect.
16. What is called radiative recombination?
17. List out the materials responsible for the color of emitted light in LED
Part-C

1. Compare elemental and compound semiconductors or Compare direct band gap

and indirect band gap semiconductors.
2. Derive the expression for the number of electrons per unit volume in conduction
band of N-type extrinsic semiconductor.
3. Describe the variation of the Fermi level with temperature and impurity
concentration in case of N-type semiconductor.
4. What is Hall Effect? Obtain an expression for hall coefficient in n-type and p-type
semiconductors
5. Describe an experimental setup to determine the Hall coefficient.
6. Describe with the help of a relevant diagram, the construction of an LED and
explain its working.
7. Describe with the help of a relevant diagram, the construction of solar cell and
explain its working.
 UNIT – III: MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Origin of magnetism- Dia, para, ferro magnetic materials- domain theory- soft and hard
magnetic materials- Magnetic bubble memories-GMR sensor
INTRODUCTION:

Magnetic materials play a prominent role in modern technology. They are widely used in
electronics and computer industries. Many electrical devices such as inductors,
transformers, rotating machines and ferrite antennas are based on utilizing the magnetic
properties of materials. The soft and hard magnetic properties of materials are used in
computer data storage. Magnetic materials are those substances when placed in an
external magnetic field also become source of a magnetic field. The magnetic materials
are broadly classified into three groups, namely diamagnetic, paramagnetic and
ferromagnetic materials.

ORIGIN OF MAGNETIC MOMENTS:

The magnetic properties of solids arise due to the presence of atomic dipoles which give
rise to magnetic dipole moments. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a substance are
a consequence of magnetic moments associated with individual electrons. Each electron
in an atom has magnetic moments that originate from the following two sources.

1. Orbital magnetic moment of electrons

2. Spin magnetic moment of electrons.

Magnetic moments associated with an orbiting electron and a spinning electron is shown
Basic Definitions:

1. Magnetic Dipole Moment (M)

The dipole moment is defined as the product of magnetic pole strength and length of the
magnet.

2. Magnetic Field

The space around which the magnetic lines of forces exist is called as magnetic field.
Magnetic field is produced by permanent magnets such as a horse shoe magnet and
temporarily by electromagnets (or) superconducting magnets.

3. Magnetic Lines of Force:

The continuous curve in a magnetic field that exists from north pole to south pole is called
as magnetic lines of force.
4. Magnetic Induction (B) (or) Magnetic Flux Density

It is the number of magnetic lines of force passing through unit area of cross section.

 Wb
B or Tesla
A m2

5. Magnetic Field Strength (or) Magnetizing Field (H)

It is the force experienced by a unit North Pole placed at a given point in a

magnetic field.

H
m

F N
wb 
6. Magnetic Flux (  )

The total number of magnetic lines of force passing through a surface. Unit : Weber.

7. Intensity of Magnetization (I)

Magnetization is the process of converting a non-magnetic material in to a magnetic

material.

M m. m
It is also defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume. I    weber / m2
V .a a
8. Magnetic Permeability (  )

It is ratio of the magnetic induction (B) to the applied magnetic field intensity (H).

B
  0  r 
H

Unit: Henry m–1

It is the measure of ability of the material to permit magnetic lines of force.

9. Relative Permeability (  r )

It is defined as the ratio of permeability of the medium to the permeability of the free
space


r 
0

10. Magnetic Susceptibility (  )

It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization (I) and intensity of magnetic field
(H)

I

H

The sign and magnitude of  are used to determine the nature of the magnetic materials.

11. Bohr Magnetron (  B )

The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an atom
can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment called as Bohr magnetron.

e
1 Bohr magneton   9.27 1024 A 2
2m m

12. Relation between susceptibility (  ) and Relative permeability (  r )

 when a current is supplied through a coil, magnetic field is developed. When a magnetic
material is placed inside an external magnetic field, the magnetic flux density (B) arises
due to applied magnetic field (H) and also due to the induced magnetization (I).

B  0 (H  I)
B  H
 H  0 (H  I)
 I
 0  r H   0 H 1  
 H
 r 1  

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

The magnetic materials are classified into two categories:

1. The materials without permanent magnetic moment

Example: 1. Diamagnetic materials.

2. The materials with permanent magnetic moment.

Example: 1. Paramagnetic materials

2. Ferromagnetic materials

3. Anti-Ferromagnetic materials

4. Ferrimagnetic materials.

COMPARISON OF DIA, PARA AND FERRO-MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Diamagnetic material Paramagnetic material Ferromagnetic material

1. Definition
Electron orbits are Para magnetism  presence of Ferromagnetism  presence
randomly oriented& the few unpaired electrons which of more unpaired electrons.
orbital magnetic moments gives rise to the spin magnetic
get cancelled. moment.
Absence of external field,

 Magnetic moments align

All the spin moments are Absence of external magnetic
parallel to each other. So that
paired & the electrons are field,  Magnetic moments
it has large magnetism 
spinning in two opposite (dipoles) are randomly oriented
spontaneous magnetization.
directions. & possess very less
magnetization.
Net magnetic moment is
zero.

2. Dipole alignment.

Weak magnets Strong Magnets Very Strong Magnets

When external magnetic When external magnetic field is When external magnetic field
field is applied to the applied to the paramagnetic is applied to the ferromagnetic
diamagnetic material, material, electron will align material, electron will already
electron will align parallel to field direction and align parallel will reorient
perpendicular to field magnetization of the material itself along the field direction
direction and increases. and magnetization of the
magnetization of the material increases.
material decreases.

3. Behavior of magnetic flux lines.

 Magnetic flux lines are highly
attracted by ferromagnetic
material.
Magnetic lines of force pass
Magnetic flux lines are through the materials.
repelled away from the
material.

superconducting property.

4. Susceptibility
susceptibility is negative Susceptibility is positive Susceptibility is high positive

5. Temperature Dependence
Susceptibility Susceptibility varies inversely susceptibility depends upon
with absolute temperature. temperature
 independent to
temperature& applied field C C
 (Curie  Weiss Law)  (Curie  Weiss Law)
strength. T T
C  Curie cons tan t C  Curie cons tan t
T  Absolute temperature T  Absolute temperature
  Curie temperature   Curie temperature

6. Permeability
Permeability < 1 Permeability >1 Permeability >>1

7. Magnetic phase Transition

Temperature > the critical Temperature <Curie Temperature >Curie
temperature  temperature, paramagnetic temperature,  Ferromagnetic
diamagnetic becomes  materials  diamagnetic material  paramagnetic
normal material. materials. material.

(Curie temperature:
temperature below which a
material becomes
ferromagnetic material &
above material becomes 
paramagnetic

8. Example

Examples : Platinum, CuSO4 Examples: Nickel, iron,

,MnSO4 , Aluminum, etc Cobalt, Steel, etc.
Examples : Gold,
germanium, silicon,
antimony, bismuth,

DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

 Ferromagnetic domains: A single crystal of ferromagnetic material is divided

into large number of small region called domains.
 Spontaneous magnetization of ferromagnetic material is due to parallel alignment
of spin magnetic moment in each domain even in the absence of external magnetic
field. The direction of spontaneous magnetization varies domain to domain and is
oriented in such way that the net magnetization of the specimen is zero.

Magnetization in ferromagnetic material occurs by means of two ways.

Spontaneous magnetization 1.Domain wall movement 2. Domain wall rotations.

(Absence of magnetic field) (Weak magnetic field) (Strong magnetic field)
When weak magnetic field When strong magnetic field
Molecular magnets in
is applied to the specimen is applied then the
ferromagnetic materials have
the magnetic moment magnetization changes
parallel alignment in a small
increases and hence towards the direction of
region (domain) in the absence
boundary of domains or applied magnetic field by
of external magnetic field-
domain wall is displaced. means of rotation.
Spontaneous magnetization.
  Domain in ferromagnetic is based on thermodynamic principle that in equilibrium
the total energy of the system is minimum.
 The total energy of the domain comprises the sum of following energies.
1. Exchange energy
2. Anisotropy energy
3. Domain wall energy
4. Magneto-strictive energy.

1. Exchange energy or magnetic field energy

 Exchange energy: interaction energy which makes adjacent dipoles to align

themselves.
 The energy required to assembling atomic magnet in a single domain and this work
done is stored as potential energy.
 Magnetic energy can be reduced by dividing the specimen.
 The process of subdivision may be carried further, until the reduction of magnetic
energy is less than the increase in energy to form another domain and its boundary.
2. Anisotropy energy
 In ferromagnetic crystal there are two directions of magnetization
 (i) Easy direction (ii) Hard direction

 In easy direction weak magnetic field applied can be applied (ex: iron [100] ) and
hard direction strong magnetic field is applied (ex: iron [111] ) to produce
saturation magnetization.
 Anisotropy energy  Excess energy required to magnetize the specimen along
hard direction over the easy direction.
3. Domain wall energy:

 Domain wall: Transition layer which separates adjacent domains magnetized in

different direction.
 Energy of domain wall is due to Exchange energy & anisotropic energy.
 Thick wall-Spin at the boundary are misaligned and if the direction of
spin changes gradually. (Exchange energy involved)
  Thin wall-Spin at the boundaries changes abruptly, then anisotropic
energy becomes very less. (Anisotropic energy is directly proportional to
thickness of wall)
4. Magneto-strictive energy
 When the ferromagnetic domains are magnetized in different directions,
they will either expand or shrink.
 The change in dimension of the material, when it is magnetized is known as
magnetostriction and energy produced in this effect is magnetostriction
energy.
 Ex: Ni – length increases & permalloy the length increases.

HYSTERESIS

 M vs H curve of ferromagnetic material.

 Hysteresis  lagging of magnetization behind magnetic field.

 Retentivity  residual magnetism after H is removed.

 Coercivity  Reverse magnetic field to remove residual magnetism.

Explanation of hysteresis on the basis of domains:

  Movement of domain walls  small external magnetic field.
 Reversible domains  Domain boundaries returned after magnetic field removed.
(OA)
 Magnetic field increased.
 Irreversible domains  Domain boundaries not come back to original position.
(AB)
 Rotation of domains   if H increased after domains magnetized, domain
rotation.(BC)

S.No Basics of Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials or

Difference permanent magnetic materials.

1 Definition The magnetic materials that can be The magnetic materials that can
easily magnetized and demagnetized retain their magnetism even after
are known as soft magnetic removal of external magnetic
materials. field, and are difficult to
magnetized and demagnetized are
known as hard magnetic materials.

2 Movement of Movement of domain wall is easy & Domain wall does not move
domain walls hence for small applied H large easily and require large value of
magnetization occurs. H for magnetization.
3 Area of Hysteresis loop area is small Hysteresis loop area is large
hysteresis
 loop

4 Hysteresis Soft magnetic materials store less Due to large area of hysteresis loop,
loss energy in the magnetic field. the hysteresis loss in case of hard
magnetic materials is high.

5 Susceptibility Susceptibility and Permeability Susceptibility and Permeability

and values are high. values are small.
Permeability
6 Retentivity & Retentivity and Coercivity are Retentivity and Coercivity are
Coercivity small. Large
7 Energy Soft magnetic materials store less Hard magnetic materials can store
Stored energy in the magnetic field. high energy in the magnetic field
8 eddy current Due to low value of electrical Hard magnetic materials have low
loss resistance of soft magnetic electrical resistance. As a result,
materials. These materials have less the eddy current loss in these
eddy current loss. materials is high.
9 Examples: Iron-silicon alloy, Examples: Alnico, Chromium
Ferrous nickel alloy, Ferrites steel, tungsten steel, carbon steel.
Garnets.
10 Applications Electro magnets, computer Permanent magnets, DC
data storage. Transformer core. magnets.

MAGNETIC BUBBLE MEMORIES

 Magnetic bubble is direct access storage medium, magnetic bubbles are soft
magnetic materials with magnetic domains of a few micrometers in diameter. (2-30
m )

Construction:
  A magnetic Bubble memory consist of thin film of ferromagnetic magnetic garnets
(FMG) (Ex: Almandine-Fe3Al2Si3O12) to store the data as microscopic magnets.
 A thin film of these garnets are deposited on a non-magnetic substrate which is
made up of Gadolinium Gallium Garnet (GGG) constitutes a bubble memory chip.

 Magnetic bubble: When magnetic field is applied to such a chip by placing it in-
between two permanent magnets, magnetic domains contracts and finally forms a
small cylindrical domain.
 These bubbles constitute a magnetic region of one polarity surrounded by magnetic
region of opposite polarity.
 The information is represented as the presence (the logic „1‟) or absence of bubble
( the logic „0‟) at specific location.
 The bubble remains unchanged even in the absence of electrical power.
 These bubbles can be moved electronically through the access lines at very high
speeds and hence storing time is less.

 Figure shows the schematic diagram of a magnetic bubble memory. It consists of

one major loop and 157 minor loops. Each minor loop has 641 bubble sites.

Writing operation:

 When a data is to be stored, the bubbles from the minor loops are transferred to the
major loop, and it goes to the write station.
 In write station the data is entered and the bubble again comes to minor loop.
Reading operation :

 To read the data from the storage, the bubble from minor loops are transferred to
the major loop and it goes to the read station, then it comes to the minor loop.
 The data can be altered by the erase station, if we need to erase it.

Advantages

1. It is non-volatile.

2. It has high storage capacity than the magnetic hard disk.

3. It has high access speed.

MAGNETIC HARD DISK DRIVE[HDD] WITH GMR SENSOR:

Magnetic storage principle:

 Electromagnetic induction: When current is passed through a coil, a magnetic

field is induced. This principle called “Electromagnetic Induction” is used in
storage devices.
 The soft magnetic materials can easily be magnetized and demagnetized. Hence a
data can be stored and erased easily. (Temporary storage devices)
  Hard magnetic materials cannot be easily magnetized and demagnetized. So such
magnetic materials are used in permanent storage devices.

Hard Disk Drives (HDD): A storage device made up of magnetic garnet materials using
magnetic principles for writing and reading the data.

In HDD, the binary datas („0‟ – missing transition & „1‟- transition is present) are stored
by inducing magnetic moment in a thin magnetic layer.

Construction:

HDD consists of

 Recoding medium  thin layer of magnetic garnets grown over the substrate.
 Reading element  GMR Sensor -Ferrites and anti-ferromagnetic materials.
 Writing element  made up of inductive magnetic transducer.
 Longitudinal recording  Writing element & GMR sensor shall be made to slide
over the recording media in the longitudinal direction.
 Magnetization sensing  Current through GMR sensor & writing element is
adjusted and in turn the magnetization is sensed.

Writing/Storing:

 Current passed through writing element & magnetic field induced in between gap
of inductive magnetic transducer.
 Writing  Amplitude of current is kept constant & direction of current is reversed.
 Due to reversal of current, magnetization is reversed in recording medium. (south
 north)
 when induced magnetic field is greater than coercivity of medium data recorded as
„1‟ in recording medium
 Induced magnetic field is less than coercivity of medium or no magnetic transition
data is recorded as „0‟.
Reading/Retrieving data:

 GIANT MAGNETO-RESISTANCE  In soft magnetic materials, change in

electrical resistance is very high with respect to magnetization.
 GMR effect: It is a quantum mechanical effect, a type of magneto-resistance effect
observed in thin films structures composed of alternating ferromagnetic and
nonmagnetic metal layers.
 To read data, sensor is made to move near the recorded medium, resistance of
GMR sensor varies with respect to orientation of magnetic moments

 Layers are magnetized in parallel manner  Minimum resistance in GMR

sensor & maximum current flows through GMR (represents data „1‟).
 Layers are magnetized in antiparallel manner  Maximum resistance in GMR
sensor & Minimum current flows through GMR (represents data „0‟).
 With the help of reading current, the zero‟s & one‟s can be retrieved from the
magnetic hard disk drive.

Advantages:

 Store data in terms of Terabytes.

 Compact in size & easily transferred from one place to other.
 GMR sensors are non diffusive& very sensitive.
Disadvanatges:

 Consume more power.

 Easily damaged.
 Corrupted due to thermal radiation.

Applications:

 Coding and signal processing applications.

 Control system and nanoelectronics.
 Cloud applications.

Part-C

1. Classify magnetic materials based on spin.

2. Extend the ferromagnetic domain theory with the energies involved in domain
formation.
3. Compare hard magnetic materials with soft magnetic materials.
4. Explain construction and working magnetic bubble memories.
5. Illustrate the working of GMR sensor.
UNIT IV DIELECTRIC AND OPTICAL MATERIALS

Dielectrics – Electronic polarization – Dielectric breakdown – Ferroelectrics – Applications of

dielectrics – Classification of optical materials – Nonlinear optics-Applications

INTRODUCTION
Dielectrics are the insulating materials having electric dipole moment permanently or temporarily
by applying the electric field. These are mainly used to store electrical energy and used as
electrical insulators. All dielectrics are electrical insulators, but all electrical insulators need not to
be dielectrics. Dielectrics are non - metallic materials of high specific resistance and have negative
temperature coefficient of resistance.
When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, it undergoes some changes and hence, electric
charges are stored. In the process of storing charges, one side of the dielectric becomes positive
and the other side becomes negative. Hence, the name dielectric.

From the energy band diagram of a dielectric shown in Fig., it is clear that the electrons are bound
to the nucleus and there is no free electron. The forbidden gap EG shown in Fig is very large in
dielectrics and excitation of electrons from the normally full valence band to the empty conduction
band is not possible under ordinary conditions. Therefore, conduction cannot occur in a dielectric.
Even if a dielectric contains impurities, extrinsic conduction is not possible. The resistivity of an
ideal dielectric should be high. However, in practice, dielectrics conduct electric current which is
negligible and their resistivities range from 1010 to 10 20 ohm·m.

S.No Dielectric Insulator

1 Material which stores electrical energy in Material which blocks the flow of
an electric field electrons
2 Dielectric material becomes polarised in Insulator do not get polarised
presence of electric field
3 Molecules of the dielectric are weakly Molecules of the insulator are strongly
4 Dielectric
bonded material becomes polarised in Insulator
bonded do not get polarised
presence of electric field
5 Dielectric material has high dielectric Insulator has low dielectric constant
6 Dry air, vacuum, distilled water
constant Cotton, plastic and rubber
7 Common application - Capacitor Conducting wires and cables

BASIC DEFINITIONS
 Electric flux density is number of electric lines passing through unit area of cross section

D 

A
 Unit – C m 2

 Permittivity – Ratio of electric displacement in a dielectric medium to applied electric field

D
strength  
E
 Dipole moment (μ) is the product of charge and distance between two charges.
μ = q x d Unit C-m

 Polarization: The separation of negative and positive charges is called polarization. i.e., the
i.e., process of producing electric dipoles by an electric field is called polarization.

μ = αE, α – Polarisability
 Polarization vector : If “  ” is the average dipole moment per molecule and “N” is the
number of molecules per unit volume then the polarization of the solid is given by the
polarization vector P and it can be written as

N
P if V  1, P  N
V

The polarization vector is the dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric
material.
 Dielectric Constance (or) relative Permittivity (  r ):It is defined as the ratio of the
permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of the free space.

 Permitivity of the medium

r  
0 Permitivity of free space
0  8.854  1012 F
m
 Electric Susceptibility ( e ): The polarization vector P is proportional to the total applied
electric field intensity E and is in the same direction of E. Therefore, the polarization vector
can be written as P  0 e E .
 P  0 e E
P
e 
0 E
 r  1  e
P  0 E   r  1

Polar and Non polar molecules:

S.No Polar molecules Non - Polar molecules

These molecules have permanent These molecules do not have
1 dipole moment even in the absence permanent dipole moment
of on applied field.
The polarization of polar molecules The polarization in these type
2 is highly temperature dependent. of molecules is independent of
temperature.
There is absorption or emission in There is no absorption of emission in
3 the infrared range for these infrared range forthese molecules
molecules
4 Example:H2O, HCl Example:O2, N2

Polarization of Dielectrics
When a dielectric material (polar or non-polar) is placed in an electric field, the charge centres
of polar molecules get displaced and the molecules become induced dipoles. For polar molecules
which already have randomly oriented permanent dipoles, the effect of the electric field is to orient
the dipoles along the direction of the electric field and increase their dipole moment. The
displacement of electric charges results in the formation of electric dipole moment inatoms, ions or
molecules of the material
 Four different types of Polarization
(i) Electronic (or) Induced Polarization

When the electrons in various shells are displaced relative to the nucleus by the external field,
an induced electric dipole moment is produced. This is called electronic polarization
 (ii) Ionic (or) atomic Polarization

If a molecule contains ions, then the applied field tends to displace the positive and
negative ions in opposite direction, causing the change in bond length. This is called ionic
or atomic polarization

(iii) Orientation (or) Dipolar polarization

If the molecule has permanent dipoles, these are oriented randomly in the absence of
an external field and results in a complete cancellation of the polarization. But when an
external field is applied, these dipoles tend to orient and align with the field, giving an
effective polarization, called orientation or dipolar polarization.

(iv) Space Charge Polarization

Space charge or interfacial or migrational, Pm polarization occurs in heterogeneous dielectric
materials in which there is a change of electrical properties between different phases. Also, it
occurs in homogeneous dielectrics containing impurities, pores filled with air, inclusions of
hygroscopic water etc. When an electric field is applied, the electric charges migrate within the
impurity regions and store up at the interfaces. The accumulation of charges takes
place with opposite polarity on the interfaces as shown.
Electronic (or) Induced Polarization

 Electronic Polarization occurs due to the displacement of positively charged nucleus and
negatively charged electron in opposite directions by an external electric field. It creates a
dipole moment in the dielectric.
 Induced dipole moment µe = αeE , αe – Electronic polarizability, E – Electric field strength
Calculation of electronic polarization(αe):

 Consider an atom of a dielectric material of nuclear charge (Ze). The electrons

of charge (–Ze) are distributed uniformly throughout the atom (Sphere) of radius R as

shown.

Ch arg e density of electrons Total negative ch arg es enclosed in sphere with radius R
in a sphere of radius R Volumeof sphere
Ze
4 3
R
3
3Ze
...............................................(1)
4 R3

When the atom of the dielectric is placed in an electric field (E), two types of forces are arise

1. Lorentz force: Force which separates electrons and positive nucleus due to applied field.
2. Coulomb force: An attractive force which is produced after separation.
Lorentz force Charge of electron x intensity of applied field
Ze E ............................................................................... 2
qp qe
Coulomb force =
4 0 d2
Ch arg e of the Total negative ch arg es
positve nucleus q p enclosed in the sphere of radius 'd ' q e
Coulomb force = ..........(3)
4 0 d2
The total number of
Ch arg e density
negative charges enclosed Volume of the sphere
of electrons
in the sphere of radius 'd'
3Ze 4 d 3
4 R3 3
Ze d 3
..........................................................................................................................(4)
R3
Substitute equation (4) in equation (3),
Ze d 3
Ze
R3
Coulomb force = 2
4 0d

Z2 e 2 d
Coulomb force = ................................................................................................(5)
4 0 R3
At equilibrium, coulomb force and Lorentz force must be equal and opposite.
Lorentz force (eqn (2)) = Coulomb force (eqn (5))
Z2 e 2 d
( Z e) (E)
4 0 R3
Ze d
E
4 0 R3
4 R3 E 0
d ............................................................................................................(6)
Ze
The displacement (d) of electron cloud is proportional to applied field (E).
 Now the two electric charges Ze and – Ze are displaced by a distance d under
the influence of the field and form an induced dipole moment which is given by
Induced dipole moment e Charge of the electron displacement
Induced dipole moment e Ze d
Substituting the value of „d‟ from eqn 6
Ze 4 0 R3 E
e
Ze
3
e 4 0 R E

e e E (called electronic polarization e 4 0 R3)

Conclusion:

i) Electronic polarization is independent of temperature.

ii) Electronic polarization occurs in all dielectric materials.
iii) It is proportional to the volume of atoms in the material.

BREAKDOWN
When a dielectric material loses its property and permits the flow of a large current, it is said to be
dielectric breakdown.
Types of dielectric breakdown
1. Intrinsic breakdown
2. Thermal breakdown.
3. Electrochemical breakdown.
4. Defect breakdown.
5. Discharge breakdown
Intrinsic or avalanche breakdown

 When a dielectric material is subjected to large electric field, a large number of electrons are
transferred from the valence band to the conduction band. Thus the dielectric material loses
its insulating property and becomes a conductor. This is known as intrinsic breakdown.
 Further the conducting electrons may collide with the atoms and release some of the valence
electrons.
 These electrons may collide with some more atoms and may release more electrons. This
becomes a chain process resulting in a large current. It is known as avalanche breakdown.
Characteristics
i) This type of breakdown occurs at room temperature and low temperatures.
ii) This requires relatively large electric fields
iii) This kind of breakdown occurs in the materials.

Thermal breakdown:

Thermal breakdown occurs in dielectric when the rate of heat generation is greater than the rate of
heat dissipation. When a dielectric is subjected to an electric field, heat is generation. The
generation heat is dissipated by the dielectric material. When the amount of heat generation is
higher than the amount of heat dissipation, the temperature inside like dielectric increases and this
causes the breakdown called thermal breakdown.
Characteristics:
i) This can occur only at high temperatures.
ii) The Thermal breakdown time is of the order of few milliseconds.
iii) This requires moderate electric fields.
iv) It depends on size and shape of dielectric material.

Chemical and electrochemical breakdown

 When temperature increases, mobility of ions increases and hence leakage current also
increases.
 This decreases the insulation resistance and finally creates a dielectric breakdown. Hence
this type of breakdown is called electrochemical breakdown.
Characteristics
i) This is used to determine the leakage current, density of ions and dipoles inside the material.
ii) They are accelerated by high temperatures
iii) This occurs only at low temperature
iv) This type of breakdown occurs even in absence of electric field also.
Defect breakdown
  If the surface of the dielectric material has defects such as cracks, pores, etc. moisture and
other impurities can fill at these places leading to breakdown, this type of breakdown called
Defect breakdown.
Discharge breakdown
This type of breakdown occurs when the insulator contains occluded gas bubbles. When the
dielectric is subjected to an electric field, the gas present in the material will be easily ionized than
the solids.

The ionized gas particles bombarded with the solid dielectric and produce large ionization current
called discharge breakdown.
Characteristics
i) This is possible at low voltages where, there are large number of occluded
gas bubbles is present in the material.
ii) The life time of the material depends upon the number of discharge taking
place inside the material.
iii) This occurs due to presence of gas bubbles.

FERROELECTRICS :
 Materials which exhibit electric polarization even in the absence of the applied electric field
are known as Ferroelectric materials.
 Ferro electricity is a result of dielectric hysteresis. Since these materials exhibit hysteresis
effects similar to those observed in ferromagnetic materials, they are called ferroelectric
materials.
 Crystalline dielectric materials which posses a permanent electric polarization are called
ferroelectric materials have electric dipole moment even in the absence of any field.
Normally they are anisotropic crystals which exhibit spontaneous polarization.
Examples:
1. Barium Titanate (BaTiO3)
2. Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (KDP)
3. Ammonium Dihydrogen Phosphate (NH4H2PO4)
4. Lithium Niobate (LiN6O3)
Properties of Ferroelectric Materials
1. Ferroelectric materials exhibits spontaneous polarization i.e., they are polarized even in the
absence of electric field.
2. They exhibit dielectric hysteresis. The lagging of polarization behind the applied electric field is
called dielectric hysteresis.
3. Above ferroelectric Curie temperature, ferroelectric material becomes paraelectric material.
4. They posses Ferro – electric domain structure.
5. They can be polarized even by very weak electric field
Hysteresis of Ferroelectric Materials

 The ferro electrics are known as non –linear dielectrics. Such materials exhibit hysteresis
curve similar to that of ferro magnetic materials.
 The lagging of polarization „P‟ behind the applied electric field E is called dielectric
hysteresis.
 When a ferro – electric material is subjected to external electric field (E) the polarization (P)
increases with respect to the field applied and it reaches the maximum value „OA‟. If now
the applied electric field is reduced, the polarization also decreases from a, and when E
becomes zero a small amount of polarization exists in the material is called spontaneous (or)
 residual polarization.
 In order to reduce the value of polarization to zero, a reversing electric field oc should be
applied. This field is known as coercive field.
 Thus the variation of P with respect to E traced along the closed path abcdefa in one full
cycle of polarization and depolarization is called hysteresis or the hysteresis curve.

Application of Ferroelectric Materials

1. Ferroelectric materials are used to make pressure transducers, ultrasonic transducers,
microphones and gas filters.
2. They are used as memory cores in computers.
3. They are used to measure and control temperature.
4. Ferroelectric ceramics are used as capacitors to store electrical energy
5. They are used to make very good infrared detectors.
6. They are used as frequency stabilizers and crystal controlled oscillators.

APPLICATIONS OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

The following are some of the applications of dielectric materials:
(i) Quartz crystals are used for the preparation of ultrasonic transducers, crystal oscillators, decay
lines and filters, etc.
(ii) Barium titanate is used for the preparation of accelerometers.
(iii) Lead zirconate titanate (PbZrxTi1−xO3 ) is used for the preparation of earphones, microphones,
spark generators (gas lighters, car ignition, etc.), displacement
transducers and accelerometers.
(iv) The insulating dielectric liquids are used in transformers, switchgears and generators.
(v) Dielectric materials are used as insulating material in power cables, signal cables,
electric motors and electric irons.
(vi) Dielectric materials are used in radiation detectors, thermionic valves, strain gouges,
capacitors, resistors and many other electric devices.
(vii) The electro-optic devices are prepared using dielectric materials.
CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL MATERIALS:
 All materials interact with the incident light rays or photons. These interactions depend on
the nature of the material and also on the wavelength of visible light.

 The interaction of photons with any material is mainly by the combination of absorption,
reflection and transmission.
 The interaction of light with the particles in any material takes place through electronic
polarizations and also due to excitation of electrons between different energy states.
 When the energy gap of material is low compared to visible light, an electron may be
excited by the energy of visible light. Figure shows the transmission of light rays through
optical materials.
 Based on the interaction with visible light, optical materials are classified into the following
categories:


(i) Transparent materials
(ii) Translucent materials
(iii) Opaque materials
Transparent materials
 Materials that transmit light with minimum absorption and reflection are known as
transparent materials i.e., objects are easily seen through such transparent optical materials.
 The light passes through easily if the material is transparent as shown in (a). For a material
to be transparent, light should not interact with it i.e., the material bandgap energy (Eg)
should be larger than the photon energy of visible light (Evisible = 1.8–3.1 eV).
 Materials such as glass, clean water etc. transmitting much of the incident light with little
reflection are called optically transparent.
Translucent materials
 Materials in which light is transmitted diffusely are known as translucent materials i.e.
objects are not clearly distinguishable when they are seen through such translucent optical
materials.
 In translucent materials, the incident light is scattered and the diffracted light is allowed on
the other side. Here, the light is blurred if the material is translucent as shown in Fig.(b).
 Materials such as frosted glass, stained glass, wax, a lampshade, sunglasses, notebook
paper, wax paper, tracing paper and vegetable oil form a variety of translucent materials.
Opaque materials

 Materials that do not allow the transmission of light through them are known as opaque
materials i.e., these materials either absorb or reflect the entire light rays or photons and
hence, become opaque. Here, the incident light is blocked if the material is opaque as shown
in Fig. (c).
 An opaque object is neither transparent nor translucent.
 Materials such as metals, concrete, wood and stone are opaque to light. Semiconductors
such as silicon (Eg = 1.1 eV), germanium (Eg = 0.66 eV) and gallium arsenide (Eg = 1.42
eV) have bandgap energies below the lower bandgap energy range of visible light i.e., 1.8
eV.
NON LINEAR OPTICS AND APPLICATIONS:

The change in optical properties (refractive index) due to electrical and magnetic field
associated with intense laser light is called non linear effects and those materials which possess
these effects are those materials possess these effects are called non-linear materials.
The crystals lacking inversion symmetry, second harmonic generation (SHG) is possible.

Example:

i) Lithium tantalate
ii) Lithium iodate (LiO3 )
iii) Barium Sodum niobate
iv) Ammonium-dihydrophosphate (ADO)
v) Potassium-dyhydrophosphate (KDP)
Higher Harmonic Generation:

Higher (second) Harmonic generation represents the generation of new frequencies with the help
of the crystals such as quartz, LiO3, etc and high power lasers.

Explanation:

 In a linear medium, Polarization (P) is proportional to the electric field E that induces it.

P   e E
e  Electronic susceptibility
0  Permittivity of free space
E  Applied electric field

 When light of higher intensity is passed through medium, the electric field has larges
 amplitude and the oscillation of dipoles is distorted.
 Therefore, some nonlinearity is observed between P and E and hence the higher fields are
written as

P    1 E   2 E 2  3 E 3 
1  Linear susceptibility
 2 & 3  Higher order non linear susceptibility
  Permittivity of the medium
E  Applied electric field

Experiment:

Construction:

The experimental setup consists of

Ruby laser- Red light emitting laser

Lens- To focus the light on to the quartz crystal,

Quartz crystal – To convert the input light (Red light) into second harmonic light (UV light).

Prism- To separate the input light & second harmonic light.

Working:

 A high power Ruby laser light (of wavelength 6943Ao) is passed through the lens and is
focused on quartz crystal.
 When the intensity of the laser is so high, then refractive index of the medium varies with
respect to square of the applied field.
 This results in the generation of new photons with frequency twice as that of incident
frequency.
  With the help of prism second harmonic wave can be separated.

Applications:

1.Optical grating:

The refractive index crystal like quartz varies periodically when high power laser interacts and
hence act as a optical grating.

2. Optical frequency doublers:

Due to high polarizability and low loss optical transmission, Lithium niobate, Lithium
tantalite and Barium sodium niobate are used in electro-optic modulator and optical frequency
doublers.

3. Optical modulation and switching:

Electro-optic wave guide switches fabricated by LiNbO3 are used for direct switching of optical
signals.

4. Delay lines and memories:

Delay line is a device which can delay the signals by converting electrical signals into
Slowly moving surface acoustic wave by means of a transducer. This may be reconverted
into electrical signals by means of other transducer.
5. Frequency filters:

NLO materials are used in signal processors, which prevent the unwanted signals from base signal
entering into the signal processor.

Part-B

1. What is a dielectric material? State their property.

2. Define electric flux density
3. What is Permittivity?
4. Define dipole moment (μ).
5. Define Polarization:
6. What is polarization vector?
7. Define dielectric Constant.
8. Relate dielectric constant and polarization.
 9.Polar and Non polar molecules:

10. What is meant by Ferro electricity? Give examples.

11. Distinguish Lorentz and coulomb forces in dielectrics.
12. Distinguish between dielectric loss and dielectric breakdown.

13. Give the classification of optical materials.

14. What are called transparent, translucent and opaque materials?
15.What is nonlinear optics?

Part C

1. Derive the expression for electronic polarization in dielectrics.

2. Explain the different breakdown mechanism in dielectrics.
3. Classify the materials based on their optical properties.
4. Discuss in detail the characteristics and applications of ferroelectric materials.
5. Explain the characteristics and applications of nonlinear materials.
 UNIT V NEW ENGINEERNG MATERIALS AND
CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

SMA – SiC – GaN – Rheological materials – Nanomaterials – Synthesis (Ball milling and
CVD) – Quantum dot, quantum wire and quantum well(qualitative) - Characterization
techniques – Powder XRD(qualitative) – SEM

SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS:

Shape memory alloys (SMA) are the alloys which change its shape from its original shape
to new shape and while heating /cooling it will return to its original shape.

It is also called as smart materials or intelligent materials or Active materials.

Types of shape memory alloys,
1. One way shape memory – It returns to its memory only when heating.
2. Two way shape memory – It returns to its memory on both heating and Cooling.
Transformation temperature

Thus, the range of temperature at which the SMA switches from new shape to its original
shape is called transformation temperature (or) memory transfer temperature.

PHASES (STRUCTURES) OF SMA

(i)Martensite

 An interstitial super solution of carbon in  -iron.

 It crystallizes into twinned structure.
 Martensite exhibit at lower temperatures and it is soft in this phase
(ii)Austenite

 Solid solution of carbon and other alloying elements in γ-iron.

 It crystallizes into cubic structure.
 Austenite exhibit at higher temperatures and it is hard in this phase.
Processing of SMA
 The shape memory effect occurs in alloys due to change in the crystalline structure of the
materials with the change in temperature and stress.

 When we apply a constant load on a shape memory alloy and cool it, its shape changes
due to produced strain.

 During the deformation, the resistivity, thermal conductivity, Young‟s modulus and yield
strength are decreased by more than 40%.

 Shape memory effect: the change of shape of a material at low temperature by

loading regaining of original shape by heating it is known as shape memory effect.

Twinned Martensite state alloy becomes deformed Martensite when it is loaded. The
deformed Martensite becomes Austenite when it is heated, the Austenite transformed to
original twinned Martensite state when it is cooled.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SMA
(i) Pseudo – elasticity:
 The phenomenon of deformation of a SMA on application of large stress and
regaining of shape on removal of load at constant temperature is known as Pseudo -
elasticity
SMA in which the change in its shape will occur even without change in its
temperature
  At high temperature (T1) – Austenite phase exists
 At Low temperature (T3)- Martensite phase exists.
 At constant temperature (T2)- When stress is increased, Large change in strain is observed
in this material.
 At this point material changes from austenite to martensite (Curve AB)
 When stress is decreased, material come back from martensite to austenite. (Curve CD)
(ii) Hysterisis:
 The temperature range for which the marten site to austenite which takes place
upon heating is somewhat higher than that for transformation upon cooling. The
difference between the transformation temperature upon heating and cooling is
called hysteresis.

For an SMA,
During cooling process: ms - Martensite point & me- Martensite starts ends

During heating process, Austenite starts (As) & Austenite ends (Ae).

 Heating & cooling curves do not overlap- form hysteresis loop.

APPLICATIONS OF SMA
1. Eye glass frames: We know that the recently manufactured eye glass frames can be bent back
and forth and can retain its original shape within fraction of time.
2. Toys: We might have seen toys such as butterflies, snakes etc., which are movable and
flexible.
3. Helicopter blades: The life time of helicopter blades depends on vibrations and their return to
its original shape. Hence shape memory alloys are used in helicopter blades.
4. Coffee Valves: Used to release the hot milk and the ingredients at a certain temperature.

5. Medical Applications of SMA’s

1. It is used as Micro – Surgical instruments.
2. It is used as dental arch wires.
3. It is used as flow control devices.
4. It is used as ortho – dentil implants.
5. It is used for repairing of bones.
6. They are used to correct the irregularities in teeth.

6. Engineering Applications of SMA’s

1. It is used as a thermostat valve in cooling system.
2. It is used as a sealing plug for high pressure.
3. It is used as a fire safety valve.
4. It is used for eye glass frame, toys, liquid safety valve.
5. It is used to make microsurgical instruments, orthopedic implants.
6. It is used as blood clot filter and for fracture pulling.
7. It is used to make antenna wires in cell phones.
8. It can be used as circuit edge connector.

Properties of Ni-Ti Alloys:

 Ni-Ti alloy has high shape memory strain [8.5 %]

 The density of Ni-Ti is 6.45 gm/ cm3.
 More flexible.
 It has high melting point [1300o C].
 The transformation temperature varies between -200oC to 110oC.
 It has high thermal stability
 It has high corrosion resistance
SILICON CARBIDE

Silicon Carbide Formula

Silicon carbide, also known as carborundum, is a unique compound of carbon and silicon and is
one of the hardest available materials.

Formula and structure:

 It is a simple compound with the carbon atom attached to silicon through a triple bond,
leaving both atoms with a positive and negative charge.
 However, the bonding between them has a predominantly covalent character, rather than
ionic. Solid silicon carbide exists in many different crystalline forms, with the hexagonal
crystal structure being the most commonly found one.
Si  C

Occurrence: Silicon carbide occurs naturally as the rare mineral moissanite.

Preparation:

Silicon carbide is prepared industrially by the Acheson method, in which pure silica sand
(SiO2) and finely ground coke (carbon) are mixed together and heated to very high temperatures
in an electric furnace.

SiO2 + 3 C → SiC + 2 CO

Physical properties:

 Low thermal expansion & high thermal conductivity

 Very stable and chemically inert compound.
 Resistance to abrasion and corrosion
 High melting point of 2,730 °C.
 Very stable and chemically inert compound.
  Extremely hard material. (Mohs hardness rating of 9)

 Ability to function as a semiconductor.

Applications:

 silicon carbide is widely used as an abrasive

 SiC is used to make Grinding wheels and Cutting tools.
 They are used to make automobile parts and high temperature bricks.
 SiC is used as Wear-resistant parts for pumps.
 Rocket engines, and even jewellery.
 It is also an important material in the electronics industry and used for making light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) and semiconductor devices.

RHEOLOGICAL MATERIAL:

 Rheology is defined as the study of flow behavior. It is normally applied to fluid materials
(or materials that exhibit a time-dependent response to stress).
 A material which can change is physical state very quickly in reaction to a stimulus.
 Rheological materials only react when an electric or magnetic field is applied.

o Rheological materials are classified as Magnetic rheological (MR) &Electrical

rheological (ER).

 Based on viscosity, the liquids can be classified as Newtonian fluids & Non-Newtonian
fluids.
 Newtonian fluids have constant viscosity with changing applied stress. (Water and water-
glycerine).
 Non-Newtonian (Rheological materials) , their coefficient of viscosity, η, changes with
applied shearing stress. (Toothpaste).
 Pseudoplastic (or shear thinning), in which viscosity decreases as strain rate increases.
Occasionally materials show thickening behavior.
Magnetorheological materials:

 MR materials consist of iron particles suspended in an oil or watery fluid.

 These tiny iron particles each have a “magnetic moment” and thus act like tiny bar
magnets.
  They possess these magnetic properties because each particle‟s “3d” shell is not fully
filled with electrons.

 When a magnetic field is applied onto the fluid, the random ordering of molecules in the
liquid aligns itself to the axis of the field.

 Consequently, the structure of the molecules becomes organized and

symmetrical. Essentially the field causes the liquid to change into a solid very quickly.
Applications:

 Dampers on bridges-dampers on bridges and building can minimize vibrational shock

from wind and seismic activity.
 Automotive Industry- Car Suspension.
 Seat Suspension
 MR Fluid as a Robot Blood
 Artificial Muscles
GAN:

 Gallium nitride (GaN) is a direct bandgap semiconductor belonging to the III-V group and
used commonly in light emitting diodes.
 It has a wide band gap of 3.4 eV enabling it to be used in optoelectronic, high-frequency
and high-power applications.

Preparation:
Grown from a molten Na/Ga melt held under 100 atmospheres of pressure of N2 at 750 °C.
Ga will not react with N2 below 1000 °C, the powder must be made from something more
reactive.
2 Ga + 2 NH3 → 2 GaN + 3 H2
Ga2O3 + 2 NH3 → 2 GaN + 3 H2O
Properties of GaN:
 High heat capacity & thermal conductivity
 GaN‟s ability to conduct electrons more than 1000 times more efficiently than silicon
while being able to be manufactured at a lower cost than silicon has now been well
established.
 Pure form of GaN resists cracking and can be deposited are often grown on a SiC
substrate but to achieve lower cost devices, they can be grown on silicon substrates.
  Since the individual devices are much smaller than silicon devices, many more GaN
devices can be produced per wafer, thus forming a situation where GaN devices will
always cost less to manufacture than their silicon counterparts.
Applications:

 Solar arrays in satellites

 Space and military applications (stable in radiation environments).
 Blu-ray discs are read using GaN-based violet laser diodes.
 Mixing GaN with In or Al enables manufacture of LEDs with a range of colours from red
to the ultra-violet.
 Gallium nitride-based MOSFET and MESFET transistors are useful for high power
electronics especially electric car and automotive applications.
NANOMATERIALS

 If at least one dimension of a structured component of a material is less than 100 nm, then
it is called a nanomaterial. The nanomaterial structures have dimensions in the range of 1
to 100 nm.

 Layers such as thin films or surface coatings are materials which possess one dimension
in the nanoscale.

 Nanowires are materials that possess nanoscale dimensions in two dimensions.

 Quantum dots are materials that possess nanoscale dimensions in three dimensions. Precipitates
and colloids also come under quantum dots.
Quantum structures:

 When a bulk material is reduced in its size, at least one of its dimension, in the order of
few nanometers (100 nm), then the structure is known as quantum structure

 A quantum structure is one in which the motion of the electrons or holes are confined in
one or more directions by potential barriers.
Structure Quantum Definition Explanation
confinement
Quantum well If electrons are constrain Thus, 2D materials (Quantum well)
inside a region of minimum are those in which two dimensions
width. are in macroscopic scale and one
dimension alone is < 100 nm.
1 D (z)
Quantum wells are made by
depositing alternating layers of
 different semiconductor or metal
films.

In exciton are free to sideways in a

2D plane.

Quantum wire If we constrain width and One-dimensional nanostructures are

depth of the electrons called nanowires
domain, quantum wire is
formed. Nanowires have two quantum-
2 D (x,y) confined directions but one
unconfined (1 D) direction available
for exciton movement.

Examples: nano wire, nano rods.

Quantum dot When all the 3 dimensions Zero dimensional nanostructure are
are minimized, the resulting those in which there are no
structure is quantum dot dimensions (0 D) that are
macroscopic, called quantum dot. i.e
all three dimensions are < 100 nm.

3D (x,y,z) They contain anywhere from 100 to

1,000 electrons and range from 2 to
10 nanometers, or 10 to 50 atoms in
diameter.

Fullerenes, quantum dots etc are

some examples
Synthesis of Nanomaterials
The Nano mateirals can be synthesized by two processes, they are
1. Top – down approach
2. Bottom – up approach

1. Top – down approach

The removal or division of bulk material or the miniaturization of bulk fabrication
processes to produce the desired nanostructure is known as top-down approach. It is
the process of breaking down bulk material to Nano size

Types of Top – down Methods

a. Milling
b. Lithographic
c. Machining

2. Bottom – up approach
Molecules and even nano particles can be used as the building block for producing complex
nanostructures. This is known as Bottom – up approach. The Nano particles are made by building
atom by atom
Types of Bottom up Methods
a) Vapour phase deposition Method
b) Molecular beam epitaxy Method
c) Plasma assisted deposition Method
d) Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy [MOVPE]
e) Liquid phase process [Colloidal method and Sol – Gel method]

BALL MILLING

 A ball mill is a device used to grind and blend materials for use in mineral dressing
processes, paints, pyrotechnics, ceramics and selective laser sintering.
Construction:

 The ball mill consists of a hollow cylindrical shell which rotates about its axis. The axis of
shell may be either horizontal or inclined at a small angle to the horizontal.

 It is partially filled with the balls which may be made of chrome steel, stainless steel,
ceramic or rubber. These balls form the grinding media of the ball mill.

 The inner surface of the cylindrical shell is generally lined (i.e, coated) with an abrasion
resistant material e.g., rubber or manganese steel. Rubber is preferred for this purpose due
to less wear in mills lined with rubber. The length and diameter of the ball mill are nearly
equal.

Principle: A ball mill works on the principle of impact and attrition (i.e. friction) .
Working:

 The size reduction is carried out by impact as the balls drop from near the top of the shell.

 In a continuously operated ball mill, the material to be ground fed from the left through a
60o cone and resulting material is discharged through a 30o cone to the right both not
shown .
  With the rotation of the shell, the balls are lifted up on the rising side of the shell and then
they drop down on to the feed, from near the top of the shell.

 In this process, the solid particles in between the balls and ground are reduced in size by
impact. A number of materials can be used as grinding media in a ball mill e.g., ceramic
balls, flint pebbles and stainless steel balls.

 The grinding works on the principle of critical speed which is the speed after which he
steel balls start rotating along the direction of the cylindrical device, thus causing no
further grinding.

 Industrial ball mills can operate continuously, fed at one end and discharge at the other
end. High quality ball mills are potentially expensive and can grind mixture particles to as
small as 5 nm which enormously increases the surface are and the reaction rates.

Advantages:

1. The cost of installation and grinding medium is low hence inexpensive process.

2. Ball milling is suitable for both batch and continuous operation

3. Ball milling is suitable for both open and closed circuit grinding.

4. Material of any hardness can be grounded.

5. Small particles with narrow size distribution (2 to 20 nm) can be produced.

Disadvantages:

 Low surface highly polydisperse size distribution and partially amorphous state of the
powder.

 Shape of the nanomaterial is irregular.

 Contamination of product may occur as result of wear and tear.

CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION (CVD):
  In CVD method nanomaterials are grown from the decomposition of solid material at
temperature range of 500 to 1200OC.
 It is method in which the reaction or thermal decomposition of gas phase species
at higher temperatures [500 – 1000OC] and then deposition on a substrate takes place.

 Principle of CVD: Chemical reaction takes place between the source gases. The produce
of that reaction is a solid material with condenses on all surfaces inside the reactor.
 In this process, the substrate is placed inside a reactor to which a number of gases are
supplied.
 In CVD method catalysts are used for better chemical reactions.
Construction of CVD:
 Reactor
 Substrate
 Substrate holder
 Heat source
Steps involved in CVD:
 Chemical vapour reactants are fed into the reactor.
 Transport of reactants to the deposition region by carrier gas. (inert gas, H2 etc.,)
 Transport of reactants from the main gas stream through boundary layer to the wafer
surface.
 The gas species are dissociated by heating.
 Species adsorbed on the substrate surface.
Surface reactions, including: chemical decomposition or reaction, surface migration to
 attachment sites; site incorporation; and other surface reactions (emission and
redeposition)
 By products desorbed from the substrate surface.
 Transport of byproducts away from the reactor.
 By varying the experimental conditions-substrate material, substrate temperature,
composition of the reaction gas mixture, total pressure gas flows, etc- materias with
different properties can be grown.
Advantages:
 CVD films are generally quite conformal, i.e., the ability of a film.
 High purity can be obtained.
 Material formation well below the melting point.
 Versatile- any element or compound can be deposited.
Disadvantages
 Chemical and safety hazards caused by the use of toxic, corrosive, flammable or
explosive precursor.

 It leads to stresses in films deposited on materials with different thermal expansion

coefficients, which can cause mechanical instabilities in the deposited films

INTRODUCTION TO X-RAYS
X-rays were accidentally discovered in 1895 by the physicist Roentgen and were so named
because their nature was unknown at that time. After performing a series of experiments,
Roentgen concluded that when a beam of fast moving electrons strikes a solid target, an invisible
high penetrating radiation is produced. It took almost two decades to establish its exact nature.
Actually, X-rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength. The X-rays used in
diffraction have wavelengths ranging from 0.5 Å – 2.5 Å. Till today, X-rays are an invaluable
tool in the field of material characterization and medical sciences.

Origin of X-rays
We know that X-rays are produced when high speed electrons strike the target material.
At a tube voltage of 30,000 volts, this speed is about one-third that of light. Not all electrons are
decelerated in the same way. Some electrons are stopped in one impact and produce X-ray
photons of minimum wavelength. Other electrons lose fractions of their total kinetic energy
continuously due to successive collisions with the atoms of the target. Thus, loss of kinetic
energy of electrons is in two ways giving rise to a continuous spectrum and characteristic
spectrum.
THE POWDER CRYSTAL METHOD:

 Debye and Scherrer adopted a different technique in which specimen was taken in the
form of a well powdered sample of the crystal in a thin glass capsule.

Construction:

 The experiment set up consists of Coolidge tube, monochromatic filter, collimators,

powder specimen, photographic film and camera.
Working:

 The X–rays from the source are made approximately monochromatic by the filter F. A
narrow beam of these monochromatic X-rays, suitably collimated by two lead slits S1 and
S2, falls on the powdered specimen S.

 The specimen is suspended vertically on the axis of a cylindrical camera. The

photographic film is mounted round the inner surface of the camera, covering nearly the
whole circumference in order to receive the beams diffracted up to 180°.

 The powder specimen of the crystal can be imagined to be a collection of random oriented
tiny crystals, presenting all values of glancing angles to the incident beam.

 For a given wavelength and a given value of d, there can be only one value of θ (the
glancing angle) which satisfies the equation 2d sin θ = nλ, where n = 1. Such reflected
beams emerge out from the specimen in all directions inclined at an angle 2θ with the
direction of the incident beam, because millions of tiny crystals in the specimen are
random oriented.

 The reflected rays will be on the surface of a cone, vertex at the specimen, base on the
photographic film and having a semi-vertical angle 2θ. The traces obtained on the
 photographic film will be as shown.

 Let L be the radius of the cylindrical camera. The direct beam strikes the film at O.
Suppose a spectrum with glancing angle θ is found at A which is at a distance R from O.
Then θ = R / 2L.

 Using this value of θ in the Bragg‟s equation  2d sin   n  and knowing the value of λ,

d (spacing of the plane involved) can be calculated.

 The powder method has been employed in the study of microcrystalline substances like
metals, alloys, carbons, fluorescent powders and other forms where single crystals are not
available
Applications of the powder method
Powder diffraction methods are used to study many characteristics of materials.
i. phase composition
ii. Quantitative phase analysis
iii. Unit cell lattice parameters
iv. Average crystallite size of nanocrystalline samples
v. crystallite microstrain
vii. Residual strain

MICROSCOPE

A microscope is a device used to view a magnified image of a small object. In general,

microscopes are classified as simple and compound microscope. A simple microscope is made of
a single biconvex magnifying lens held in a simple frame. A compound microscope is made of
two lenses or a system of lenses for better magnification. Depending on the applications, many
other microscopes such as phase contrast microscope, ultraviolet microscope, metallurgical
microscope, electron microscope, etc., have been designed. Microscopes are characterized by
their magnifying power and resolving power.

Magnifying Power:
The magnifying power M of a microscope is defined as the ratio between the angle subtended by
the final image at the eye β to the angle subtended by the object at the eye α, placed at the near
point.

Resolving Power:
It is the ability of a microscope to form distinct and separable images of the two point objects
which are close to each other. The resolving power is given as

where, NA is the numerical aperture of the objective of the microscope and λ is the wavelength of
light through vacuum.

Therefore, the resolving power of a microscope can be increased by decreasing the value of λ
Thus, by using ultraviolet light and quartz lenses, the resolving power can be increased.

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM):

 Scanning electron microscope is an improved model of an electron microscope. SEM is

used to study the three dimensional image of the specimen.

Principle:

 When the accelerated primary electrons strike the sample, it produces secondary
electrons. These secondary electrons are collected by a positive charged electron detector
which in turn gives a 3- dimensional image of the sample.
  Electrons exhibit wave properties like light rays but have much shorter wavelength.

 Electrons can be focused by electric and magnetic fields just as light rays can be focused
with the help of lenses

Construction:
  It consists of an electron gun to produce high energy electron beam. A magnetic
condensing lens is used to condense the electron beam and a scanning coil is arranged in-
between magnetic condensing lens and the sample.

 The electron detector (Scintillator) is used to collect the secondary electrons and can be
converted into electrical signal. These signals can be fed into CRO through video
amplifier as shown
Working:

 Stream of electrons are produced by the electron gun and these primary electrons are
accelerated by the grid and anode.

 These accelerated primary electrons are made to be incident on the sample through
condensing lenses and scanning coil. These high speed primary electrons on falling over
the sample produce low energy secondary electrons.

 The collection of secondary electrons is very difficult and hence a high voltage is applied
to the collector. These collected electrons produce scintillations on to the photo multiplier
tube are converted into electrical signals.

 These signals are amplified by the video amplifier and are fed to the CRO. By similar
procedure the electron beam scans from left to right and the whole picture of the sample is
obtained in the CRO screen.

Merits
1. Three-dimensional image of the object is obtained.
2. Object image has large depth of focus.
3. It can be used to examine specimen of large thickness.
4. Image can be viewed directly on the screen.
5. 3,00,000 times greater than that of the size of the object magnification can be obtained.
Demerits
The resolution of the image is limited to 10–20 nm, hence it is very poor.
Applications:
1. It is used in various fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, engineering, industries, etc., for
a variety of applications.
2. Three-dimensional view of the structure of the specimen can be obtained.

Part-B

1.What are SMAs (or) Shape Memory Alloys? What are its types?

2. What is pseudo elasticity?

3.What are the applications of Shape memory alloys?
4.List the Applications of carborundom.

5. Compare Newtonian fluids with Non-Newtonian fluids.

6. What are Nanomaterials?

7. List the bottom-up synthesis of nanomaterials

8. What is quantum confined structure?

9. List the applications of Quantum well, quantum wire and quantum dot.
10. How does the band gap of metal change with particle size?
11. List the applications of powder XRD.
12. Define Resolving Power:
13. Compare optical microscope with electron microscope.

Part C

1. What are shape memory alloys? Write their characteristics. List out the applications
of shape memory alloys.
2. Outline the preparation, properties and applications of SiC

3. Explain in detail the preparation, properties and applications of GaN

4. Summarize the properties and applications Rheological materials.

5. Explain about chemical vapour deposition technique for the synthesis of Nanomaterials.
6. Describe a ball milling technique with neat diagram to produce nanomaterials.
7. Explain the construction and working of SEM.
8. Explain the powder XRD method in detail