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Artificial Intelligence

Lesson One

Lesson Objectives:

By the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:

i. Define basic concepts of artificial intelligence

ii. Identify types of human intelligences

iii. Describe Turing Test

iv. Describe branches of Artificial intelligence

v. Identify applications of AI

Artificial Intelligence Terms

Intelligence

Intelligence relates to tasks involving mental processes, e.g., Creating, solving problems, pattern
recognition, classification, learning etc. Intelligence is the computational part of the ability to
achieve goals.

Intelligent Behavior

Turing defined intelligent behavior as the ability to achieve human-level performance in all
cognitive tasks, sufficient to fool an interrogator. Characteristics of an intelligent agent;

i. Perceiving one's environment

ii. Acting in complex environment

iii. Learning and understanding from experience.

iv. Reasoning to solve problems and discover hidden knowledge

v. Knowledge applying successfully in new situations

vi. Thinking abstractly, using analogies

vii. Communication with others

viii. Creativity etc.

What is Intelligence Composed of?

The intelligence is intangible. It is composed of −

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i. Reasoning

ii. Learning

iii. Problem Solving

iv. Perception

v. Linguistic Intelligence

Let us go through all the components briefly −

• Reasoning − It is the set of processes that enables us to provide basis for judgement,
making decisions, and prediction. There are broadly two types −

Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning

It conducts specific observations to makes It starts with a general statement and

broad general statements. examines the possibilities to reach a specific,
logical conclusion.

Even if all of the premises are true in a If something is true of a class of things in
statement, inductive reasoning allows for the general, it is also true for all members of that
conclusion to be false. class.

Example − "Nita is a teacher. Nita is studious. Example − "All women of age above 60
Therefore, All teachers are studious." years are grandmothers. Shalini is 65 years.
Therefore, Shalini is a grandmother."

• Learning − It is the activity of gaining knowledge or skill by studying, practicing, being

taught, or experiencing something. Learning enhances the awareness of the subjects of the
study.

The ability of learning is possessed by humans, some animals, and AI-enabled systems.
Learning is categorized as −

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o Auditory Learning − It is learning by listening and hearing. For example, students

listening to recorded audio lectures.

o Episodic Learning − To learn by remembering sequences of events that one has

witnessed or experienced. This is linear and orderly.

o Motor Learning − It is learning by precise movement of muscles. For example,

picking objects, Writing, etc.

o Observational Learning − To learn by watching and imitating others. For

example, child tries to learn by mimicking her parent.

o Perceptual Learning − It is learning to recognize stimuli that one has seen before.
For example, identifying and classifying objects and situations.

o Relational Learning − It involves learning to differentiate among various stimuli

on the basis of relational properties, rather than absolute properties. For Example,
Adding ‘little less’ salt at the time of cooking potatoes that came up salty last time,
when cooked with adding say a tablespoon of salt.

o Spatial Learning − It is learning through visual stimuli such as images, colors,

maps, etc. For Example, A person can create roadmap in mind before actually
following the road.

o Stimulus-Response Learning − It is learning to perform a particular behavior

when a certain stimulus is present. For example, a dog raises its ear on hearing
doorbell.

• Problem Solving − It is the process in which one perceives and tries to arrive at a desired
solution from a present situation by taking some path, which is blocked by known or
unknown hurdles.

Problem solving also includes decision making, which is the process of selecting the best
suitable alternative out of multiple alternatives to reach the desired goal are available.

• Perception − It is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory

information.

Perception presumes sensing. In humans, perception is aided by sensory organs. In the

domain of AI, perception mechanism puts the data acquired by the sensors together in a
meaningful manner.

• Linguistic Intelligence − It is one’s ability to use, comprehend, speak, and write the verbal
and written language. It is important in interpersonal communication.

“Hard” or “Strong” Artificial Intelligence

Generally, artificial intelligence research aims to create AI that can replicate human intelligence
completely.

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“Strong AI” refers to a machine that approaches or supersedes human intelligence,

i. if it can do typically human tasks,

ii. if it can apply a wide range of background knowledge and

iii. if it has some degree of self-consciousness.

“Strong AI” aims to build machines whose overall intellectual ability is indistinguishable from
that of a human being.

“Soft” or “Weak” Artificial Intelligence

“Weak AI” refers to the use of software to study or accomplish specific problem solving or
reasoning tasks that do not encompass the full range of human cognitive abilities.

Example: a chess program such as “Deep Blue”.

“Weak AI” does not achieve

i. self-awareness, or

ii. demonstrate a wide range of human-level cognitive abilities, and

iii. at best is merely an intelligent, a more specific problem-solver.

Human intelligence

Human intelligence is the ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or trying situations.

Howard Gardner in Checkley has identified seven human intelligences. These eight intelligences
provide a theoretical foundation for recognizing the different talents and abilities that people, and
especially students, possess.

According Gardner, what makes life interesting, is that we don’t have the same strength in each
intelligence area, i.e. We don’t have the same amalgam of intelligences.

Just as we look different from one another and have different kinds of personalities, we also have

different kinds of minds.

1. Intra-personal intelligence

This type of intelligence is characterized by the following properties

i. Ability to understand oneself, including feelings and motivations.

ii. Ability to instill discipline oneself to accomplish a wide variety of tasks

iii. Adept at independent work

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iv. typically enjoy solitude

v. May be daydreamers

Potential careers for people with intra personal intelligence include: Psychotherapist, religious
leader, poet.

Tools for improve this type of intelligence include: Reflection, autobiography, concentration,
focusing, goal setting and self-identification

2. Interpersonal Intelligence

Consist of the following properties:

i. Ability to "read people" or discriminate them among other individuals especially their
moods, intentions, motivations,

ii. Able to understand and empathize with what others are thinking and doing.

iii. Very social and street smart

iv. Good at group work and usually assume a leadership role.

Potential careers include: Teacher, salesperson, counsellor, therapist, social worker, community

organizer, clinician and politicians.

Techniques for improving interpersonal intelligence include: Feedback, cooperative groups,

discussion, group projects, teamwork, role playing and person to person communication

3. Spatial intelligence

Characteristics that describe this type of intelligence include:

i. Ability to visualize mental models, manipulate them spatially, and draw them in detail.

ii. Such people like to orient themselves outsides a house or outdoors

iii. Thinking in terms of images and pictures

iv. Enjoying chess and jig-saw puzzles

Potential careers include: Artist (like painter, sculptor...), architect, navigator, sailor, graphic or
industrial designers

Tools for improving spatial intelligence include: Guided imagery, collages, drawing, designs,
posters, mapping, charting, puzzles, mazes, fantasy, imagination and labelling.

4. Bodily- kinesthetic

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Characteristics that describe this type of intelligence include:

i. Ability to use mental abilities to coordinate one’s own bodily movements,

ii. Ability to understand things by using one’s body or parts of the body,

iii. Good at using body parts to solve a problem,

iv. Make something or put on a production,

v. Respond well to nonverbal communication

vi. and finally, frequently can’t sit still.

Potential careers for Bodily- kinesthetic intelligence include: Dancer, athlete, actor, comedian, and
craftsperson.

Tools for improving this intelligence are: Acting, drama, dancing, exercise, physical gestures.

5. Logic- mathematics Intelligence

Defined with the following characteristics:

i. Ability to detect patterns

ii. Good at math and science

iii. Able to manipulate numbers, quantities, and operations

iv. Usually precise and methodical when solving problems

Potential careers for Logic- mathematics Intelligence are: Scientist, engineer, accountant,
computer analyst, computer programmer, logician, mathematician, and actuary. Techniques for
improving this type intelligence are: Analyzing, calculations, classifying, pattern games, time
lines, numbers, logic problems and experimentation

6. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence

It is defined with the following properties

i. Ability to use words and language in various forms

ii. Ability to manipulate language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically

iii. Sensitive to meaning, order, function, sound, rhythm of words

iv. Able to utilize several languages including native languages.

Potential careers include: Writer, speaker, orator, lawyer, poet, politician, teacher, professor,
editor, journalist, salesperson, actor, administrator and contractor

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Tools for Teachers: Reading, biographies, poetry, storytelling, book sharing, humor/jokes,
wordplay, riddles, creative writing, debate, journal writing

7. Musical Intelligence

Defined with the following properties

i. Able to think "in music"

ii. Ability to recognize non-verbal sounds such as rhythm and tonal patterns

iii. Good at remembering melodies and converting sounds into rhythms

Potential careers include: Composer, singer, performer, conductor, music critic, and violinist.

Techniques for training this intelligence are chants, rhythmic patterns, listening, rap, singing,
music performance, instrumental sounds and music education.

What is Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Intelligence

According to McCarthy (1956), Artificial Intelligence is the science and engineering of making
intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a broad field of computing that tries to understand the human
intelligence and using that understanding build agents or entities that can act intelligently.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) could be defined as the ability of computer software and hardware to
do those things that we, as humans, recognize as intelligent behavior. Traditionally those things
include such activities as:

i. Searching: finding “good” material after having been provided only limited direction,
especially from a large quantity of available data is. The process of looking for the solution
to a goal state through a set of possibilities.

ii. Surmounting constraints: finding ways that something will fit into a confined space, taking
apart or building a complex object, or moving through a difficult maze.

iii. Recognizing patterns: finding items with similar characteristics, or identifying an entity
when not all its characteristics are stated or available.

iv. Making logical inferences: drawing conclusions based upon understood reasoning methods
such as deduction and induction.

A sophisticated technology is then a cumulative building of learned and well-refined skills and
processes. In the AI area, these processes have manifested themselves in a number of well-
recognized and maturing areas including Neural Networks, Expert Systems, Automatic Speech
Recognition, Genetic Algorithms, Intelligent Agents, Natural Language Processing, Robotics,
Logic Programming, and Fuzzy Logic.

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Reasons for Automating Human Intelligence

People might want to automate human intelligence for a number of different reasons including:

1. To understand human intelligence better. For example, we may be able to test and refine
psychological and linguistic theories by writing programs which attempt to simulate
aspects of human behavior.

2. Another reason is simply so that we have smarter programs. We may not care if the
programs accurately simulate human reasoning, but by studying human reasoning we may
develop useful techniques for solving difficult problems.

Difference between Human and Machine Intelligence

1. Humans perceive by patterns whereas the machines perceive by set of rules and data.

2. Humans store and recall information by patterns, machines do it by searching algorithms.

For example, the number 40404040 is easy to remember, store, and recall as its pattern is
simple.

3. Humans can figure out the complete object even if some part of it is missing or distorted;
whereas the machines cannot do it correctly.

Reasons for studying artificial Intelligence

There are three reasons for studying artificial intelligence:

i. To understand how humans think

ii. To model human mind

iii. To use the power of computers to enhance human thinking.

Turing Test

Turing test is an artificial intelligence test proposed (1950) by Alan M. Turing to determine
whether a computer system can “think.” Like a human being. This test involves putting a remote
human interrogator in a separate room from another room with a computer system to be tested and
a human subject. The interrogator then asks various questions that can be answered by either the
computer system or human subject. The success of computer system at “thinking” will then be
measured by its probability of being misidentified as the human subject. That is, if the probability
of human interrogator misidentifying who has answered questions is high, then we conclude that
the computer system is intelligent. This can be illustrated in the following figure:

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Figure 1: Turing Test

The system passes Turing test if a human interrogator thinks he/she is receiving replies from a
human subject while he is receiving from computer system

Branches of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence is categorized into several sub-fields or branches

a) Games playing

Refers to programming computers to play games such as chess and checkers

b) Expert systems

This is a system that attempts to Imitate Expert Reasoning Processes and Knowledge in Solving
Specific Problems. Such systems encode human expertise in limited domains by representing it
using if-then rules. They use artificial intelligence techniques in problem solving processes

c) Machine learning

The study of how machines acquire knowledge from data or feedback. This change enables a them
to do the same task more efficiently.

d) Robotics

Robotics is the study of machines that perform repetitive tasks tirelessly. Such machines perform
tedious tasks with high precision

e) Natural language processing

Study of how to make computers understand and react to statements or commands made in a

“natural” language, such as English Kiswahili etc.

f) Neural networks

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Computer system that can act like or simulate the functioning of the human brain.

The following figure shows branches of artificial intelligence

Figure2: Branches of artificial Intelligence

Applications of Artificial Intelligence

Currently, no computers that demonstrate full artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate
human behavior).

a) Game playing Applications

The greatest achievements have occurred in the field of games playing. The best computer chess
programs are now capable of beating humans. In May, 1997, an IBM Super-computer called Deep
Blue defeated world chess champion.

b) Applications in robotics

Computers are now widely used in assembly plants, but they are capable only of very limited tasks.
Robots have great difficulty identifying objects based on appearance or feel, and they still move
and handle objects clumsily.

c) Applications in Natural-language

Language Processing systems allow people to interact with computers using natural language such
as Kiswahili, English, mother tongue, etc.

Some systems translate from one human language to another are in existence, but they are not
nearly as good as human translators. There are also voice recognition systems that can convert
spoken sounds into written words, but they require the user to speak slowly and distinctly.

d) Applications in expert systems

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Many expert systems help human experts in such fields as medicine and engineering. In medicine,
medical expert systems are used to Diagnose disease of a patient and recommends appropriate
treatment. Such systems ask about symptoms, patient details and history, calls for tests if unsure,
balances pros and cons of possible treatments and risks of side effects. Examples include PUFF,
which is used for respiratory diseases and MYCIN, which is used for diagnosing blood disorders.

Review Questions

1. Define the terms as used in AI

i. Intelligence
ii. Artificial intelligence
iii. Human intelligence

2. There are well-known classes of problems that are intractably difficult for computers and
other classes that are provably undecidable. Does this mean that AI is impossible?
3. Examine the AI literature to discover whether the following tasks can currently be solved by
computers
a) Playing a decent game of table tennis
b) Buying a week’s worth of groceries at the market.
c) Discovering and proving new mathematical theorems
d) Giving competent legal advice in a specialized area of law.

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