Applications

UNIT 3 APPLICATIONS
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives

3.2 Industrial Applications

3.2.1 Material Handling
3.2.2 Welding
3.2.3 Spray Painting
3.2.4 Assembling
3.2.5 Machining

3.3 Other Applications

3.3.1 Medical
3.3.2 Mining
3.3.3 Space
3.3.4 Underwater
3.3.5 Defence

3.4 Robot Economics and Safety

3.4.1 Robot Economics
3.4.2 Robot Safety

3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Words
3.7 Answers to SAQs

3.1 INTRODUCTION
As studied in the previous units, a robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional machine
designed to manipulate materials, parts, tools, or specialized devices, through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of task. It can conveniently be
used for variety of industrial tasks. Today 90% of all robots used are found in factories
and they are referred to as industrial robots. Robots are slowly finding their way into
warehouses, laboratories, research and exploration sites, power plants, hospitals,
undersea, and even outer space. Few of the advantages for which the robots are attractive
in industrial uses are as follows :
• Robots never get sick or need to rest, so they can work 24 hours a day,
7 days a week.
• When the task required would be dangerous for a person, robots can do the
work instead.
• Robots do not get bored. So the work that is repetitive and unrewarding is of
no problem for a robot.
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to know
• various industrial applications of robots,
• various advantages and disadvantages of using robots under a given
condition,
• whether a particular job is suitable for robots or against it,
• what are the economical considerations of using robot, and
• relevant safety issues. 51
Robot and its
Application 3.2 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
There are certain industrial tasks robots do very well like material transfer, machine
loading, spot welding, continuous arc welding, spray coating, material removal, cutting
operations, assembling operations, part inspection, part sorting, part cleaning, part
polishing, and a dozen more specialized tasks. In this section, some of these applications
are elaborated.

3.2.1 Material Handling

During the sixties and the seventies, automation has primarily affected the manufacturing
process and tool control but not the auxiliary functions such as handling, setup, loading,
and unloading. The time spent to transfer a workpiece from one station to the next is still
high. Upto 95 percent of the time involved in manufacturing a part is composed of
transfer and waiting time, and only about 5 percent of the total time is the part in the
actual processing time. Whereas the processing time has been reduced considerably by
automation, much less progress has been made in handling and loading. The fully
automatic systems that were developed for mass production (e.g., transfer lines in the
automobile industry) are rigid (hard automation) and not suitable for batch production (in
the order of 50 to 100,000 parts annually). A more flexible automation technology which
takes into account frequent changes in production is needed for this category of industrial
production, which accounts for about 75 percent of the manufactured parts. Hence, with
the development of industrial robots a new solution is offered to the handling and
machine tool loading of small and medium sized parts. Actually, loading and unloading
machine tools are the major applications of robots. Robots are utilised to load and unload
machine tools in two basic configurations :
(a) a robot tending a single machine, and
(b) a robot serving several machines.
The first configuration is applied when typical machining times per part are short, and the
second system when a chain of operations must be executed to complete a part. This
category includes a wide variety of applications. The items being handled by robots may
weigh anything from a few grams to some tonnes. Obviously the type of robot applied
will also vary considerably, from lightweight non-servo-controlled pneumatic robots,
through medium sized electric types, to massive hydraulic manipulators. For many
applications the cylindrical, polar and articulated types are equally suitable, and for some
light duty work in restricted areas rectangular types may be used. For material handling
applications point to point control is necessary. The controller should be able to store a
large number of points and have the facility to easily program horizontal and vertical
increments. Thus, by defining only the start point the robot arm can be programmed to
pick or place components at equal steps along the X, Y and Z axes by simply defining the
length, direction and number of steps.

3.2.2 Welding
Welding is a manufacturing process in which two pieces of metal are joined usually by
heating and fusing. The welding operations performed by robots are thermal processes in
which the metals are joined by melting or fusing their contacting surfaces. These
processes can be grouped under two classes, namely, one where no filler material is
added to the joint interface, and those in which a filler material of the same type as the
parent metal is added. Accordingly, there are two types of welding operations performed
by the robots : spot welding and arc welding. Spot welding falls in the first category
where the two pieces of metal are joined only at certain points. The required heat is
generated by the passage of an electric current through the metals at the point where they
are to be joined. Spot welding is frequently used in the automative industry to join thin
sheet metals. Arc welding falls in the second category in which the two metals are joined
along a continuous path. The required heat is provided by an electric arc generated
between the electrode and the metals. Arc welding is needed, for example, in sealing a
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container against leakage. Each of these welding operations requires a different type of Applications
equipment and a different control system for the robot arm.
Spot-welding Robots
A spot-welding robot has to carry the welding gun, which consists of electrodes,
cables to conduct high current, and sometimes a water-cooling system for the
electrodes. The welding gun is relatively heavy (10 to 80 kg), and many DC motor
driven robots cannot handle such heavy loads. Therefore, most of the spot-welding
robots are hydraulically powered. The control system for spot-welding robots is of
a point to point (PTP) type. The desired positional accuracy is usually not high,
and a positional repeatability of ± 1 mm is sufficient. This repeatability is much
better than that obtained by human welders. Further, the operation of robotised
spot welding is very fast. When the distance between spot welds is 25-50 mm,
several spot welds can be made per second – faster than human welders.
Positioning of the welds is more accurate, resulting in more uniform quality.
Spot-welding generates sparks which might be detected by the robot controller as
feedback pulses. Therefore, robots operating in a spot-welding environment may
require isolation transformers or special screening and filtering devices for their
controllers to protect them from the electrical noise and ensure reliable positioning.
Another special feature is an arm that is enclosed and thereby protecting the cables
from sparks. Spot-welding robots are used in fabrication of structural metal
products, domestic appliances, metal furniture, containers which do not require
liquid-tight joints, etc. However, nowhere have spot-welding robots affected
industry operation more than in car body assembly. The first spot-welding robots
were installed in 1969 at a General Motors plant for welding car bodies. Since then
spot-welding robots have proved to be very profitable. Moreover, parts of the
robots can be suspended from the ceiling, which saves expensive floor space.
Several robots can operate simultaneously on the same car body, which increases
the efficiency of the assembly line. Better efficiency is also obtained by specifying
fewer welds for robot welding than with human welders. A human operator might
miss a weld or make it in an incorrect location, and therefore many times extra
welds are added at the design stage. With robot operation the work is consistent
and all the welds are placed in the right location and therefore the required body
strength can be achieved by specifying fewer welds.
A typical assembly line produces between 50 to 90 cars per hour, and the work is
performed while the car bodies are continuously moving on conveyors, which
means that the weld locations specified by the task programs should be
synchronised with the velocity of the assembly line. Since the velocity of the
assembly line is constant, the positional compensation is inserted off line into the
task programs, and consequently those programs are appropriate only for one
specific line velocity.
Arc Welding Robots
While most robotic arc welding uses a consumable wire electrode (i.e., in MIG
welding) with an automatic wire feeder, welding with non-consumable tungsten
electrodes with shielding gas (i.e. in TIG welding) is also in use. In arc welding a
robot uses the welding gun as a tool. The mechanism is demonstrated in
Figure 3.1. The consumable electrode, which provides the filler material, is in the
form of a wire (coiled on a drum) of the same composition as the material to be
welded. Wire diameters of 0.8 to 4.8 mm are commonly used. The wire is
automatically fed by a motor with adjustable speed at a preset rate that is
determined by the arc voltage. The wire feed increases with an increase in the
voltage applied between the work and the electrode. This voltage can be monitored
and used to maintain a constant arc length by varying the speed of the motor which
feeds the wire. In order to keep the electrode cooler and permit higher currents to
be used, the shielding gas flows in a tube along the electrode. The tube is 53
Robot and its terminated in a nozzle at the end of the gun from which the gas flows into the arc
Application
region. Welding robotic systems sometimes use water-cooled guns.

Figure 3.1 : Insert Gas Shielded Arc Welding with a Continuous Wire Fed as Electrode

The weight of the welding gun is usually not heavy (unless the water-cooled type
is used) and therefore DC servomotor-driven robots are typically used in arc
welding, although hydraulically drive robot are also sometimes used. Welding
speeds range from about 10 to over 120 in/min (0.25 to 3 m/min). The welding
current usually ranges between 100 and 300 A, but with the larger electrodes
the current may be as high as 1200 A, resulting in a very deep penetration of the
weld. The control of both the rate at which the wire electrode is fed and the
welding cycle (i.e. the time during which the inert gas flows) are performed by the
standard welding equipment. The task of the robot is to lead the welding gun along
the programmed trajectory. The control system for robots in arc welding is usually
of a continuous path (CP) type. Nevertheless, point to point (PTP) control systems
are also used. In PTP programming, the required trajectory is divided into a large
number of small (e.g., 1 cm) and equal segments. In all cases the control computer
of the robot is interfaced with the control unit of the welding equipment in order to
synchronise the start and termination of the robot motions with the cycle of the
welding equipment.

3.2.3 Spray Painting

The unhealthy and unpleasant environment of the painting booth in industry made this
process an ideal candidate for the application of robots. The solvent materials that are
used in spray painting are toxic, and therefore the operators must be protected by masks
and be provided with fresh-air ventilation. The painting area must be dust-free and
temperature-controlled, and consequently the painting booth is small in size and
inconvenient for the operators. Furthermore, the noise arising from the air discharge
through the painting nozzles can cause irreversible damage to the ears. For all these
reasons, spray painting became one of the first applications of robots. The requirement
for robots in spray painting are different from those of other robot applications, and
therefore many robot manufacturers offer a robot dedicated to this one application. The
spray painting robots are of CP type and have the following characteristics :
(a) high level of manipulator dexterity,
(b) large working volume for small-base manipulator,
(c) compact writs,
(d) small payload, and
(e) low accuracy and repeatability.
The painting robot must be able to carry any type of spray gun. Spray guns, however, are
light in weight and therefore painting robots are designed for small payloads (e.g., 1 kg).
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Finally, the requirements for repeatability and resolution are the least severe in painting Applications
robots. The exact location of end points is not critical, and in many jobs can be even
outside the painted surface. Therefore, a repeatability of 2 mm throughout the working
volume is regarded as sufficient for spray-painting robots.
3.2.4 Assembling
Assembling with industrial robots is mainly for small products such as electrical switches
and small motors. Robotised assembly systems are programmable and therefore provided
a cost-effective solution for the assembly of small batch sizes and for batches containing
different products. Although industrial robots require same fixtures, feeders, and other
equipment for positioning the parts as conventional assembly machines, simpler
workpiece feeder and fixtures may be used because of robots’ programmability feature.
Furthermore, tactile or optical sensors may be added to the assembly robot to tackle more
complex assembly tasks. Some assembly tasks require the participation of more than one
robot. In order to reduce the cost per arm, there are systems in which several cartesian
arms can use the same base and share the same controller. Assembly robots can be
designed in any coordinate system, cartesian, cylindrical, spherical, or articulated.
However, many tasks require only vertical assembly motions, such as the assembly of
printed circuit boards. For these applications the four-axis robot shown in Figure 3.2 can
be adequate. Its arm has two articulated motions, and the wrist has two axes of motion : a
linear vertical displacement and a roll movement. This robot can pick up parts located on
the horizontal plane, bring them to the assembly location, orient them with the roll
motion of the wrist, and finally insert them in a vertical motion.

Figure 3.2 : SCARA-type Robot for Assembly in the Vertical Direction

This class of robot is known as the selective-compliance-assembly robot-arm (SCARA),

and was developed in Japan.

3.2.5 Machining
There are five basic types of machine tools to perform machining : drilling machine,
lathe or turning machine, milling machine, shaper, and grinder. Out of all these
machining operations, only drilling is being successfully done with robots, and mainly in
the aircraft industry. Another application related to machining which is performed by
robots is deburring metal parts. Most metal parts made by machining operations (either
by machine tools or by mass production machines) contain burrs, that is, rough edges or
ridges left on the machined surfaces. The removal of these burrs can be done by robots.
Drilling
Robots can replace the manual operators if the template hole is provided with a
chamfered guide. The gripper of the robot holds a portable pneumatic drill and
guides from hole to hole. At each hole, a fixed drill cycle is performed, and then
the robot moves the drill to the next hole. Programming the robot to perform the
task is quite simple. Since drilling is PTP operation, the manual teaching method is
appropriate. The programming and control methods are much more complicated
when CP machining operations (e.g., deburring) are applied.
Deburring
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Robot and its Burrs are generated almost always when machining is performed on metal parts.
Application
Burrs are generated between a machined surface and a raw surface, or at the
intersection between two machined surfaces. The removal of these burrs is an
expensive operation. Most deburring is performed manually by workers equipped
with appropriate tools. By closely following the manual method, the industrial
robot can solve most deburring problems.
There are two basic way to perform robotised deburring. If the part is relatively
lightweight, it can be picked up by the robot and brought to the dubrring tool. If
the part is heavy, then the robot holds the tool. The support of the tool is very
important, whether it is held by the robot or mounted on the work table. In both
cases the relative motion between the tool and the part is of a CP type with high
repeatability (approximately 0.2 mm) and highly controlled speed. Therefore,
deburring is one of the most difficult tasks for robots.
SAQ 1
(a) In what type of welding are robots used?
(b) What are the characteristics of spray painting robots?
(c) In which tasks are high accuracies required?

3.3 OTHER APPLICATIONS

The applications of robots explained above are basically the tasks previously performed
by human beings. However, the present day robots are also used in medical surgery,
space explorations, and others, which are explained next.
3.3.1 Medical
Medical robots have found applications mainly in surgery. It is a highly interactive
process and many surgical decisions are made in the operating room. The goal of surgical
robots is not to replace the surgeon with a robot, but to provide the surgeon with a new
set of very versatile tools that extend his or her ability to treat patients. Hence, medical
robotic systems are surgical assistants that work cooperatively with surgeons. A special
subclass of these systems is often used for remote surgery. Currently, there are two main
varieties of surgical assistant robot are available. The first variety, surgeon extender, is
controlled directly by the surgeons. They augment or supplement the surgeon’s ability to
manipulate surgical instruments during surgery. The promise of these systems is that they
can give even average surgeons superhuman capabilities such as elimination of hand
tremor or ability to perform dexterous operations inside the patient’s body, etc. As a
result, casualty rates are reduced, and operative times are shortened. The second variety,
auxiliary surgical support, generally works side-by-side with the surgeon and perform
such functions as endoscope holding or retraction. These systems typically provide one
or more direct control interfaces such as joysticks, head trackers, voice control, or the
like. However, the surgeon should be attentive during their use, e.g., while using robot
vision to keep the endoscope aimed at an anatomic target.
Note that initial surgical robotic systems in the 1980s employed general-purpose
industrial manipulators, either directly or with minor modifications. Industrial robots are
still being used today as research and validation tools where immediate clinical use is not
contemplated or specialised kinematic design is not essential. Surgical robots must be
compatible with the operating theatre. The robot must have sufficient strength, accuracy,
and dexterity for its intended use. It must be placed where it can work on the patient
while also allowing access by clinical staff. Usually, this is done by mounting the robot
56
on the operating table or placing it on the floor beside the patient. However, ceiling Applications
mounts and attachment to the patient are occasionally used.
3.3.2 Mining
In order to enhance productivity, access unworkable mineral seams, and reduce human
exposure to the inhospitable environment of dust, noise, gas, and water, moving
equipment and robots are used. In coal mining, room-and-pillar mining is accomplished
by repetition of a well-defined cycle of cutting coal, removing coal, and supporting the
roof. When a robot is used the ability to maneuver it in highly constrained corridor-like
environments, and to accurate cut of coal is required. Data from a laser range scanner can
be used to model the environment and to compute the position of the robot.
3.3.3 Space
Explorations of the planets, moons and other near bodies in space are a clear goal for the
international space science community. A robotic approach to explore these bodies has
the benefit of being able to achieve many of the things a human could do but at lower
cost without endangering human life. To be effective, such robotic systems must be
versatile and robust with cost reduction becoming increasingly important. There are a
variety of tasks that the robots can do in space including space manipulation (servicing
equipment in space), surface mobility (planetary exploration), and robotic colonies
(outposts that are either self-sustaining, or preparatory for human colonies). In addition,
robots may perform scientific experiments that include sample and return of planetary
atmosphere or terrain, manipulating the environment (moving rocks, drilling, etc.),
testing the composition of the atmosphere and other tests using arbitrary scientific
equipment. There are three characteristics that a robot should have for space missions :
Compactness and Lightness
The cost of sending robot into space is directly correlated to its size and weight.
Robustness
Missions often have only one attempt to succeed (usually at great cost).
Versatility and Adaptability
In exploration where the environments are inherently unknown, adaptability must
be high to increase the chance of success.
3.3.4 Underwater
Underwater applications of robots involve prospecting for minerals on the floor of the
ocean (e.g., nodules of manganese), salvaging of sunken vessels, and the repair of ships
either at sea or in dry dock. In the latter case, a prototype version of a mobile robot that is
used to clean barnacles from the sides of ships has been built and tested in France by a
ship-building company. This rather remarkable tripod is capable of moving in either air
(i.e., above the waterline) or in water. It grips the ship sides with both vacuum and
magnetic feet, a technique that has proven to be reliable. The scrubbing action is
produced by a rotating brush mounted on the end of a rotary axis arm.
3.3.5 Defence
The defence people, namely, the air force and navy, are both interested in mobile fire
fighters. These devices would be equipped with infrared and several advanced sensors
that could react more quickly than people in an emergency and in extremely hazardous
situations. Other defence applications of robots will be on the battlefield itself. Although
it is not inconceivable that robots might someday be used to fight other robots, more
realistic short-term applications from the defence’s point of view would be in the areas of
surveillance (e.g., guard and sentry duty), mine sweeping, and artillery-loading devices.
The application of robots for surveillance and guard duty can be in power generating
plants, oil refineries, and other large civilian facilities that are potential targets of the
terrorist groups. The robots for these applications would probably be mobile (running on
wheels, treads, or tracks), equipped with some form of vision system and other types of 57
Robot and its sensors (e.g., infrared), and even have defensive and/or offensive capability. In fact,
Application
several police forces (e.g., those in New York City and in London) have already
employed prototypes of this class of robots for bomb disposal.

3.4 ROBOT ECONOMICS AND SAFETY

In this section, economics and safety issues associated with robot usages are explained.
3.4.1 Robot Economics
The success of any commercial undertaking has to be measured in terms of financial
performance. The most brilliant technical innovation is a failure if it results in money lost
by the entrepreneur or his shareholders. Robots are no exception to this rule. No matter
what the social benefits are, no matter how clever the technology, no matter how pretty
the robot is to watch, every proposed investment in robotics has to pass the test of a
critical financial appraisal. The following headings provide a framework for management
to analyse the costs and benefits of the robotics installation.
Purchase Price of a Robot
The purchase price of a robot is highly variable, particularly, a robot includes
simple pick and place devices with few articulations. The range might extend from
Rs. 10 lakhs to Rs. 50 lakhs depending upon the number of articulations, operating
area, weight handling capacity and control sophistication. Generally speaking, the
higher priced robots are capable of more demanding jobs and their control
sophistication assures that they can be adapted to new jobs when original
assignments are completed. So the more expensive and more sophisticated robots
will normally require less special tooling and lower installation cost.
Special Tooling
Special tooling for a robot may include an indexing conveyor, weld guns,
transformers, clamps and a supervisory computer for a complex task, e.g., in spot
welding of car bodies. For assembly automation, the special parts may cost well in
excess of the robot equipment costs.
Installation
Installation cost is sometimes charged fully to a robot project, but is often carried
as overhead because plant layout changes. As a model change there are usually
installation costs to be absorbed even if equipment is to be manually operated.
There is no logic to penalising the robot installation for any more than a
differential cost which is inherent in the robotising process.
Maintenance and Periodic Overhaul
To keep a robot functioning properly, there is a need for regular maintenance, a
periodic need for more sweeping overhaul, and a random need to correct
unscheduled downtime incidents. A rule of thumb for well-designed production
equipment operated for two shifts continually is a total annual cost of 10% of the
purchase price. This has been borne out for thousands of Unimate robots, many of
which have enjoyed several overhauls whilst accumulating as much as 10,000
hours of field usage each. There is variability, of course, depending upon the
demands of the job and the environment. Maintenance costs in a foundry are
greater than those experienced in plastic moulding.
Operating Power
Operating power is easily calculated as the product of average power drain and the
hours worked. Even with increasing energy costs, this is not a major robot cost.
Finance
In some cost justification formulae one takes into account the current cost of
money. In others one uses an expected return on investment to establish economic
viability.
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Depreciation Applications

Robots, like any other equipment will exhibit a useful life and it is ordinary
practice to depreciate the investment over this useful life. Since a robot tends to be
a general purpose equipment, there is ample evidence that an 8 to 10 years life
running multi-shift is a conservative treatment.
The following observations are also made on potential benefits.
Increased Productivity
The prime issue in justifying a robot is increased productivity. Industries are
interested in shielding workers from hazardous working conditions, but the key
motivator is the increased productivity by introducing a robot that can operate for
more than one shift continuously and thereby multiply the production rate.
Quality Improvement
If a job is in a hazardous environment, or is physically demanding, or is simply
mind-numbing, there is a good chance that product quality will suffer according to
the mood of a human worker. A robot may well be more consistent on the job and
therefore it may produce a higher quality output.
Increase in Throughput
Higher quality naturally means more net output when robot woks fast enough to
just match a human workers' output. However, there often are circumstances where
a robot can work faster to increase gross output as well. The increased throughput
is valuable in its own right.
3.4.2 Robot Safety
It is said that robots take over the hazardous jobs, but at the same time new risks are
involved. One thing that must be kept in mind is that a robot is a type of automatic
machine – a very sophisticated one, but a machine nevertheless. It has to be treated with
respect like any other piece of equipment. Accidents involving robots can happen just as
with other machinery. The robot workplace must be watched to prevent operators from
hurting themselves through carelessness, exactly as it is done with other automated
machines. Robots, however, may need more attention, since their workspace is much
larger than the occupied floor space, and people may not be aware of the danger of the
moving manipulator. Some of the possible ways the accidents can happen are as
follows :
(a) The arm of a robot suddenly moves as the oil-pressure is cut off after the
robot completes its work, or there is a power failure.
(b) A robot executes a motion that was not part of its program.
(c) A robot starts moving as soon as its power source is switched on, although
its interlock conditions are still not ready.
(d) When operating alone, a robot destroys the work it is to weld because of a
mistake in program instruction.
(e) High summer temperature leading to erratic behaviour.
The most common causes of malfunctions are reported to be electrical noise, oil-pressure
valve troubles, encoder-related problems, electronic malfunctions, and mistakes by
human workers. Safety measures for using robots must be imposed for the following
reasons :
(a) For programming, humans must enter the workspace of robots.
(b) Monitoring, tool changing, inspection, and other operations involving robots
or their peripheral equipment are still done by humans.
(c) To correct problems with peripheral equipment, it is necessary to enter the
workspace of robots. 59
Robot and its (d) Since each robot installation is different, each presents unique application
Application
problems.
(e) In programmed or accidental halt, the operator might enter the workspace to
inspect the work or investigate the trouble.
To take care of the issues arising out of the above reasons, the following three aspects
must be looked into :
(a) the design of a reliable control system to prevent malfunctions,
(b) the design of the workstation layout, and
(c) training of plant personnel (programmers, operators, and maintenance staff).
While the first aspect depends on the robot manufacturer, the other two must be taken
care of in the plant itself. The following guidelines can help to remove hazardous
situations to robot personnel, factory workers, visitors, and to the robot itself :
(a) The robot working area should be closed by permanent barriers (e.g., fences,
rolls, and chains) to prevent people from entering the area while the robot is
working. The robot’s reach envelope diagram should be used in planning the
barriers. The advantage of fence-type barrier is that it is also capable of
stopping a part which might be released by robot’s gripper while in motion.
(b) Access gates to the closed working area of the robot should be interlocked
with the robot control. Once such a gate is opened, it automatically shuts
down the robot system.
(c) An illuminated working sign, stating “robot at work,” should be
automatically turned on when the robot is switched on. This lighted sign
warns visitors not to enter into the closed area when the robot is switched
no, even if it does not move.
(d) Emergency stop buttons must be provided in easily accessible locations as
well as on the robot’s teach box and control console. Hitting the emergency
button stops power to the motors and causes the brakes on each joint to be
applied.
(e) Pressure-sensitive pads can be put on the floor around the robot that, when
stepped on, turn the robot controller off.
(f) Emphasise safety practices during robot maintenance. In addition, the arm
can be blocked up on a specially built holding device before any service
work is started.
(g) Great care must be taken during programming with the manual teaching
mode. The teach box must be designed so that the robot can move as long as
a switch is pressed by the operator’s finger. Removing the finger must cease
all robot motions.
(h) The robot’s electrical and hydraulic installation should meet proper
standards. This includes efficient grounding of the robot body. Electric
cables must be located where they cannot be damaged by the movements of
the robot. This is especially important when the robot carries tools such as a
welding gun.
(i) Power cables and signal wires must not create hazards if they are
accidentally cut during the operation of the robot.
(j) If a robot works in cooperation with an operator, for example, when a robot
forwards parts to a human assembler, the robot must be programmed to
extend its arm to the maximum when forwarding the parts so that the worker
can stand beyond the reach of the arm.
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 (k) Mechanical stoppers, interlocks, and sensors can be added to limit the Applications
robot’s reach envelope when the maximum range is not required. If a wall or
a piece of machinery not served by the robot is located inside the reach
envelope, the robot can be prevented from entering into this area by adding
photoelectric devices, stoppers, or interlock switches in the appropriate
spots. There are robots supplied when adjustable mechanical stoppers for
this purpose.
Another approach states that robots themselves be able to detect the approach of humans.
Therefore, the solution to the safety problem is to provide sensor system that can detect
intruders entering the robot area while it is in motion. The American National Bureau of
Standards (NBS) divides the sensor systems into three levels :
Level I : Perimeter Penetration Detection around the Workstation
Level I systems provide perimeter penetration detection around the robot
workstation. These systems provide an indication of an intruder crossing the
workstation boundary, but they do not necessarily provide any information
regarding the location of the intruder within the workstation. The simplest safety
strategy approach might be to use the level I system to alert personnel that they are
entering a robot workstation and that they should exercise extreme caution or to
provide a preliminary signal to the robot control system to check the status of other
safety sensors.
Level II : Intruder Detection within the Workstation
Level II systems provide detection in the region between the workstation perimeter
and some point on, or just inside, the working volume of the robot. The actual
boundaries of this region are dependent upon the workstation layout and the safety
strategy being employed for a particular robot design. In some cases, it may be
permissible for personnel to be inside the workstation and perhaps even inside a
portion of the accessible working volume of the robot while the robot is operating.
In others, it may be necessary to slow down to halt all robot movements as soon as
an intruder gets within a specified distance of the robot.
Level III : Intruder Detection very near the Robot (a “Safety Skin”)
Level III systems provide detection within the robot working volume. This type of
system, sometimes referred to as a safety skin, is required for cases where
personnel must work close to the robot, such as during teach-mode operations. In
such cases, the robot must be operational even though someone is within the
working volume. The level III system must be capable of sensing and avoiding an
imminent collision between the robot and the operator in the event of some
unexpected movement. Because the distance between the robot and the operator is
much less in this case, the response time of the level III safety system must be
much shorter than for the level I or II systems. These smaller separation distances
also impose a requirement for finer distance-resolving capabilities in the level III
system.
Figure 3.3 illustrates how the transducers are positioned to provide coverage in the
workspace area. Since robot installations are not standard and depend on the exact
location in the plant, it is difficult to provide guidelines or a design of a sensor
safety system which will fit all cases. Therefore, it is wise to have a safety engineer
check out the installation before putting the robot to production work.

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Robot and its
Application

Figure 3.3 : Robot Transducers with Coverage Areas

SAQ 2
(a) Write how the robots can be used in medical surgery?
(b) What are the aspects of robotics a company management would look for?
(c) What are the safety issues in robotics?

3.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, industrial and other applications of robots are presented. It is important to
decide whether a robot should be used or not for an application. Moreover, robot safety
should be considered while installing them in a factory setup. These aspects are also
explained here.

3.6 KEY WORDS

PTP : Point to point.
CP : Continuous path.
Industrial : Typical activities, e.g., in auto manufacturing and
others.

3.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Please refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.

FURTHER READINGS
Koren, Y. (1987), Robotics for Engineers, McGraw Hill, New York.
Klafter, R. D., Chmielewski, T. A., and Negin, M. (1994), Robotic Engineering – An
Integrated Approach, Prentice-Hall India, New Delhi.

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 Applications

ROBOTICS
The course on Robotics for IGNOU students is divided into three blocks, namely,
Block 1 : Robot and its Application
Block 2 : Kinematics and Dynamics of Robots
Block 3 : Trajectory Planning and Control of Robots

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Robot and its While Block 1 introduces robots used in industries, Block 2 presents the analyses
Application
required for their control and design. Finally, Block 3 outlines a control strategy, path
planning, etc. to control a robot.
To understand the topics covered in these blocks in a more lucid manner they are further
divided into three units per block.
Block 1 consists of three units. In Unit 1, different types of robots are introduced with
their application areas. Different methodologies used for robot classification of serial
robots are also presented. Unit 2 describes several types of actuators, namely, pneumatic,
hydraulic and electric types. Sensors being the important components of a robot are also
explained here. Unit 3 elaborates different applications of robots, e.g. welding,
machining, etc. Various aspects of robot economics are also considered here.
In Block 2, there are three units. First unit defines architectures of a robot. Mathematical
description of the robot’s pose, i.e. the position and orientation of its end-effector, is
presented, along with the definition of Denavit and Hartebnerg (DH) parameters. Second
unit, i.e. Unit 5 forms the fundamental basis for the dynamics, design and control of a
robot. Equations relating the joint coordinates with the Cartesian coordinates of the
end-effector are derived. In the last unit of this block, i.e. dynamics is useful for the
control and virtual representation of a robot system. Different methodologies like
Euler-Lagrange and Newton-Euler equations of motion are derived here.
Last block, i.e. Block 3 has three units. In first unit, several trajectory planning aspects,
control systems and robot programming are discussed. Joint and Cartesian space based
trajectory planning equations are derived in this unit. In the second unit, linear control, P,
PD, PID control laws, etc. are covered and in the last unit, different robot programming
schemes like on-line and off-line programming are discussed.

ROBOT AND ITS APPLICATIONS

In Block 1, Robot and its Applications have been explained. This block consists of three
units.
In Unit 1, i.e. Configuration and Classification, different types of robot subsystems like
motion, recognition and control have been described. It also gives the classification of
robot based on its applications, coordinate system, actuation system, control method and
programme.
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Unit 2 deals with Actuators and Sensors. It is necessary to understand different types of Applications
actuators like pneumatic, hydraulic and electric, etc. In this unit, different types of
transmission systems, sensors and vision systems are also given. It also explains the
selection methodology for selecting different types of actuators, drivers and sensors.
Unit 3 describes different types of robotic applications. Robots are not used only for
industrial applications but also for medical, mining and space applications also explained
which is necessary to understand before starting to use robot.

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