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Contents

11 Vectors and the Geometry of Space 747

11.1 Vectors in the Plane 748
11.2 Space Coordinates and Vectors in Space 758
11.3 The Dot Product of Two Vectors 766
11.4 The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space 775
11.5 Lines and Planes in Space 783
Section Project: Distances in Space 793
11.6 Surfaces in Space 794
11.7 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 804
Review Exercises 811
P.S. Problem Solving 813

12 Vector-Valued Functions 815

12.1 Vector-Valued Functions 816
Section Project: Witch of Agnesi 823
12.2 Differentiation and Integration of Vector-Valued
Functions 824
12.3 Velocity and Acceleration 832
12.4 Tangent Vectors and Normal Vectors 841
12.5 Arc Length and Curvature 851
Review Exercises 863
P.S. Problem Solving 865

13 Functions of Several Variables 867

13.1 Introduction to Functions of Several Variables 868
13.2 Limits and Continuity 880
13.3 Partial Derivatives 890
Section Project: Moiré Fringes 899
13.4 Differentials 900
13.5 Chain Rules for Functions of Several Variables 907
13.6 Directional Derivatives and Gradients 915
13.7 Tangent Planes and Normal Lines 927
Section Project: Wildflowers 935
13.8 Extrema of Functions of Two Variables 936
13.9 Applications of Extrema 944
Section Project: Building a Pipeline 951
13.10 Lagrange Multipliers 952
Review Exercises 960
P.S. Problem Solving 963

iii

14 Multiple Integration 965

14.1 Iterated Integrals and Area in the Plane 966
14.2 Double Integrals and Volume 974
14.3 Change of Variables: Polar Coordinates 986
14.4 Center of Mass and Moments of Inertia 994
Section Project: Center of Pressure on a Sail 1001
14.5 Surface Area 1002
Section Project: Capillary Action 1008
14.6 Triple Integrals and Applications 1009
14.7 Triple Integrals in Other Coordinates 1020
Section Project: Wrinkled and Bumpy Spheres 1026
14.8 Change of Variables: Jacobians 1027
Review Exercises 1034
P.S. Problem Solving 1037

15 Vector Analysis 1039

15.1 Vector Fields 1040
15.2 Line Integrals 1051
15.3 Conservative Vector Fields and Independence
of Path 1065
15.4 Green’s Theorem 1075
Section Project: Hyperbolic and Trigonometric
Functions 1083
15.5 Parametric Surfaces 1084
15.6 Surface Integrals 1094
Section Project: Hyperboloid of One Sheet 1105
15.7 Divergence Theorem 1106
15.8 Stokes’s Theorem 1114
Review Exercises 1120
Section Project: The Planimeter 1122
P.S. Problem Solving 1123

16 Additional Topics in Differential Equations 1125

16.1 Exact First-Order Equations 1126
16.2 Second-Order Homogeneous Linear Equations 1133
16.3 Second-Order Nonhomogeneous Linear Equations 1141
Section Project: Parachute Jump 1148
16.4 Series Solutions of Differential Equations 1149
Review Exercises 1153
P.S. Problem Solving 1155

Appendices
Appendix A: Proofs of Selected Theorems A2
Appendix B: Integration Tables A3
Appendix C: Precalculus Review (Web)*
C.1 Real Numbers and the Real Number Line
C.2 The Cartesian Plane
C.3 Review of Trigonometric Functions
Appendix D: Rotation and the General Second-Degree Equation (Web)*
Appendix E: Complex Numbers (Web)*
Appendix F: Business and Economic Applications (Web)*

Answers to All Odd-Numbered Exercises and Tests A85

Index A119

*Available at the text-specific website www.cengagebrain.com

Welcome to Calculus, Tenth Edition. We are proud to present this new edition to you.
As with all editions, we have been able to incorporate many useful comments from
you, our user. For this edition, we have introduced some new features and revised
others. You will still find what you expect – a
pedagogically sound, mathematically precise,
and comprehensive textbook.
We are pleased and excited to offer
you something brand new with this edition –
a companion website at LarsonCalculus.com.
This site offers many resources that will help
you as you study calculus. All of these
resources are just a click away.
Our goal for every edition of this textbook
is to provide you with the tools you need to
master calculus. We hope that you find the
changes in this edition, together with
LarsonCalculus.com, will accomplish just that.
In each exercise set, be sure to notice the
reference to CalcChat.com. At this free site,
you can download a step-by-step solution to
any odd-numbered exercise. Also, you can talk
to a tutor, free of charge, during the hours posted
at the site. Over the years, thousands of students
have visited the site for help. We use all of this
information to help guide each revision of the
exercises and solutions.
New To This Edition
NEW LarsonCalculus.com
This companion website offers multiple tools
and resources to supplement your learning.
Access to these features is free. Watch videos
explaining concepts or proofs from the book,
explore examples, view three-dimensional
graphs, download articles from math journals
and much more.

NEW Chapter Opener

Each Chapter Opener highlights real-life
applications used in the examples and exercises.

NEW Interactive Examples

Examples throughout the book are accompanied by
Interactive Examples at LarsonCalculus.com. These
interactive examples use Wolfram’s free CDF Player
and allow you to explore calculus by manipulating
functions or graphs, and observing the results.

NEW Proof Videos

Watch videos of co-author Bruce Edwards as
he explains the proofs of theorems in Calculus,
Tenth Edition at LarsonCalculus.com.

NEW How Do You See It?

The How Do You See It? feature in each section presents
a real-life problem that you will solve by visual inspection
using the concepts learned in the lesson. This exercise is
excellent for classroom discussion or test preparation. 118. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? The figure shows the
graphs of the position, velocity, and acceleration
REVISED Remark functions of a particle.
These hints and tips reinforce or expand upon concepts, y
help you learn how to study mathematics, caution you
16
about common errors, address special cases, or show 12
alternative or additional steps to a solution of an example. 8
4
t
−1 1 4 5 6 7
REVISED Exercise Sets
The exercise sets have been carefully and extensively
examined to ensure they are rigorous and relevant
and include all topics our users have suggested. The (a) Copy the graphs of the functions shown. Identify
exercises have been reorganized and titled so you each graph. Explain your reasoning. To print an
can better see the connections between examples and enlarged copy of the graph, go to MathGraphs.com.
exercises. Multi-step, real-life exercises reinforce (b) On your sketch, identify when the particle speeds up
problem-solving skills and mastery of concepts by and when it slows down. Explain your reasoning.
giving students the opportunity to apply the concepts
in real-life situations.

Table of Content Changes

Appendix A (Proofs of Selected Theorems) now
appears in video format at LarsonCalculus.com.
The proofs also appear in text form at
CengageBrain.com.

Trusted Features
Applications
Carefully chosen applied exercises and examples
are included throughout to address the question,
“When will I use this?” These applications are
pulled from diverse sources, such as current events,
world data, industry trends, and more, and relate
to a wide range of interests. Understanding where
calculus is (or can be) used promotes fuller under-
standing of the material.

Writing about Concepts

Writing exercises at the end of each section
are designed to test your understanding of basic
concepts in each section, encouraging you to
verbalize and write answers and promote technical
communication skills that will be invaluable in
your future careers.

Theorems
Theorems provide the conceptual framework for calculus. Theorems
are clearly stated and separated from the rest of the text by boxes for quick
visual reference. Key proofs often follow the theorem and can be found
at LarsonCalculus.com.

Definitions
Definition of Definite Integral As with theorems, definitions are clearly
If f is defined on the closed interval 关a, b兴 and the limit of Riemann sums over stated using precise, formal wording and
partitions ⌬ are separated from the text by boxes for
n quick visual reference.
lim 兺 f 共c 兲 ⌬ x
储⌬储→0 i⫽1
i i

exists (as described above), then f is said to be integrable on 关a, b兴 and the
Explorations
limit is denoted by Explorations provide unique challenges

兺 f 共c 兲 ⌬ x ⫽ 冕
n b to study concepts that have not yet been
lim i i f 共x兲 dx. formally covered in the text. They allow
储⌬储→0 i⫽1 a

The limit is called the definite integral of f from a to b. The number a is the
you to learn by discovery and introduce
lower limit of integration, and the number b is the upper limit of integration. topics related to ones presently being
studied. Exploring topics in this way
encourages you to think outside the box.

Historical Notes and Biographies

Historical Notes provide you with background
information on the foundations of calculus.
The Biographies introduce you to the people
who created and contributed to calculus.

Technology
Throughout the book, technology boxes show
you how to use technology to solve problems
and explore concepts of calculus. These tips
also point out some pitfalls of using technology.

Section Projects
Projects appear in selected sections and encourage
you to explore applications related to the topics
you are studying. They provide an interesting
and engaging way for you and other students
to work and investigate ideas collaboratively.

Putnam Exam Challenges

Putnam Exam questions appear in selected
sections. These actual Putnam Exam questions
will challenge you and push the limits of
your understanding of calculus.

www.webassign.net
Printed Access Card: ISBN 0-538-73807-3
Online Access Code: ISBN 1-285-18421-1
Enhanced WebAssign is designed for you to do your homework online. This proven
and reliable system uses pedagogy and content found in this text, and then enhances
it to help you learn calculus more effectively. Automatically graded homework allows
you to focus on your learning and get interactive study assistance outside of class.
Enhanced WebAssign for Calculus, 10e contains the Cengage YouBook, an interactive
eBook that contains video clips, highlighting and note-taking features, and more!

CourseMate is a perfect study tool for bringing concepts to life with interactive
learning, study, and exam preparation tools that support the printed textbook.
CourseMate includes: an interactive eBook, videos, quizzes, flashcards, and more!
• CengageBrain.com—To access additional materials including CourseMate, visit
www.cengagebrain.com. At the CengageBrain.com home page, search for the ISBN
of your title (from the back cover of your book) using the search box at the top of the
page. This will take you to the product page where these resources can be found.

Instructor Resources
www.webassign.net
Exclusively from Cengage Learning, Enhanced WebAssign offers an extensive online
program for Calculus, 10e to encourage the practice that is so critical for concept
mastery. The meticulously crafted pedagogy and exercises in our proven texts become
even more effective in Enhanced WebAssign, supplemented by multimedia tutorial support
and immediate feedback as students complete their assignments. Key features include:
• Thousands of homework problems that match your textbook’s end-of-section
exercises
• Opportunities for students to review prerequisite skills and content both at the
start of the course and at the beginning of each section
• Read It eBook pages, Watch It Videos, Master It tutorials, and Chat About It links
• A customizable Cengage YouBook with highlighting, note-taking, and search
features, as well as links to multimedia resources
• Personal Study Plans (based on diagnostic quizzing) that identify chapter topics
that students will need to master
• A WebAssign Answer Evaluator that recognizes and accepts equivalent
mathematical responses in the same way you grade assignments
• A Show My Work feature that gives you the option of seeing students’ detailed
solutions
• Lecture videos, and more!

• Cengage Customizable YouBook—YouBook is an eBook that is both interactive

and customizable! Containing all the content from Calculus, 10e, YouBook features
a text edit tool that allows you to modify the textbook narrative as needed. With
YouBook, you can quickly re-order entire sections and chapters or hide any content
you don’t teach to create an eBook that perfectly matches your syllabus. You can
further customize the text by adding instructor-created or YouTube video links.
Additional media assets include: video clips, highlighting and note-taking features,
and more! YouBook is available within Enhanced WebAssign.
• Complete Solutions Manual for Multivariable Calculus
(Chapters 11–16 of Calculus): ISBN 1-285-08580-9
The Complete Solutions Manuals contain worked-out solutions to all exercises in
the text.
• Solution Builder (www.cengage.com/solutionbuilder)— This online instructor
database offers complete worked-out solutions to all exercises in the text, allowing
you to create customized, secure solutions printouts (in PDF format) matched
exactly to the problems you assign in class.
• PowerLecture (ISBN 1-285-08583-3)—This comprehensive instructor DVD
includes resources such as an electronic version of the Instructor’s Resource Guide,
complete pre-built PowerPoint® lectures, all art from the text in both jpeg and
PowerPoint formats, ExamView® algorithmic computerized testing software,
JoinIn™ content for audience response systems (clickers), and a link to Solution
Builder.
• ExamView Computerized Testing— Create, deliver, and customize tests in print
and online formats with ExamView®, an easy-to-use assessment and tutorial
software. ExamView for Calculus, 10e contains hundreds of algorithmic multiple-
choice and short answer test items. ExamView® is available on the PowerLecture DVD.
• Instructor’s Resource Guide (ISBN 1-285-09074-8)—This robust manual
contains an abundance of resources keyed to the textbook by chapter and section,
including chapter summaries and teaching strategies. An electronic version of the
Instructor’s Resource Guide is available on the PowerLecture DVD.

CourseMate is a perfect study tool for students, and requires no set up from you.
CourseMate brings course concepts to life with interactive learning, study, and
exam preparation tools that support the printed textbook. CourseMate
for Calculus, 10e includes: an interactive eBook, videos, quizzes, flashcards, and
more! For instructors, CourseMate includes Engagement Tracker, a first-of-its kind
tool that monitors student engagement.
• CengageBrain.com—To access additional course materials including CourseMate,
please visit http://login.cengage.com. At the CengageBrain.com home page, search
for the ISBN of your title (from the back cover of your book) using the search box
at the top of the page. This will take you to the product page where these resources
can be found.

Reviewers of the Tenth Edition

Denis Bell, University of Northern Florida; Abraham Biggs, Broward Community
College; Jesse Blosser, Eastern Mennonite School; Mark Brittenham, University of
Nebraska; Mingxiang Chen, North Carolina A & T State University; Marcia Kleinz,
Atlantic Cape Community College; Maxine Lifshitz, Friends Academy; Bill Meisel,
Florida State College at Jacksonville; Martha Nega, Georgia Perimeter College;
Laura Ritter, Southern Polytechnic State University; Chia-Lin Wu, Richard Stockton
College of New Jersey

Reviewers of Previous Editions

Stan Adamski, Owens Community College; Alexander Arhangelskii, Ohio University;
Seth G. Armstrong, Southern Utah University; Jim Ball, Indiana State University;
Marcelle Bessman, Jacksonville University; Linda A. Bolte, Eastern Washington
University; James Braselton, Georgia Southern University; Harvey Braverman,
Middlesex County College; Tim Chappell, Penn Valley Community College;
Oiyin Pauline Chow, Harrisburg Area Community College; Julie M. Clark, Hollins
University; P.S. Crooke, Vanderbilt University; Jim Dotzler, Nassau Community
College; Murray Eisenberg, University of Massachusetts at Amherst; Donna Flint,
South Dakota State University; Michael Frantz, University of La Verne; Sudhir Goel,
Valdosta State University; Arek Goetz, San Francisco State University; Donna J. Gorton,
Butler County Community College; John Gosselin, University of Georgia;
Shahryar Heydari, Piedmont College; Guy Hogan, Norfolk State University;
Ashok Kumar, Valdosta State University; Kevin J. Leith, Albuquerque Community
College; Douglas B. Meade, University of South Carolina; Teri Murphy, University
of Oklahoma; Darren Narayan, Rochester Institute of Technology; Susan A. Natale,
The Ursuline School, NY; Terence H. Perciante, Wheaton College;
James Pommersheim, Reed College; Leland E. Rogers, Pepperdine University;
Paul Seeburger, Monroe Community College; Edith A. Silver, Mercer County
Community College; Howard Speier, Chandler-Gilbert Community College;
Desmond Stephens, Florida A&M University; Jianzhong Su, University of Texas at
Arlington; Patrick Ward, Illinois Central College; Diane Zych, Erie Community College

Many thanks to Robert Hostetler, The Behrend College, The Pennsylvania State
University, and David Heyd, The Behrend College, The Pennsylvania State University,
for their significant contributions to previous editions of this text.
We would also like to thank the staff at Larson Texts, Inc., who assisted in preparing
the manuscript, rendering the art package, typesetting, and proofreading the pages and
supplements.
On a personal level, we are grateful to our wives, Deanna Gilbert Larson and
Consuelo Edwards, for their love, patience, and support. Also, a special note of thanks
goes out to R. Scott O’Neil.
If you have suggestions for improving this text, please feel free to write to us. Over
the years we have received many useful comments from both instructors and students,
and we value these very much.
Ron Larson
Bruce Edwards

APPROACH
TOPICS
COVERED Late Transcendental Early Transcendental Accelerated
Integrated coverage
Functions Functions coverage

3-semester Calculus Early

Calculus 10e Transcendental Functions 5e Essential Calculus
C A L C U L U S
EARLY TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

LARSON EDWARDS F I F T H E D I T I O N

Single Calculus: Early

Variable Calculus 10e Transcendental Functions 5e Calculus I with
Single Variable Single Variable Precalculus 3e
Only CALCULUS OF A
SINGLE VARIABLE
EARLY TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

LARSON EDWARDS F I F T H E D I T I O N

Multivariable Calculus 10e Calculus 10e

Multivariable Multivariable

Custom Calculus: Early Calculus I with

Calculus 10e Transcendental Functions 5e Essential Calculus Precalculus 3e
All of these C A L C U L U S
textbook EARLY TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

choices can
be customized
to fit the
individual
needs of your
course. LARSON EDWARDS F I F T H E D I T I O N

xii

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Vectors and the
11 Geometry of Space
11.1 Vectors in the Plane
11.2 Space Coordinates and Vectors in Space
11.3 The Dot Product of Two Vectors
11.4 The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space
11.5 Lines and Planes in Space
11.6 Surfaces in Space
11.7 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates

Geography (Exercise 45, p. 803)

Torque (Exercise 29, p. 781)

Work (Exercise 64, p. 774)

Auditorium Lights
(Exercise 101, p. 765)

Navigation (Exercise 84, p. 757)

747
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Losevsky Photo and Video/Shutterstock.com; Mikael Damkier/Shutterstock.com; Ziva_K/iStockphoto.com
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
748 Chapter 11 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

11.1 Vectors in the Plane

Write the component form of a vector.
Perform vector operations and interpret the results geometrically.
Write a vector as a linear combination of standard unit vectors.

Component Form of a Vector

Q Many quantities in geometry and physics, such as area, volume, temperature, mass, and
Terminal time, can be characterized by a single real number that is scaled to appropriate units of
point measure. These are called scalar quantities, and the real number associated with each
P PQ is called a scalar.
Initial Other quantities, such as force, velocity, and acceleration, involve both magnitude
point and direction and cannot be characterized completely by a single real number. A directed
A directed line segment line segment is used to represent such a quantity, as shown in Figure 11.1. The
\

Figure 11.1 directed line segment PQ has initial point P and terminal point Q, and its length (or
\

magnitude) is denoted by PQ . Directed line segments that have the same length and
direction are equivalent, as shown in Figure 11.2. The set of all directed line segments \

that are equivalent to a given directed line segment PQ is a vector in the plane and is
denoted by
\

v PQ .
In typeset material, vectors are usually denoted by lowercase, boldface letters such as
u, v, and w. When written by hand, however, vectors are often denoted by letters with
arrows above them, such as → u,→ v , and →
w.
Equivalent directed line segments Be sure you understand that a vector represents a set of directed line segments
Figure 11.2 (each having the same length and direction). In practice, however, it is common not to
distinguish between a vector and one of its representatives.

Vector Representation: Directed Line Segments

Let v be represented by the directed line segment from 0, 0 to 3, 2, and let u be
represented by the directed line segment from 1, 2 to 4, 4. Show that v and u are
equivalent.
Solution Let P0, 0 and Q3, 2 be the initial and terminal points of v, and let
R1, 2 and S4, 4 be the initial and terminal points of u, as shown in Figure 11.3. You \ \

can use the Distance Formula to show that PQ and RS have the same length.
\

PQ 3 0 2 2 0 2 13
\

RS 4 1 2 4 2 2 13
y
Both line segments have the same direction,
because they both are directed toward the (4, 4)
4 S
upper right on lines having the same slope.
\ 20 2 3
u
Slope of PQ
30 3
(1, 2) (3, 2)
2 Q
and R
\
42 2 v
Slope of RS 1
41 3
\ \

Because PQ and RS have the same length x

P (0, 0) 1 2 3 4
and direction, you can conclude that the two
vectors are equivalent. That is, v and u are The vectors u and v are equivalent.
equivalent. Figure 11.3

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
11.1 Vectors in the Plane 749
y
The directed line segment whose initial point is the origin is often the most
convenient representative of a set of equivalent directed line segments such as those
4
shown in Figure 11.3. This representation of v is said to be in standard position. A
directed line segment whose initial point is the origin can be uniquely represented by
3 the coordinates of its terminal point Qv1, v2 , as shown in Figure 11.4.
(v1, v2)
2 Q
Definition of Component Form of a Vector in the Plane
1 v If v is a vector in the plane whose initial point is the origin and whose terminal
v = 〈v1, v2 〉 point is v1, v2 , then the component form of v is
(0, 0)
x
P 1 2 3 4 v v1, v2 .

A vector in standard position The coordinates v1 and v2 are called the components of v. If both the initial
Figure 11.4 point and the terminal point lie at the origin, then v is called the zero vector
and is denoted by 0 0, 0.

This definition implies that two vectors u u1, u 2 and v v1, v2 are equal if and
only if u1 v1 and u 2 v2.
The procedures listed below can be used to convert directed line segments to
component form or vice versa.
1. If P p1, p2 and Q q1, q2 are the initial and terminal points of a directed line \

segment, then the component form of the vector v represented by PQ is

v1, v2 q1 p1, q2 p2 .
Moreover, from the Distance Formula, you can see that the length (or magnitude)
of v is

v q1 p12 q2 p22 Length of a vector

v21 v22.

2. If v v1, v2 , then v can be represented by the directed line segment, in standard

position, from P0, 0 to Q v1, v2 .
The length of v is also called the norm of v. If v 1, then v is a unit vector.
Moreover, v 0 if and only if v is the zero vector 0.

y Component Form and Length of a Vector

Q (− 2, 5) 6 Find the component form and length of the vector v that has initial point 3, 7 and
terminal point 2, 5.
4
Solution Let P3, 7 p1, p2 and Q2, 5 q1, q2 . Then the components
of v v1, v2 are
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
v1 q1 p1 2 3 5
−2
v and
−4
v2 q2 p2 5 7 12.
−6
So, as shown in Figure 11.5, v 5, 12, and the length of v is
P (3, −7)
−8
v 5 2 122
Component form of v: v 5, 12 169
Figure 11.5 13.

Vector Operations

Definitions of Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Let u u1, u2 and v v1, v2 be vectors and let c be a scalar.
1. The vector sum of u and v is the vector u v u1 v1, u2 v2.
2. The scalar multiple of c and u is the vector
cu cu1, cu 2 .
3. The negative of v is the vector
1 3
v 2
v
2v
− v
−v 2 v 1v v1, v2 .
4. The difference of u and v is
u v u v u1 v1, u2 v2 .

Geometrically, the scalar multiple of a vector v and a scalar c is the vector that is
The scalar multiplication of v c times as long as v, as shown in Figure 11.6. If c is positive, then cv has the same
Figure 11.6 direction as v. If c is negative, then cv has the opposite direction.
The sum of two vectors can be represented geometrically by positioning the
vectors (without changing their magnitudes or directions) so that the initial point of one
coincides with the terminal point of the other, as shown in Figure 11.7. The vector
u v, called the resultant vector, is the diagonal of a parallelogram having u and v as
its adjacent sides.

u+v
u u u+v
u

v v

To find u v, (1) move the initial point of v (2) move the initial point of u
WILLIAM ROWAN HAMILTON to the terminal point of u, or to the terminal point of v.
(1805–1865)
Figure 11.7
Some of the earliest work with
vectors was done by the Irish
mathematician William Rowan Figure 11.8 shows the equivalence of the geometric and algebraic definitions of
Hamilton. Hamilton spent many vector addition and scalar multiplication, and presents (at far right) a geometric
years developing a system of interpretation of u v.
vector-like quantities called
quaternions. It wasn’t until the
(ku1, ku2)
latter half of the nineteenth
century that the Scottish physicist (u1 + v1, u2 + v2)
James Maxwell (1831–1879) (u1, u2) ku
restructured Hamilton’s u+v ku2 −v
quaternions in a form useful for u u2 (u1, u2)
representing physical quantities u u−v
u u2
such as force, velocity, and (v1, v2)
acceleration. v2 u + (−v) v
v u1
See LarsonCalculus.com to read
more of this biography. v1 u1 ku1

Vector addition Scalar multiplication Vector subtraction

Figure 11.8
The Granger Collection, New York

Vector Operations
For v 2, 5 and w 3, 4, find each of the vectors.
1
a. 2 v b. w v c. v 2w
Solution
a. 2v 22, 25 1, 2
1 1 1 5

b. w v w1 v1, w2 v2 3 2, 4 5 5, 1

c. Using 2w 6, 8, you have
v 2w 2, 5 6, 8
2 6, 5 8
4, 13.

Vector addition and scalar multiplication share many properties of ordinary

arithmetic, as shown in the next theorem.

THEOREM 11.1 Properties of Vector Operations

Let u, v, and w be vectors in the plane, and let c and d be scalars.
1. uvvu Commutative Property
2. u v w u v w Associative Property
3. u0u Additive Identity Property
4. u u 0 Additive Inverse Property
5. cdu cd u
6. c d u cu du Distributive Property
7. cu v cu cv Distributive Property
EMMY NOETHER (1882–1935)
8. 1u u, 0u 0
One person who contributed
to our knowledge of axiomatic
systems was the German
mathematician Emmy Noether. Proof The proof of the Associative Property of vector addition uses the Associative
Noether is generally recognized
Property of addition of real numbers.
as the leading woman mathematician
in recent history. u v w u1, u2 v1, v2 w1, w2
u1 v1, u2 v2 w1, w2
u1 v1 w1, u2 v2 w2
u1 v1 w1, u2 v2 w2
u1, u2 v1 w1, v2 w2
u v w
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
The other properties can be proved in a similar manner.
For more information on Emmy
See LarsonCalculus.com for Bruce Edwards’s video of this proof.
Noether, see the article “Emmy
Noether, Greatest Woman
Mathematician” by Clark Any set of vectors (with an accompanying set of scalars) that satisfies the eight
Kimberling in Mathematics properties listed in Theorem 11.1 is a vector space.* The eight properties are the
Teacher. To view this article, vector space axioms. So, this theorem states that the set of vectors in the plane (with the
go to MathArticles.com. set of real numbers) forms a vector space.

* For more information about vector spaces, see Elementary Linear Algebra, Seventh
Edition, by Ron Larson (Boston, Massachusetts: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, 2013).
The Granger Collection, NYC

THEOREM 11.2 Length of a Scalar Multiple

Let v be a vector and let c be a scalar. Then
cv c v. c is the absolute value of c.

Proof Because cv cv1, cv2 , it follows that

cv cv1, cv2
cv12 cv22
c 2 v12 c 2 v22
c 2v12 v22

c v12 v22
c v .
See LarsonCalculus.com for Bruce Edwards’s video of this proof.

In many applications of vectors, it is useful to find a unit vector that has the same
direction as a given vector. The next theorem gives a procedure for doing this.

THEOREM 11.3 Unit Vector in the Direction of v

If v is a nonzero vector in the plane, then the vector
v 1
u v
v v
has length 1 and the same direction as v.

Proof Because 1 v is positive and u 1 v v, you can conclude that u has the
same direction as v. To see that u 1, note that

u 1
v
v 1v v v1 v 1.
So, u has length 1 and the same direction as v.
See LarsonCalculus.com for Bruce Edwards’s video of this proof.

In Theorem 11.3, u is called a unit vector in the direction of v. The process of

multiplying v by 1 v to get a unit vector is called normalization of v.

Finding a Unit Vector

Find a unit vector in the direction of v 2, 5 and verify that it has length 1.
Solution From Theorem 11.3, the unit vector in the direction of v is
v

2, 5

1
v 22 52 29
2, 5
2
,
5
29 29
.
This vector has length 1, because

2
294 2925 2929 1.
2 2
5

29 29

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Pietro in Montorio is said to derive its name Montorio, monte aureo,
from the yellow colour of this sand.
On Monte Mario an abundance of fossil shells, of the Ostrea
hippopus and other varieties of sea shells, may be seen, plainly
indicating the marine origin of this formation.
The only places within the actual walls of Rome where these tertiary
marine strata are to be found, are the Vatican and the Janiculum. At
the base of the Capitoline, in the subterranean vaults of the Ospitale
della Consolazione, under the volcanic rock which forms the upper
part of the hill, Brocchi found a stratum of calcareous rock and clay,
which he affirms to be of marine origin, and to resemble the
limestone of the Apennines.
Volcanic
formation.

The second group of strata found on the site of Rome is one which is
not confined to the neighbourhood of Rome, but is most extensively
spread over the whole of the Campagna, the district of Campania,
and a considerable part of southern Italy. The great mass of the
Capitoline, Palatine, Aventine, Esquiline, Cælian, Viminal, Quirinal,
and Pincian Hills, is composed of this formation. Geologists give it
the general name of tufa, and divide it into two kinds, the stony and
the granular. It is distinguished from lava by not having flowed in a
liquid state from the volcano, and is a mechanical conglomerate of
scoriæ, ashes, and other volcanic products which have been carried
to some distance from the crater of eruption, and then consolidated
by some chemical re-arrangement of their constituent elements. The
harder kind of tufa, the tufa litoide, is a reddish brown, or tawny
stone, with orange-coloured spots. These spots are embedded
fragments of scoriaceous lava. It is hard enough to be used as a
building stone, and has been quarried largely under the Aventine Hill
near S. Saba, at Monte Verde, on the southern end of the Janiculum,
and at other places near Rome, as at Torre Pignatara on the Via
Labicana, at the bridge over the Anio, on the Via Nomentana, and at
the Tarpeian rock.
This tufaceous stone presents itself in very thick banks, traversed by
long vertical and oblique fissures, probably produced by the
contraction of the mass on passing from a humid and soft to a dry
and hard state. The Arch of the Cloaca Maxima, near S. Giorgio in
Velabro, is built of this stone, and the inner part of the substruction
of the so-called tabularium on the Capitol. Portions of the Servian
wall were also built of it, and many stones which were taken from
this wall are to be seen at the present day in the walls of Aurelian,
near the gate of S. Lorenzo; and others have been laid bare by the
railway excavations in the Servian Agger. Brick-shaped masses of it
are found in the ambulacra of the Theatre of Marcellus, so that the
use of it must not be restricted to the earliest times of Roman
architecture. In fact, several buildings of the Middle Ages in or near
Rome consist of this stone, as may be seen at the Fortress Gaetani,
near the Tomb of Cæcilia Metella, and in the large tower at the side
of the palace of the Senator.
Freshwater
formation.

Fresh-water formations cover the bottoms of all the valleys in the

district of Rome and in the whole of the Campus Martius, and
ascend to a considerable height on the flanks of the hills and into
the Campagna. They consist chiefly of sand, clay, gravel, and the
stone called travertine, and of tufa beds which have been disturbed
and then re-deposited. This re-deposited tufa has been the subject
of some controversy. It was at one time thought to indicate that the
lower tufa was also a fresh-water deposit, since it is sometimes
found overlying the fresh-water formations. But no doubt now
remains that it must have been formed by a re-arrangement in fresh
water of previously deposited marine tufa beds. The water of the
Tiber, at the time when these fluviatile formations took place, stood
at such a height as to leave deposits upon the intermontium of the
Capitol, and as high as the Church of S. Isidoro on the Pincian, and
it must have partially removed and shifted the previously existing
light and porous volcanic soil of the sea-bottom. Even the top of the
Pincian was covered by this fresh water; for modules of calcareous
matter, such as are deposited in fresh water alone, were found in
digging the excavations for the fountain on the public promenade.
The surface of the broad river which then existed, seems, in fact, to
have been at from 130 to 140 feet above the present surface level of
the Tiber, and its water must have been more surcharged with
alluvium, derived from sources with which the present river is no
longer connected.
Among the fluviatile deposits, argillaceous marl beds now play an
important part. They intercept the water as it descends from the
hills, and impede its descent to the river, thus furnishing supplies to
the wells in Rome, but rendering the soil less dry and healthy. The
greater portion of these strata consist of a mixture of sand and clay.
The ridge between the Campo Vaccino and the Coliseum, on which
the Arch of Titus stands, is formed almost entirely of these mixed
strata of clay and sand. To prove the fresh-water origin of these
deposits, we need only refer to the modules of travertine and the
shells of lacustrine animals which they contain. Such species of
fresh-water shell-fish could not live in turbid and rapid water like
that of the Tiber as it now is, and we must therefore conclude from
their presence that the waters of the Tiber valley where such fossils
are found were once in a semi-stagnant state. That there was also a
period of violent movement during the prevalence of this lacustrine
era is testified by the quantities of matter brought from a distance
and accumulated at considerable altitudes, and by the size of the
pebbles and boulders which have been rolled along by the stream.
But before a more accurate investigation of facts shall have been
made, it will be impossible to distinguish these two periods of
stagnation and rapid movement from each other.
Tiber
water.

The river water has no longer the power which it once possessed of
depositing the travertine which we find lying in thick beds upon the
slopes of some of the hills of Rome, and from which the larger ruins
are all built. This travertine is formed from carbonate of lime which
the waters take up as they pass through the soil containing it. In
order to give the water the power of holding this carbonate of lime
in solution, a certain quantity of carbonic acid gas must be present
in it. When by means of the rapid movement of the water or from
other causes this gas becomes disengaged, it leaves the carbonate
of lime behind in the shape of a hard stony deposit. This natural
process of petrifaction is familiar to all who have seen the Falls of
the Anio at Tivoli, and the way in which the artificial canals of
running water in that neighbourhood are choked by limestone
concretions, and it may be seen in all vessels made use of to boil
water which is impregnated with lime. The more violent the agitation
of the water the more rapid is the disengagement of the carbonic
acid gas, and the consequent settlement of the lime. This process is
accompanied, in most places where it can be seen, by the presence
of sulphuretted hydrogen, which produces a white colour in the
water by depositing the sediment called gesso by the Italians. Hence
an explanation of the ancient name of Albula given to the Tiber is
easy. In the period when the Tiber had the power of depositing
travertine, its waters were much more strongly impregnated not only
with carbonate of lime, but also with gesso, which gave a white
tinge to the water as it now does to the sulphureous waters near
Tivoli. The same colour was characteristic of “the white Nar, with its
sulphureous stream,” Virgil’s description of the chief stream of the
central Apennines.
Climate.

The subject of the climate of Rome is naturally connected with that

of the nature of the soil and configuration of the hills and valleys.
It is not difficult to see why the peculiar geological formation of the
Campagna proves, without careful drainage, extremely deleterious to
health. We have there a district containing numerous closed valleys
and depressions in the soil without outlet for the waters which
naturally accumulate. The tufa which composes the surface seems
commonly to take the shape of isolated hills with irregular hollows
between them, so as to impede the formation of natural
watercourses. Under this tufa is a quantity of marl and stiff clay,
which retains the water after it has filtered through the tufa, and
sends it oozing out into the lower parts of the country, where it
accumulates, and, mixed with putrescent vegetable matter, taints
the surrounding atmosphere. A want of movement in the air caused
by the mountainous barriers by which the Campagna is enclosed is
another source of malaria.
The sites of Veii, Fidenæ and Gabii, once the rivals and equals of
Rome are now entirely deserted except by a few shepherds and
cattle stalls. Along the coast stood Ardea, Laurentum, Lavinium and
Ostia, all of them towns apparently with a considerable number of
inhabitants. Of these Ostia is now a miserable village, Ardea contains
about sixty inhabitants, while Laurentum and Lavinium are
represented by single towers. During a part of the year the ancient
Roman nobility lived in great numbers on these very shores now
found so deadly. Pliny the younger describes the appearance of their
villas near Laurentum as that of a number of towns placed at
intervals along the beach, and he writes an enthusiastic letter in
praise of the salubrity and convenience of his own house there.[124]
Lælius and Scipio used to make the seaside at Laurentum their
resort, and to amuse themselves there with collecting shells.[125] Nor
was it only on the seacoast that the country villas were placed. Six
miles from Rome on the Flaminian Road, at the spot now called
Prima Porta, there stood a well-known country house belonging to
the Empress Livia, part of which has lately been excavated.[126] This
was a highly decorated and commodious house, as the rooms which
have been discovered, in which was found a splendid statue of
Augustus, and the busts of several members of the imperial family,
amply testify. The views from this spot over the Campagna and the
Sabine Hills are most lovely, but the contrast between the beauty of
nature and the haggard and fever-stricken appearance of the
modern inhabitants is melancholy enough. A few squalid houses
occupied by agricultural labourers stand by the roadside. Among
their tenants not a single healthy face is to be seen, and even the
children are gaunt, hollow-cheeked, and sallow in complexion. No
wealthy Roman would now consent to live on the site of Hadrian’s
stately villa in the Campagna near Tivoli. Tivoli itself, which Horace
wished might be the retreat of his old age, and which was
celebrated as a healthy place in Martial’s time, has now lost its
reputation for salubrity, and is known as—
Tivoli di mal conforto,
O piove, o tira vento, o suona amorto.
Strabo speaks of the now desolate district between Tusculum and
Rome as having been convenient to live in. But there is no need to
multiply proofs which might be gathered from all sides of what is an
acknowledged fact, that the malarian fevers of the present day were
not nearly so deadly in the classic times of Rome, or even in the
Middle Ages. The troops of labourers who, fearing to pass the night
in the country, are met returning to Rome every evening, the
forsaken towers and buildings which stand rotting everywhere about
the Campagna, all tell the same tale of a pestilence-stricken district.
The peculiar physical features of the district have had no little
influence in determining the mode in which the population was
grouped in ancient times. Everywhere we find the hills of Rome
reproduced on a reduced scale. Small isolated flat-topped hills,
irregularly divided by deeply cut watercourses, and edged with steep
low cliffs, afford numerous sites for the settlement of limited
independent communities. Such are the hills on which Laurentum,
Lavinium, Fidenæ Antemnæ, Ficulea, Crustumerium and Gabii stood,
and similar places abound in many parts of the district. Such hills
afforded suitable sites for the small fortified towns with which
ancient Latini was thickly studded. Their sides can be easily scarped
so as to afford a natural line of defence, and they are in general
fairly supplied with water from numerous land springs.
Thus, although the general aspect of the Campagna is that of a plain
country, yet the main level of its surface is broken by numerous
deep gullies and groups of hillocks.
The tertiary marine strata, already described as forming the
Janiculum and other hills upon the right bank of the Tiber, do not
rise to the surface in the Campagna, except on the flanks of the
Æquian and Sabine hills. These hills themselves consist of great
masses of Apennine limestone jutting out here and there into the
spurs upon which some of the more considerable cities of the Latin
confederacy stood, as Tibur, Præneste, Bola and Cameria.
The Alban Hills form a totally distinct group, consisting of two
principal extinct volcanic craters somewhat resembling, in their
relations to each other, the great Neapolitan craters of Vesuvius and
Somma. One of them lies within the embrace of the other, just as
Vesuvius lies half enclosed by Monte Somma. The walls of the outer
Alban crater are of peperino, while those of the inner are basaltic.
Both are broken away on the northern side towards Grotta Ferrata
and Marino, but on the southern side they are tolerably perfect.
From the legendary times, when Latinus, Evander, Æneas, and the
rest of Virgil’s heroes are supposed to have occupied the great plain
of Latium, down to the final settlement of the district by its
subjection to Rome in b.c. 338, the Roman Campagna was peopled
by communities chiefly living in towns. Etruria on one side and
Latium on the other, contained confederacies of independent cities,
with one or other of which the Romans were constantly at war.
Etruria gave way first, and after the fall of Veii in b.c. 395, the
Roman dominions extended northwards as far as the Lago Bracciano
and Civita Castellana.
At that time the great confederacy of Latium, though Alba was
destroyed, still existed under the Hegemony of Rome as the
successor of Alba, and numbered Tibur, Præneste, Tusculum, Aricia,
Antium, Lanuvium, Velitræ, Pedum, and Nomentum among its
members. But after the victories gained by the consuls of the year
b.c. 338, the absorption of the Latin cities made rapid progress, and
the character of the population of the Campagna began to be
completely changed.[127] In this, the second period of the history of
the Campagna, the towns were gradually reduced to mere villages,
the small farmers disappeared, and the land was occupied by the
immense estates (latifundia) of rich proprietors cultivated by hordes
of slaves. Such is the condition in which we find the Campagna in
the time of Cicero.[128] The great villas which strew the ground
everywhere in the neighbourhood of Rome with their ruins were
then constructed, and the colossal aqueducts which served not only
to supply Rome with water but also to irrigate the farms and country
seats of the Campagna.
There seems to have been a constant tendency during the later
republic and early empire to reduce the amount of arable land, and
to increase the extent of pasturage in the Campagna. Thus the
country was rendered less and less healthy, and Rome became
gradually more dependent than ever on foreign countries for her
supply of corn.
The last phase of the history of the Roman Campagna is the most
melancholy. The aqueducts were nearly all destroyed by the Gothic
army at the siege of Rome under Vitiges in a.d. 536, and the great
country seats of the Roman nobles and princes must have been
ruined by the successive devastations of Roman territory during the
fifth and sixth centuries in which the Lombards were the principal
actors. Agriculture ceased, and the few villages and country houses
which remained soon became uninhabitable during a great part of
the year, in consequence of the increase of malarious exhalations
arising from the uncultivated state of the soil, or were rendered
unsafe by the lawless bands of ruffian marauders who infested the
open country. Such is in the main the condition of the Roman
Campagna at the present day, for the most part a waste of ragged
pastures without human habitations, and wild jungles tenanted only
by foxes, bears, and other wild animals.
The above remarks will serve to show that after b.c. 338 the
Campagna became deprived of all historical interest except as the
summer residence of the great Roman proprietors. Its history
belongs almost entirely to the early times of the Roman Republic.
CHAPTER IX.

(A) THE VIA APPIA AND THE ALBAN HILLS.

The Appian
Road.

Of the great roads along which the principal traffic from ancient
Rome passed, the Appian Road may perhaps be said to have been
the most important, as it led to the southern and oriental provinces
of the great empire; and it is on the line of this ancient road that the
greatest number of ruined tombs and other buildings are still left.
Two hundred ruins are said to stand on the sides of the Appian Road
between the site of the Porta Capena, by which this road left the
Servian walls, and Albano, a distance of fourteen miles. The tombs
were of the most varied and fantastic shapes and designs, the most
common forms being those with square or circular bases, cylindrical
superstructure, and conical roof. Some were square with several
floors, and surmounted by a pyramid, others consisted of chapels in
brick, placed upon a cubical base, or of sarcophagi in various
shapes, mounted upon brick substructions.
Many fragmentary inscriptions have been found which once
belonged to these tombs, but not one of any historical importance.
The greater part of them record the names of freedmen, and other
obscure people, as the larger and more highly decorated tombs were
plundered first, and their marble casing and inscriptions completely
destroyed at an early period. The older fragments which have been
saved may be studied in the Berlin Collection of Inscriptions where
they are learnedly and ably edited by Th. Mommsen.
There were also many fountains and semicircular ranges of seats by
the side of the road designed as resting-places for travellers.
The commencement of the ancient Appian Road now lies between
the Porta S. Sebastiano and the site of the old Porta Capena. From
this part of the road the Via Latina diverged on the left, and the Via
Ardeatina on the right. Beyond the Porta S. Sebastiano, the first
monument now visible is a mass of stonework on the left hand,
about one hundred yards from the gate. From its form and the style
of masonry there can be little doubt that it was a pyramidal tomb
similar to that of Caius Cestius at the Porta S. Paolo, and that it was
built in the Augustan era. The road then crosses the Almo, and the
remains of another pyramidal tomb are to be seen on the left. This is
sometimes called the Tomb of Priscilla, mentioned by Statius, but
that name more probably belongs to the larger tomb further on,
beyond the Church of Domine quo Vadis. This latter ruin agrees
better with the description of Statius, as it had a cupola and loculi
for the reception of unburnt corpses. The immense number of ruined
tombs and other buildings which crowd the sides of the road beyond
this point, make it necessary to restrict our remarks as much as
possible, and we shall therefore only notice a few of the most
prominent ruins upon the road or in the immediate neighbourhood.
Divus
Rediculus.

The brick building called the Temple of the Divus Rediculus stands
half a mile to the left of the road at the second milestone in the
Caffarella valley. The legend which connects it with Hannibal’s march
on Rome is altogether unworthy of credit,[129] and it is plain that the
building, which had no rows of surrounding columns, but is
constructed with Corinthian pilasters, had two stories, and cannot
therefore have been a temple. Professor Reber considers that it was
a chapel tomb similar to that to be seen further on the road at S.
Urbano, near the Tomb of Cæcilia Metella.
Grotto of
Egeria.

The Grotto of Egeria, as it is called, lies in the valley of the Almo

about half a mile above the building just mentioned. It is an arched
nymphæum of brick, at the back of which a plentiful stream of clear
water issues. The mutilated statue of the nymph still remains, but no
other parts of the decorations. There is little doubt that it was the
nymphæum of some suburban villa.
Temple of
Bacchus or
Honos.

On the hill above it stands the Church of S. Urbano, probably an

ancient tomb in the shape of a chapel. It is commonly called the
Temple of Bacchus from the discovery under it of an altar of
Dionysus with a Greek inscription. But this altar seems to have been
moved here from some other spot. The building is in the form which
has a projecting porch with four Corinthian columns and capitals.
These are now built up into the modern wall. The whole, except the
entablature and columns, is of brickwork of the Antonine era, as
appears from the stamps of the bricks. The triple frieze, forming a
kind of attica between the architrave and cornice, seems to
contradict the notion that this was a temple, though the great
antiquary E. Q. Visconti considered that it was the Temple of Honour
built by Marius outside the Porta Capena.[130] The interior is tolerably
well preserved, and has a vaulted roof with coffers and reliefs in the
form of trophies.
The Circus
of
Maxentius
and
Temple of
Romulus.

On the left of the Appian Road, where it dips suddenly into a valley
near the Church of S. Sebastian, lies a group of ruins, the principal
of which consist of a circus, a building enclosed in a large square
court, and some remains of rooms apparently belonging to an
ancient villa. The walls of the circus are still in such preservation that
they can be easily traced round the whole enclosure, and are in
some parts nearly of the original height. They are built of rubble
mixed with brickwork, and with jars of terra-cotta to lighten their
weight, as in the case of the masonry in other walls of the same
date. The towers at each side of the Carceres, or starting post, the
curved line of Carceres themselves, and the spina, or central division
line, can be easily traced. An inscription in honour of Romulus, son
of Maxentius, found here in 1825, and now placed at the entrance to
the ruins, seems to show the circus was built in honour of Romulus,
son of Maxentius, who died before his father, a.d. 309. This is
confirmed by a statement in one of the ancient chronicles published
by Roncalli, in which it is said that Maxentius built a circus near the
catacombs, evidently referring to the neighbouring catacombs of S.
Sebastian and others, and also by the style of masonry used in the
circus. The adjoining ruined temple, with its enclosing court, seems
to belong to a somewhat earlier style of construction, but some
reasons derived from the coins of Maxentius and Romulus have been
given for supposing that it was the temple dedicated to Romulus
after his apotheosis by his father.[131] The ruins are not sufficiently
preserved to make it certain that the building was a temple, and
there is nothing to contradict the hypothesis that it was a tomb. Nor
is anything whatever known about the adjoining villa.
Tomb of
Cæcilia
Metella.

On the end of the mound formed by the great lava stream which
ages ago flowed down from the Alban Hills, and along the top of
which the Via Appia runs from this point, stands the conspicuous
Tomb of Cæcilia Metella, the daughter of Metellus Creticus, and wife
of Crassus, but whether of the Triumvir Crassus, or of the orator, or
of some other less well known Crassus is uncertain. The inscription
on the tomb is Cæciliæ, Q. Cretici Filiæ, Metellæ Crassi. The shape
of the tomb is the same as that of the Mausoleum of Hadrian, and
the Tomb of the Plautii at Tivoli; a cylindrical towerlike edifice,
resting on a square base of concrete with massive blocks of
travertine. The upper part has been destroyed, and the marble
casing stripped off, with the exception of a band of ox skulls and
garlands which surrounds it, and some trophies carved in relief
above the inscription. The roof was probably conical. Mediæval
battlements, erected by the Caetani family, who held it as a fortress
in the 13th century, now crown the upper edge. The remains of their
castle are still visible on each side of the road beyond the tomb.
Roma
Vecchia,
Villa of
Seneca.

After passing the third milestone, the Appian Road is fringed with
ruins of innumerable tombs, and here and there the relics of a
suburban villa. Scarcely any of these can have names attached to
them with any certainty. The spot is now called Roma Vecchia, and
the Campus sacer Horatiorum, the Fossa Cluilia, and the Villa
Quintiliana Commodi lay here. The suburban villa in which Seneca
committed suicide by opening his veins was at the fourth milestone,
as we learn from Tacitus, and near this was found in 1824, by Nibby,
a marble slab with the name of Granius, a military tribune. A tribune
of this name was employed by Nero to compel Seneca to kill himself,
but whether the stone refers to him or not is of course doubtful.
Tomb of
Atticus.

At the fifth milestone on the right hand of the road is a round mass
of ruins with a rectangular chamber inside, which has been
supposed to be the tomb mentioned by Cornelius Nepos, as the
burial place of Atticus, Cicero’s friend. Near this is the great platform
of peperino blocks which are thought to have been used as a
burning place (ustrina) for the bodies interred at the sides of the
road.
Villa
Quintiliana.

On the left hand, a little way beyond the fifth milestone, the remains
of the Villa Quintiliana of Commodus begin, and reach along the side
of the road for at least half a mile, extending also towards the left
into the adjoining fields as far as the edge of the great lava current,
on the top of which the Via Appia is here carried. The whole of this
space, nearly two miles in circumference, is covered with fragments
of costly marbles, of sculpture, and bits of mosaic, showing that it
was covered with handsomely decorated buildings. The style of
construction, says Nibby, belongs to three different epochs. The
buildings nearest to the Appian Road, comprising the great reservoir,
on the foundation of which the farmhouse of S. Maria Nuova is built,
are of brickwork and reticulated work of the time of Hadrian, the
great mass of the ruins which lies on the left towards the new road
to Albano, exhibits workmanship of the Antonine era, and amongst
them have been found numerous fragments of sculpture, also
belonging to the reigns of the Antonines. The third style of building
is that called opera mista by the Italian antiquarians, which prevailed
in the Constantinian times, at the beginning of the fourth century.
The buildings of the Antonines have been repaired and overlaid in
many places by this later work. The stamps of most of the bricks
found here belong to the reigns of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius,
and Commodus, and were made chiefly in the imperial brickyards.
Thus the date of the principal parts of the building is decided, and it
is seen that the villa was most probably an imperial villa. But all
doubt on this point was completely cleared away by the discovery in
1828, of a number of large leaden pipes bearing the inscription, ii.
quintiliorum condini et maximi, from which it became evident that the
villa was the same place which Vopiscus and Dion Cassius mention
as the property of the Quintilii, consuls in the year a.d. 151, under
Antoninus Pius, and victims of the spite of Commodus in a.d. 182.
[132] Commodus seized their property, and the villa became one of
his favourite residences. The great extent of the ruins explains the
circumstance related by Herodian, that the emperor, being in the
back part of the villa, could not hear the shouts of the infuriated
mob on the Appian Road, who were demanding the life of Cleander.
[133]

The ruins which extend along the side of the road, are plainly
fragments of a kind of vestibule or grand entrance to the imperial
villa. They consist of a nymphæum or grand fountain, and a row of
chambers intended for slaves’ lodgings. The fountain is supplied with
water by an aqueduct, the arches of which can be seen at the
seventh milestone, where it leaves the lava rocks, and crosses the
country towards Marino, at a higher level than even the Aqua
Claudia. This nymphæum and aqueduct are built of opera mista,
which shows that they are probably the work of the Constantinian
Age.
The principal mass of the villa itself stood nearly half a mile from the
old Appian Road, on the edge of the rocks of basaltic lava. Between
them and the road the space was occupied by gardens and
ornamental summer-houses and ponds. Nibby describes the chief
ruins as having belonged to a richly ornamented fountain, and a
suite of bathing-rooms of great grandeur.
One spacious saloon, the walls of which form a picturesque ruin, as
seen from the new post road to Albano, stands on the edge of the
rising ground, and commands a magnificent view of the whole of the
Alban and Sabine Hills and the city of Rome. Near this was a small
theatre, from which the cipollino columns of the entrance to the
Tordinone Theatre in Rome were taken.
An immense quantity of valuable sculpture, now in the Roman
museums and palaces, was discovered by excavations here in 1787
and 1792. Among these sculptures was a splendid statue of Euterpe,
now in the Galleria dei Candelabri, a tiger now in the Hall of
Animals; and the busts of Lucius Verus, Diocletian, and Epicurus,
Socrates, the Isis and Antinous in the Vatican, with numerous Sileni,
Fauns, and Nereids.
Casale
Rotondo.

Between the sixth and seventh milestones from the Porta Capena
there is a large round ruin 300 feet in diameter, called Casale
Rotondo, now supporting a house and olive orchard upon the top.
The fragments of sculpture found here have been arranged on the
face of a wall, close to the pile of ruins. The name Cotta was found
on an inscription belonging to this, and hence it has been supposed
to be the tomb of the gens Aurelia, who bore the surname of Cotta.
On the left are the arches of the aqueduct which supplied the Villa of
Commodus.
At the eighth milestone there was a Temple of Hercules erected by
Domitian. Martial mentions this temple in several passages. There
are considerable remains of a tetra-style temple on the right hand of
the road, consisting of columns of Alban peperino; but this, which
was once supposed to be the Temple of Hercules, is now said to
have contained an altar to Silvanus.
Bovillæ.

The Villa and Farm of Persius the poet is said by his biographer to
have been near the eighth milestone. At the ninth stood the Tomb of
Gallienus, and perhaps the ruins there belong to his suburbanum. At
the tenth milestone, the Rivus Albanus, formerly the Aqua Terentina,
is crossed; and at the eleventh, the road begins to ascend the slope
towards Albano. At the twelfth, the circuit of the walls of the ancient
town of Bovillæ is approached. Dionysius says that Bovillæ was
situated where the hill before reaching Albano first begins to be
steep, and this answers to the position of the modern Osteria delle
Frattocchie. The ruins which are now generally held to be those of
Bovillæ lie on the cross road, called Strada di Nettuno, a little way
above Frattocchie.[134] They consist of a small theatre built of
brickwork and opus reticulatum, and a somewhat larger circus, the
enclosure of which and the carceres are still pretty well preserved.
The town did not lie close to the road. It was founded by a colony
from Alba Longa, and was a flourishing place until Coriolanus
destroyed it. For centuries afterwards we find but little notice taken
of it. In Cicero’s time it was a very insignificant village, and had it
not been immortalised by the assassination of Clodius there, which
led to such important results, it could hardly excite any interest in
later times.[135]
The honour of being the native place of the gens Julia gave it some
artificial importance in the imperial times. Tiberius is mentioned by
Tacitus as erecting a sacrarium of the Julian family and a statue of
Augustus there, and founding Circensian games in honour of the
gens Julia. Some inscriptions found on the spot show the town still
existed in the 2nd century a.d. It is now occupied by plots of land
laid out as gardens. The Villa of Clodius, Cicero’s enemy, appears to
have been at or near the thirteenth milestone from Rome, close to
the left side of the Appian Road, between Bovillæ and the modern
Albano. It was raised on immense substructions, the arches of which
were capable of concealing a thousand men, and Cicero declares
that Clodius had not respected even the confines of the Temple of
Jupiter Latiaris or the sacred groves of Alba.[136] The ruins which lie
under Castel Gandolfo, on the left side of the road towards the Porta
Romana of Albano, may have formed part of the substruction of
which Cicero speaks. The estate of Clodius passed after his death,
when the family of the Claudii Pulcri became extinct, into the hands
of the Claudii Nerones, from whom Tiberius inherited it, and thus it
became imperial property.
Villa of
Pompey.

The Villa of Pompey was between that of Clodius and Aricia, and
therefore occupied the site of the present town of Albano. Nibby
thinks that the walls of reticulated work in the Villa Doria belonged
to Pompey’s house, and that the great tomb, near the Roman gate
of Albano was Pompey’s burial place. Plutarch states that Pompey
was buried at his Alban villa. The tomb, with five truncated cones,
usually called the Tomb of the Horatii and Curiatii, has also been
called the Tomb of Pompey. It is more probably an imitation of the
old Etruscan tombs executed at a later time. After the death of that
great general, the estate became the property of Dolabella, and
subsequently of Antony, who held it till the battle of Actium, when
Augustus took possession of it. After the adoption of Tiberius, it was
united with the Clodian grounds, and thus formed the nucleus of the
Albanum Cæsarum.
Albanum
Cæsarum.

Augustus and some of the early emperors found the Albanum a

convenient halting-place on their journeys to the south, but it was in
the time of Domitian that the place was extended so much as to
contain a military camp, enormous reservoirs of water, thermæ, a
theatre, an amphitheatre, and a circular temple. It is called Arx
Albana by Juvenal, Tacitus and Martial.
The plan of the camp can still be traced. It resembled that of the
Prætorian camp at Rome, in being a quadrangular space rounded off
at the corners. The two longer sides extend from the Church of S.
Paolo at Albano to the round Temple, now the Church of S. Maria.
One of the shorter sides was parallel to the Appian Road, and the
other ran near the Church of S. Paolo. There were four terraces or
levels in the camp rising towards the hill behind. The Porta
Decumana was in the north-eastern side, and the Porta Prætoria on
the south-western. The great reservoirs for water stand on the
northern side near S. Paolo, and the thermæ towards the south-east
on the opposite side of the Appian Road. At the western corner is
the round building usually called the Temple of Minerva, and
supposed to be that alluded to by Suetonius as annually visited by
Domitian. This round building is in good preservation, but its
purpose cannot be determined with certainty. Nibby says that the
ancient mosaic pavement still remains at a depth of six feet below
the present surface. The amphitheatre is situated between the
Church of S. Paolo and that of the Capuchin Convent. It is principally
constructed of opus quadratum, but the interior parts are of a mixed
masonry, consisting of bricks and fragments of the local stone. This
amphitheatre is supposed to have been the scene of the feats
performed by Domitian, in killing with his own hand hundreds of wild
beasts with arrows and javelins, and also of the degradation of
Acilius Glabrio, who was forced, according to Juvenal, by Domitian to
join him in these sports of the arena.
Larger Image

Between Castel Gandolfo and Albano four magnificent terraces,

rising one above the other, were traced by Cav. Rosa as forming part
of the Albanum Cæsarum, and in the Villa Barberini there is a
considerable part of a cryptoporticus, ornamented with stucco
reliefs, which probably stands over the old substructions of the Villa
Clodi.[137] On the side towards the lake there were open balconies
for viewing the mock naval engagements; and near the entrance of
the Barberini Villa the ruins of a theatre have been discovered. It
appears probable from the numerous ruins found upon the edge of
the lake that the whole of it was surrounded with quays and tiers of
stone seats, and chapels of Nymphs, making it resemble a gigantic
natural naumachia, or sheet of water for sham naval fights. These
ruins may possibly, however, have belonged to separate private villas
placed at different points round the water.
To the south of Albano, in the grounds of the Villa Doria, there are
the ruins of an extensive Roman villa. Whether this was a part of the
Albanum Cæsarum or not, is uncertain. Some of the bricks bear the
stamps of Domitian, others those of the third consulship of
Servianus (a.d. 134), Hadrian’s brother-in-law, others of Commodus.
[138]

Lago
Albano or
Di Castello.

The Alban lake belongs to the water system of the Tiber, and has
most of its outlets on the western side. It has been supposed that a
subterranean communication exists between this lake and that of
Nemi, but Nibby asserts that this is impossible, as the level of the
lake of Nemi is higher than that of the Alban lake. The circumference
of this sheet of water is more than six miles, and it is nearly elliptical
in shape. The story of the sudden rise of its waters in the sixth year
of the siege of Veii is well known, and the response of the Delphic
oracle as given in Livy.
Cicero gives a distinct account of the drainage of the lake. “We are
told, he says, by the Annalists, that during the siege of Veii, when
the Alban lake had risen to an unusual height, a Veientine noble fled
to Rome as a deserter, and declared that it was written in the books
of fate which were kept at Veii, that Veii could not be taken, so long
as the lake was overflowing its banks, and that if the lake were
tapped, and flowed into the sea by its own channel and stream, it
would be fatal to the Roman nation, but that if the water were so
discharged as to make it impossible for it to reach the sea, then the
Romans would be victorious. In consequence of this our ancestors
contrived that admirable plan for drawing off and dispersing the
water of the lake.”
From this passage it would seem likely that the whole object of the
drainage of the lake was to obtain a constant supply of water for the
irrigation of the Campagna. In another passage Cicero states his
opinion still more clearly, that the work was really undertaken for the
benefit of suburban agriculture. “The Veientine prophecy that if the
water of the Alban lake rose above its margin and flowed into the
sea, Rome would perish; but that if it were checked, Veii would be
taken, in consequence of which the Alban water was diverted, was
intended to benefit the suburban farms, and not to secure the safety
of Rome.” What appears strange, is that it should have been
necessary to appeal to a superstitious motive in the case of a people
evidently so far advanced in civilization as to be capable of carrying
out an engineering work of such difficulty in a single year.[139]
Emissariu
m of the
Alban lake.

The tunnel which still carries off the superfluous water of the lake is
cut through solid peperino and occasional masses of still harder
basaltic lava. It is more than a mile and a half in length, from seven
to ten feet in height, and never less than four feet in breadth. The
height of the edge of the lake basin above the level of its water at
the part which is pierced by the tunnel is 430 feet. Three vertical
shafts are still discoverable, by which a draft of air was created and
the rubbish was removed, and one slanting shaft for the entrance
and exit of the miners. The rock was cut with a chisel an inch wide,
as may be seen from the marks left upon the sides of the tunnel.
At the points where the water enters and leaves the tunnel,
considerable pains have been taken to regulate the flow. The
channel of stonework at the mouth is placed in a slanting direction
so as to break the force of the rush of water. At the end of this first
channel is a cross wall with openings, protected by gratings to catch
the leaves and floating rubbish. Behind this is a reservoir, similar to
the cisterns in use in the Roman aqueducts, allowing the mud to
settle before the water entered the tunnel. Next to the tunnel itself
there is a closed building to protect the canal from the fall of rocks
and stones, and the actual entrance into the rock is faced with a
massive portal of wedge-shaped blocks of stone. The water in this
enclosure is now used by the fishermen of the lake as a receptacle
for keeping fish, and is for this purpose provided with sluices. Hirt
thinks that these arrangements at the mouth are very ancient.[140]
Others ascribe them to the imperial era.
The point where the tunnel emerges from the mountain on the west
of Castel Savelli, nearly a mile from Albano, is called Le Mole. The
water was there received in a long troughlike reservoir arched over
with a stone vaulted roof. From this it ran through five smaller
openings into five separate channels, and was so dispersed into the
fields for irrigation. At the present time the whole stream is united,
and after passing the road to Anzio, thirteen miles from Rome, takes
the name of Rio d’Albano, receives the brook from the valley of
Apiolæ, and joining the Acqua Acetosa and Cornacciola crosses the
Ostian way near Tor di Valle, three miles and a half from Rome, and
then discharges itself into the Tiber.
It is the opinion of some archæologists that the Romans brought
engineers from Greece to superintend the Alban tunnel. This
supposition, however, is not necessary. If the Italian engineers could
construct the Cloaca Maxima they would be fully equal to the task of
tapping the Alban lake.
The physical conformation of Central Italy compelled its inhabitants
to turn their attention at an early period to the construction of drains
and other hydraulic works. Considerable artificial channels were
rendered necessary in order to regulate the flow of the Arno and
Tiber in the neighbourhood of Chiusi. In southern Etruria, the district
now known as the pestilent Maremma, could only have been
rendered healthy by systematic artificial drainage. The sites of
Populonia, Saturnia, Cosa, Veii, and Cære were thus rendered
habitable and fertile, and a great part of Latium Maritimum, the
Pomptine marshes, and the tract about Suessa Pometia must have
been artificially and skilfully drained at the time of the greatest
prosperity of those places. Many of the ancient cities of Central Italy
had tunnels bored underneath their streets which served as
thoroughfares connecting the different parts of the city, or as secret
passages leading out into the country. Such tunnels are found at
Præneste and Alba Fucensis. An account of the attempted escape of
Marius from Præneste, by means of the tunnels, is given by Velleius.
The catacombs show that the same genius for tunnelling operations
existed at a later time among the Italians of the empire.
Alban
Mount.

The triumphal route by which the festal processions from Rome

ascended the Alban Mount diverged from the Appian road at the
ninth milestone. It probably passed by Marino to Palazzuolo and
thence ascended to the summit by a series of zigzags. The stones
which mark its course have the letters n v. (numinis via) cut upon
them. On the summit stood the Temple of Jupiter Latiaris, the
ancient sanctuary of the Latin league. The sole remains of this
famous building are now built into the wall of the reservoir of the
convent of Palazzuolo. They consist of fragments only.
Most of the stones employed by Cardinal York in 1783 in the erection
of the convent of Palazzuolo and the church of the Trinity, on the site
of the temple, were taken from the ruins, but nothing can be learnt
from them regarding the ancient buildings. The summit of the hill is
not broad enough to have supported any large building, and we may
therefore conclude that the temple was of small size, and that the
great festival games at the Feriæ Latinæ were held in the Prati
d’Annibale below. The inscriptions on some of the stones are merely
the freaks of some modern stonemasons. The fragments which
remain were probably used for the area round the temple.
Larger Image

The explorations carried out in 1876 seem to have proved that the
buildings consecrated to Jupiter Latiaris on Monte Cavo were a
walled area of about sixty-five yards long, and fifty wide, a fragment
of the wall of which was found; a chapel dedicated to Jupiter, one
corner of which was excavated; a large altar, and some other
chapels dedicated as votive offerings. A tracing of the shape and
position of the area, chapels and altar was found by M. S. De Rossi
in a seventeenth century MS. in the Barberini Library, and was
published in the Annali dell’ Instituto for 1876. This traced sketch
agrees with the excavations. (See Plan.)
Alba
Longa.

The early destruction of Alba Longa, so famous in Roman legendary

lore, has completely deprived us of the means of tracing its site by
the discovery of any remains of the walls or buildings which it
contained. It was razed to the ground by Tullus Hostilius in b.c. 667
and never rebuilt. Dionysius thus describes the site: “The city was
built close to the mountain and lake, upon a site between the two.
They serve as defences to it, and make it almost impregnable, for
the mountain is very steep and lofty and the lake deep and wide.”
Livy says that the city was named Longa because it extended along
a ridge of the Alban hills. The words of Dionysius seem to imply that
Alba stood immediately between Monte Cavo and the lake on the
site of the convent of Palazzuolo, and Cav. Rosa, the highest modern
authority on the topography of the Campagna, who has made the
neighbourhood of Albano and Nemi the subject of special study,
holds this opinion. Nibby thought that the whole edge of the crater
from Palazzuolo nearly to Marino, a distance of more than two miles,
was occupied by the city of Alba. Sir William Gell discovered an
ancient road running along the edge of the crater above Monte
Cuccu, and a few blocks of stone on the top of the precipice
bordering the lake further eastwards, which he thought must have
belonged to the gate of Alba.
At the sixteenth milestone on the Appian road beyond Albano, in the
valley below the modern town of Ariccia, is the massive causeway
700 feet in length and 40 in width, upon which the old Appian road
was raised. It is built of blocks of peperino and is a solid mass of
masonry, except where three archways give passage to the water
which descends from the Alban hills and the neighbourhood of Nemi.
Lake of
Nemi.

Beyond the ancient viaduct we come to the tunnel through which

the lake of Nemi discharges its waters.
The name of this lake and of the village on its margin, is derived
from the great grove of Diana (Nemus Dianæ) whose temple
probably stood on the site of the present village of Nemi. The
wooded cliffs which surround the crater here are steep and descend
immediately into the water, except on the side near Genzano, where
they slope magnificently and are planted with vines. Their average
height is 300 feet. In the Latin poets frequent mention is made of
this lake as one of the principal ornaments of the neighbourhood of
Rome, and in connection with the widely celebrated temple of Diana.
Hence it was called Speculum Dianæ, lacus Triviæ and Stagnum
Dianæ.
Whether the name Lacus Aricinus also belonged to this lake is
doubtful, for Pliny speaks of a lake which formerly occupied the
valley of Ariccia, and the water in this valley was certainly called
Lacus Aricinus in the middle ages.
The water of the lake is supplied partially at least from a small spring
near the road from Genzano to Nemi, and also from the copious
stream which turns the mills of the village of Nemi. The latter is
probably alluded to by Strabo when he says that the sources whence
the lake is filled are visible, and are near the temple of Diana.
Nibby gives the following account of the Lake of Nemi, and of the
investigations carried on in his time for the purpose of discovering
the real nature of the curious wooden fabrics said to have been
found at the bottom of the lake:
“The situation of Nemi is picturesque, and the view from it of the
crater, and of the lake, which resembles an enormous mirror spread
below, is magnificent. But beyond the historical reminiscences of the
Temple of Diana, it presents nothing worth particular mention. The
baronial castle near it has all the appearance of a feudal fortress. It
was built by the famous Colonna family, once the lords of the estate,
who also built the round tower or keep which surmounts it. By
ascending the side of the mountain which rises above it, a splendid
panoramic view of the coast of Latium and of the adjacent Rutulian
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11 Vectors and the Geometry of Space 747

12 Vector-Valued Functions 815

13 Functions of Several Variables 867

14 Multiple Integration 965

15 Vector Analysis 1039

16 Additional Topics in Differential Equations 1125

Answers to All Odd-Numbered Exercises and Tests A85

*Available at the text-specific website www.cengagebrain.com

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3-semester Calculus Early

Single Calculus: Early

Multivariable Calculus 10e Calculus 10e

Custom Calculus: Early Calculus I with

Geography (Exercise 45, p. 803)

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Work (Exercise 64, p. 774)

Navigation (Exercise 84, p. 757)

11.1 Vectors in the Plane

Component Form of a Vector

Vector Representation: Directed Line Segments

Because PQ and RS have the same length x

segment, then the component form of the vector v represented by PQ is

v q1 p12 q2 p22 Length of a vector

2. If v v1, v2 , then v can be represented by the directed line segment, in standard

y Component Form and Length of a Vector

Definitions of Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Vector addition Scalar multiplication Vector subtraction

b. w v w1 v1, w2 v2  3 2, 4 5 5, 1

Vector addition and scalar multiplication share many properties of ordinary

THEOREM 11.1 Properties of Vector Operations

THEOREM 11.2 Length of a Scalar Multiple

Proof Because cv cv1, cv2 , it follows that

THEOREM 11.3 Unit Vector in the Direction of v

In Theorem 11.3, u is called a unit vector in the direction of v. The process of

Finding a Unit Vector

Fresh-water formations cover the bottoms of all the valleys in the

The subject of the climate of Rome is naturally connected with that

(A) THE VIA APPIA AND THE ALBAN HILLS.

The Grotto of Egeria, as it is called, lies in the valley of the Almo

On the hill above it stands the Church of S. Urbano, probably an

Augustus and some of the early emperors found the Albanum a

Between Castel Gandolfo and Albano four magnificent terraces,

The triumphal route by which the festal processions from Rome

The early destruction of Alba Longa, so famous in Roman legendary

Beyond the ancient viaduct we come to the tunnel through which

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v q1 p12 q2 p22 Length of a vector

2. If v v1, v2 , then v can be represented by the directed line segment, in standard

b. w v w1 v1, w2 v2 3 2, 4 5 5, 1

Proof Because cv cv1, cv2 , it follows that