THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA

INSTITUTE OF CONTINUING EDUCATION

FOUNDATION PROGRAMME

OFP 018

DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
Published by:
The Open University of Tanzania
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P. O. Box 23409,
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TANZANIA
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First Edition: 2013

Second Edition: 2018
Copyright © 2013
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© The Open University of Tanzania, 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
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ISBN 978 9987 00 258 0

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Contents
GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 6

SECTION ONE: CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL FORMATION ..... 8

LECTURE 1: CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT ............................................................. 9
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 9
1.2 Definition of terms ........................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Types of development .................................................................................................... 11
1.4 Levels of development ................................................................................................... 12
1.5 Indicators of development .............................................................................................. 12

LECTURE 2: SOCIAL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT ..................................... 17

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 17
2.2 What is Social Formation ............................................................................................... 17
2.3 Significance of concept of social formation .................................................................... 18
2.4 Meaning of Modes of Production .................................................................................. 19
2.5 Modes of production in history ....................................................................................... 19

LECTURE3: ARTICULATION OF THE MODES OF PRODUCTION........................ 23

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 23
3.2 Productive forces ........................................................................................................... 23
3.3 Productive forces and labour .......................................................................................... 24
3.4 Productive forces and the reflection of technology.......................................................... 24
3.5 Productive forces and productivity ................................................................................. 25
3.6 Relations of production .................................................................................................. 25
3.7 Class ............................................................................................................................. 25

SECTION TWO: THEORIES OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ...... 28

LECTURE4: CAPITAL LABOUR AND SURPLUS VALUE ......................................... 29
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 29
4.2 Definition of terms ......................................................................................................... 29
4.3 Compensation and measurement .................................................................................... 30
4.4 Labour and division of labour......................................................................................... 30
4.5 Surplus value ................................................................................................................. 32

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 4.6 Social class .................................................................................................................... 33
4.7 Sociological class ........................................................................................................... 33

LECTURE5: TRADITIONAL THEORY OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT .................... 35

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 35
5.2 Marxist Understanding of Social Development ............................................................... 35
5.3 Marx’s stages of Development of Society....................................................................... 36

LECTURE 6: MODERNIZATION THEORY OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT............. 39

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 39
6.2 Rostow’s stages of economic growth .............................................................................. 39
6.3 Nurkse's vicious circle of poverty: .................................................................................. 42
6.4 Modernization Theories applicability ............................................................................. 42

LECTURE 7: THEORIES OF DEPENDENCE AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT......... 44

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 44
7.2 A Central Argument of the Dependency School ............................................................. 45
7.3 Relevance of Dependence Theory to the development .................................................... 46

SECTION THREE: POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA ................................. 49

LECTURE 8: POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA ........... 50
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 50
8.2 Features of Pre-colonial African Society ........................................................................ 51
8.3 Political organization under Pre-colonial Society ............................................................ 51
8.4 Political dynamics from Pre-colonial to Colonial and Post-colonial Society .................... 52
8.5 Colonial Legacy ............................................................................................................. 52

LECTURE 9: POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE COLONIAL RULE ...... 54

9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 54
9.2 Colonialism and the Colonial State ................................................................................. 54
9.3 Reasons for colonization ................................................................................................ 56
9.4 Destruction of local economies and strugggle for liberation ............................................ 56
9.5 Struggle for Independence.............................................................................................. 56

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LECTURE 10: POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AFTER COLONIALISM.................. 58
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 58
10.2 Establishment of One Party and Military State Systems .................................................. 58
10.3 Establishment of Multiparty System ............................................................................... 60
10.4 Social and Political Conflicts in Africa ........................................................................... 61

SECTION FOUR: POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT................................................... 64

LECTURE 11: CONCEPT OF POVERTY ....................................................................... 65
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 65
11.2 Definition of Poverty ..................................................................................................... 65
11.3 Indicators of Poverty ...................................................................................................... 67
11.4 Causes of Poverty .......................................................................................................... 68
11.5 Status of poverty in Tanzania ......................................................................................... 70
11.6 Strategies to alleviate poverty in Tanzania ...................................................................... 70

LECTURE 12: POPULATION AND POVERTY ............................................................. 74

12.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 74
12.2 Population...................................................................................................................... 74
12.3 The nature of the relationship between poverty and population growth ........................... 75
12.4 The Mathematics of Malthus .......................................................................................... 76

LECTURE 13: ENVIRONMENT AND POVERTY ......................................................... 78

13.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 78
13.2 Definition of the terms ................................................................................................... 78
13.3 Environment and development ....................................................................................... 79
13.4 Interrelationship between poverty and the environment .................................................. 80

LECTURE 14: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................................... 83
14.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 83
14.2 Definition of concepts .................................................................................................... 83
14.3 Tanzania and the environment: basic understanding ....................................................... 84
14.4 Importance of environment in the economy .................................................................... 84
14.5 Major environmental problems and management in Tanzania ......................................... 85

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LECTURE 15: TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT ............................................... 88
15.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 88
15.2 Technological terminologies .......................................................................................... 88
15.3 Technology and development ......................................................................................... 89

SECTION FIVE: REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT ...................... 93

LECTURE 16: CONCEPT OF REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ......................................... 94
16.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 94
16.2 Definition of the terms ................................................................................................... 94
16.3 Reproductive health problems ........................................................................................ 96
16.4 The role of reproductive health in development .............................................................. 97

LECTURE 17: HIV/AIDS AND YOUTH.......................................................................... 99

17.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 99
17.2 Historical information of HIV/AIDS .............................................................................. 99
17.3 Prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Tanzania ........................................................................... 100
17.4 Consequences of HIV/AIDS ........................................................................................ 101

LECTURE 18: REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION ........................................ 103

I8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 103
18.2 The status of reproductive health education in Tanzania ............................................... 103
18.3 Dissemination of Reproductive Health Education ......................................................... 104
18.4 The role of reproductive health education in development ............................................ 105

SECTION SIX: GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT ....................................................... 107

LECTURE 19: CONCEPT OF GENDER ....................................................................... 108
I9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 108
19.2 Definition of Terminologies ......................................................................................... 108
19.3 Gender and Development ............................................................................................. 108

LECTURE 20: GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN DEVELOPMENT ARENA ............113

20.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 113
20.2 Importance of Mainstreaming Gender in Development ................................................. 113
20.3 Principles under Gender Mainstreaming ...................................................................... 113
20.4 Strategies used in Gender Mainsstreaming ................................................................... 113

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General Introduction
This course concentrates on the socio-economic issues that emanate from daily human
activities and interactions. These are developmental, environmental, political, economic,
cultural and technological issues as well as current affairs. The course aims to enhance
learners’ understanding of the process of change and development in the society; develop
critical and analytical outlook about the society and development, and equip them with
necessary knowledge and skills that is useful to their day-to-day life, work and study.

Course Objectives

1. To enable the learner to develop a critical and analytical framework about the society
and development.
2. To enable the learner to explain the process of change and development in society.
3. To introduce the learner to the interrelationships between socio economic development
and population.

Course Structure

The course material consists of six parts or knowledge areas which are as follows;

Part one is about the concept of development and social formation, this section is intended to
introduce the students on the concepts of development by defining various terms related to
development. It also explains the knowledge on society and its formation and how people
utilize resources in the society to produce and bring about development.

Part two of this course is about theories of economic and social development. The student is
unlighted on two aspects of development are discussed here including capital labour and
surplus values as basis for economic development and traditional and modern theories of
social development.

Part three introduces political development trends. Students will get to know the trends of
political development from the pre-colonial era to colonial era and post-colonial era. The
features and indicators of political development during these three periods are explained.

Part four is about poverty and development. These two words are opposite to each other if it
is not poverty, it is development. Various concepts related to poverty are discussed here and
the relationship between poverty and population, poverty and environment, technology and
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poverty and environmental conservation and sustainable development are highlighted in this
part.

Part five explains the relationship between reproductive health and development. The various
concepts of reproductive health are defined, HIV/AIDS and youth have been discussed and
the role of reproductive health education has been discussed.

Part six discusses the importance of gender education in development. The development can’t
be discussed in exclusion of gender. The conceptualization of gender and the relationship
between gender and development has been discussed here.

It is expected that students will supplement the contents of this manual with other relevant
materials from different sources such as book/journal/report published today around the
world. These sources can be accessed as hard copies in libraries or bookshops or can be
accessed as soft copies in the internet.

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 SECTION ONE
CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL
FORMATION

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LECTURE 1
CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT

1.1 Introduction
This lecture intends to impart learners’ with the basic knowledge of development, to enable
them advance to other lectures in the course. The lecture basically deals with
conceptualization of key elements of development such development, underdevelopment and
sustainable development.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Define the term development in different ways depending on space and time.
ii. List types of development.
iii. Identify levels of development.
iv. Mention indicators of development.

1.2 Definition of terms

1.2.1 Origin of the definition of Development

Development was first heard in the year 1756 which means “unfolding”. Which pertains to
properties in 1885, reflecting “to bring out and introduce the dormant potentials”; this is to
make use of assets that have been left untouched to make it useful. During 1902, the word
development meant “the state of economic progress (Shukla, 2017).

Development is good in many ways; it may pertain to our well-being, knowledge, and pieces
of machinery, food, surroundings, and others. This only means that we gain progress.
Development does not happen overnight, it takes time and effort, so when there is growth,
expansion, and improvement, let us all be thankful because development will make our lives
easier (Shukla, 2017).

The concept of development is not easy to be defined; because the word signifies different by
different people. What one person takes to be development may be underdevelopment to

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others. Definition of the term development depends on the time and environment on which it
is defined.

Development is a multi-dimensional concept in its nature, because any improvement of

complex systems, as indeed actual socio-economic systems are, can occur in different parts or
ways, at different speeds and driven by different forces.

Development can be argued in three perspectives; the first is historical and long term and
arguably relatively value free – ‘development’ as a process of change. The second is policy
related and evaluative or indicator led, is based on value judgements, and has short- to
medium-term time horizons – development as the MDGs, for example. The third is post-
modernist, drawing attention to the ethnocentric and ideologically loaded Western
conceptions of ‘development’ and raising the possibilities of alternative conceptions. ‘

Development’ as a long term process of structural societal transformation ‘Development’ as a

short-to medium term outcome of desirable targets ‘Development’ as a dominant ‘discourse’
of western modernism
Seers, D. (1969); Development means improvement

Walter. R. (1974) Defined the term development as many sided process that has two levels:-
 At level of individual – it implies increased skill and capacity; greater freedom,
creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well-being.
 At the level of social group – Development implies an increasing capacity to
regulate both internal and external relationships.

Nyerere, J.K. (1974): Defined as a process that enables human beings to realize their
potentials, build self-confidence and lead lives of dignity and fulfillment. It should
be development of people and not roads, buildings, the increase in crop output and
other things of this nature.

AmartaSen, (1988): Development is concerned with the achievement of a better life. The
focus of development analysis has to include the nature of the life that people
succeed in living.

In Chambers (1997) Development is defined as good change.

1.2.2 Sustainable Development

Sustainable development is defined as development which considers the long term

perspectives of the socio-economic system, to ensure that improvements occurring in the short
term will not be detrimental to the future status or development potential of the system, i.e.
development will be “sustainable” on environmental, social, financial and other grounds.
This concept has been summarized in three concepts; a way of changing the predominant
world view to one that is more holistic and balanced; a way of applying the principles of
integration – across space and time – to all decisions and identifying and fixing the specific

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problems of resource depletion, health care, social exclusion, poverty, unemployment
(Strange et al.,2008).

1.2.3 Human Development

Human development is people-centred development, where the focus is put on the

improvement of the various dimensions affecting the well-being of individuals and their
relationships with the society (health, education, entitlements, capabilities, empowerment etc.)
Human development is about expanding the richness of human life, rather than simply the
richness of the economy in which human beings live and is on creating fair opportunities and
choices for all people (UNDP, 2016).

Dimensions of human development includes; directly enhancing abilities and creating

conditions for human development. It focuses on;
 Improving the lives people lead rather than assuming that economic growth will lead,
automatically, to greater opportunities for all.
 Giving people more freedom and opportunities to live lives they value. In effect this
means developing people’s abilities and giving them a chance to use them. For
example, educating a girl would build her skills, but it is of little use if she is denied
access to jobs, or does not have the skills for the local labour market.
 Providing people with opportunities, not insisting that they make use of them. It
should at least create an environment for people, individual and collectively to develop
to their full potential and to have a reasonable chance of leading productive chance of
leading productive and creative lives that they value. (UNDP, 2016).

1.3 Types of Development

There are three aspects or types of development namely; economic development, social
development and political development

1.3.1 Economic development

It can be defined at the National level and individual level; as far as country or nation is
concerned the economic development is defined as the development of the economic wealth
of the country , aimed at the overall well-being of the citizens of a country, as they are the
ultimate beneficiaries of the development of the economy of their country. It is said to be a
sustainable boost in the standards of living of the people of a country as implies an increase in
the per capita income of every citizen. Economic development also leads to the creation of
more opportunities in the sectors of education, healthcare, employment and the conservation
of the environment (Todaro and Smith, 2011).

Economic development sometimes refers to the adoption of new technologies, transition from
agriculture-based to industry-based economy, and general improvement in living standards. It

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is also refers to improvements in a variety of indicators such as literacy rates, life expectancy,
and poverty rates.

1.3.2 Social Development

Simply this refers to equal access to all members of the society to the necessary product.
Civilized society must guarantee its people of decent clothing, food and shelter. Social
development also includes equal access to essential basic services and opportunities such as
education, health, easy communications, recreation and a job. A pre-requisite to guaranteeing
access to basic needs to all members of the nation state is the production of sufficient goods
and services (economic development). Without well-developed human resources applying
Science and Technology to efficient production, neither economic nor social development
would be guaranteed.

1.3.3 Political Development

Political development is taken to be political modernization in the sense that it is the politics
of industrialized states. This view is biased in favour of western countries with liberal
democracy. Thus their practices are taken as universal standards of political behaviour and
performance to be copied by the less developed states. (Lucien Pye: 1965). The standards of
such western states could be cited as:

Mass participation and multiparty politics. It is assume that the society would have various
political organizations and pressure groups that are independent and are capable of fighting
for the basic human rights of its members. There is also respect for merit rather than birth.
Thus selection to jobs and political office would be based on merit and not by sheer
appointment by the King or Chief. Regular elections that are free and fair secure for the
country its political leadership. The country is ruled according to law and there is separation
of powers between the Legislative Body (Bunge), the Judiciary and the Executive, the former
being supreme. The main critique of these standards is that one fails to distinguish between
what is western standard and what is modern. In fact a close examination indicates that
political development means the building of democracies - establishing its institutions and
practices in the so called advance countries.

1.4 Levels of development

The countries in the world are categorized into three groups; ie developed countries, Newly
Industrializing Countries (middle developed countries) and Developing Countries

1.4.1 Developed Countries

These are the world’s countries that are considered to be at the highest social and economic
levels such as;

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  Largely based on the service sector and less on the industrial and manufacturing
services.
 Well-developed education system
 Well-developed health care system
 Well-developed banking, transportation and information technologies

1.4.2 Newly Industrializing Countries (middle developed countries)

These are the world’s countries that are going through the process of becoming developed.
These countries have undergone enormous changes such as new government regimes and the
gaining of independence. This process can take many years.
- Since WW2, Taiwan, S. Korea, Hong Kong and Singapore have become developed.
- Currently, countries such as China, Malaysia, Brazil and Chile are doing the same.
These countries are characterized by;
 Transition Economy from a focus on industrial and manufactured based sectors to
service sectors.
 Developed education, health care, banking, transportation and information
technologies

1.4.3 Developing Countries

These are the world’s countries that are considered to be at the lowest social and economic
levels characterized by.
 Largely based on primary services such as agriculture.
 Most new development is focused on the manufacturing sector as these countries
often have the raw materials needed (e.g. mining, forestry)
 There is little service sector as people have little to no money to spend.
 Education, health care, banking, transportation and information technologies are
almost nonexistent as governments do not have the money to invest into these sectors
as people are often too poor to pay taxes.
 Governments often rely on foreign aid to pay for these social developments; such,
what little money the government does make, often goes to repayment of these loans
instead of their own people.

1.5 Indicators of Development

1.5.1 National Income and Per Capita National Product
National Income (NI) is a rather complex concept. However, National Income corresponds
basically to the income accruing to a nation by virtue of productive activities (Eatwell et
al.1987).The best approach to the concept of National Income is through the more widely
used concept of Gross National Product (GNP). GNP is the un-duplicated (without doubling

13
counting) value of what a nation produces. For instance in a simple agricultural economy that
produces wheat which is then turned into flour and then into bread it would be double
counting (duplicating a count) if one adds the value of wheat and the flour to the value of
bread. Since bread already includes the value of wheat and flour the total of all goods and
services that enter into final demand in a given year. Final demand comprises of capital
formation (capital goods plus public consumption (food, clothing, entertainment etc), public
consumption (expenditure on schools, hospitals, defense etc.) and the value of exports.

The GNP per capita represents the average obtained by dividing the GNP by total population
(Eatwell: 1987). Thus it has been used to compare the economic well-being of nations.
Strictly, such an indicator may not reflect at time the real socio-economic and political
development of a country. In fact it favours those countries with a well-established market
mechanism and a big formal sector. The least development countries with a large informal
sector suffer from underestimation of its private consumption supplied by the informal sector.
Some smaller countries with a small population but a single export product in high and
constant demand like petroleum and its products may show a very high GNP per capita
despite being a backward country. Take the United Arab Emirates whose GNP per capita was
US Dollars 22,180 in 1991.This was very close: To that of the GNP per capita for USA
(Dollars 22,340) and the surpasses that of France (US Dollars 20,460) and that of United
Kingdom (US Dollars 16,000) (UNDP Report: 1994). However, in terms of political
development and economic and even social welfare the Sultanates of United Arab Emirates
lag far, far behind the USA, France and the United Kingdom.

1.5.2 Occupational Distribution

A high GNP per capita allows for higher savings which could be invested to expand
production in industry as well as be invested in new industries. In so doing a wide range
employment opportunities in industry would be created. In such circumstances labour would
move from agriculture to industry and people would migrate from rural areas into towns and
cities seeking job opportunities. This process would make new towns to spring up and existing
ones to expand even further. Thus first there are occupational changes. A country where
percentage of labour force in industry is greater than that employed in agriculture is taken to
indicate some economic development. For instance in 1992 the percentage of the labour force
in agriculture in industrialized countries in the world on the average had dwindled to 9 percent
whereas that of least developed countries was on the average as high as 73 percent (UNDP:
1994). The labour force in industry in industrialized countries was on the average 33 per cent
but the least developed countries still lagged behind at 8 percent. Urbanization is also taken as
an indicator of some development. Populations of least developed countries live
predominantly in rural areas. About 79 percent of their populations lived in rural areas in
1992. Only 27 per cent lived in rural areas on the average in industrialized countries.

1.5. 3 Age Structure

Economic development produces considerable changes in the size and age structure of the
population. Urbanization depresses birthrates. (People in urban areas tend to have small
families). At the same time improved healthy delivery systems and sanitation generally
prolongs life expectations. Consequently the proportion of children and the young person is

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reduced and that of the ages is prolonged. Older population may indicate in this request some
kind of development associated with urbanization.

1.5.4 Rate of Economic Growth

It is assumed that a country with a higher GNP per capita has a higher capacity to save a
considerable proportion of its gross national product. The higher the proportion saved, the
greater the ability to expand production and consequently sustain a faster rate of economic
growth.

1.5.5 Life expectancy at birth

This is the average number of years that a newborn could expect to live, if he or she were to
pass through life subject to the age-specific death rates of a given period. It measures how
many years on average a newborn is expected to live, given current age-specific mortality
risks.

Exercise
1. With the aid of examples analyses the characteristics of developed countries, newly
industrialized countries and developing countries.
2. Discuss the three types of development
3. Identify indicators of development from the video

Further Readings
Amarta Sen (1988). The Concept of Development. In: Chenery H, Srinivasan TN
Handbook of Development Economics. Amsterdam: North Holland.
Chambers (1997). Responsible well-being -- a personal agenda for development,"
World Development,Elsevier, vol. 25(11).
Eatwell, J., Millgate, M. and Newman, P. (1987). The new Palgrave: A dictionary of
econom- ics. London: Macmillan.
George Novack, Understanding History: Marxist

15
Marx, Karl (1971). Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. M. Dobb.
London: Lawrence &Whishart.
Nyerere, J.K. (1974). Freedom and Development ( Uhuru na Maendeleo).Oxford
University Press. New York
Seers, D. (1969). Meaning of Development. IDS Communication 44. Institute of
Development Studies.
Shukla, A. (2017). What is the definition of Development? Pagu.com
https://www.paggu.com/getting-into-roots/what-is-the-definition-of-development/
UNDP (United Nation Developmenr Programme), (1994). Human Development
Report.
UNDP (United Nation Development Programme), (2016). Human Development
Report. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/what-human-development
UN (United Nations), (2007). Indicators of Sustainable Development; Guidelines and
Methodologies. Economic and Social affairs.
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/guidelines.pdf

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LECTURE 2
SOCIAL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

2.1 Introduction
This lecture intends to impart learners’ with the basic knowledge on social formation, to
enable them advance to other lectures in the course. The lecture discusses historical
articulation between the capitalist mode of production, persisting pre-capitalist modes of
production, and the institutional context of the economy. Basically concentrate on functioning
at the enterprise level and the level of market relations among enterprises (e.g., processes of
competition, concentration, and centralization), and its contradictions, tendencies, and laws of
motion i.e. from one low level to the advance high level

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Explain the meaning of social formation
ii. Describe the significance of Social formation
iii. Define the mode of production and understand the significance
iv. Students are also expected to be able to identify the different modes of production and
relate to the history of development of countries of interest

2.2 What is Social Formation

Social formation is a Marxist concept referring to the concrete, historical articulation between
the capitalist mode of production, persisting pre-capitalist modes of production, and the
institutional context of the economy. The theory of the capitalist mode of production—its
elements, functioning at the enterprise level and the level of market relations among
enterprises (e.g., processes of competition, concentration, and centralization), and its
contradictions, tendencies, and laws of motion—can be found in social formation facts,
information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about social formation (Gale, 2008).

According to Hindress et al. (1977), the classical concept of social formation, developed
and elaborated in Reading Capital, has the following crucial features:
 It represents a definite existent combination of structural levels (economic, political,
ideological) and modes of production that produces a determinate and distinctive

17
 ‘society effect’ and it has a mode of existence that makes it relatively autonomous
from other existences.

 Modes of production represent sub-unities of this existence and they contribute to

the ‘society effect’ with varying degrees of determination depending on their
position of domination or of subordination.

 The ‘society effect’ of the social formation depends on the overall reproduction of its
hierarchy of determinacy of modes of production and on the forms of the levels
corresponding to that hierarchy. If the hierarchy is displaced it is replaced by a new
hierarchy with a new ‘society effect’ and a new form of social formation emerges.

2.3 Significance of concept of social formation

The combination of forces and relations of production means the way people relate to the
physical world and the way people relate to each other socially are bound up together in
specific and necessary ways. People must consume to survive, but to consume they must
produce, and in producing they necessarily enter into relations which exist independently of
their will. For Marx, the whole 'secret' of why/how a social order exists and the causes of
social change must be discovered in the specific mode of production that a society has. He
further argued that the mode of production substantively shaped the nature of the mode of
distribution, the mode of circulation and the mode of consumption, all of which together
constitute the economic sphere. To understand the way wealth was distributed and consumed,
it was necessary to understand the conditions under which it was produced.

2.4. Meaning of Modes of Production

According to Karl Marx and the Marxist theory of historical materialism, a mode of
production is a precise combination of: Productive forces and Social and technical relations of
production.

In total it means the way of producing Marx regarded productive ability and participation in
social relations as two essential characteristics of human beings. "Productive forces and social
relations, all of which are important in development of the social individual”

The concept of mode of production was explained in two main ways; to analyse the economic
base and to describe the overall structure of societies. That is it to specify the particular
combination of forces and relations of production which distinguished one form of labour
process and its corresponding form of economic exploitation from another. It was also
employed it to characterize the overall pattern of social reproduction arising from the
relations between the economic base (comprising production, exchange, distribution and
consumption) and the legal, political, social and ideological institutions of the so-called
superstructure. The latter usage is particularly problematic. Its conceptual basis is fuzzy and it

18
encourages monocausal economic analyses of whole societies. But even the more rigorously
defined and carefully theorized analysis of production proper involves problems. For Marx
concentrated on the capitalist mode of production, discussed it in relatively abstract terms, and
considered pre-capitalist modes largely in terms of their differences from capitalism. Many of
these ambiguities and lacunae survive today so that the meaning and scope of the concept are
still contested (Jessop, 2017)

2.5 Modes of Production in History

At this stage we will briefly learn five periods of human history, each corresponding to a
particular mode of production as outlined by Marx:

2.5.1 Foraging Mode of Production

Human society organized in traditional tribes structure called "bands," comprised of 30 to 50
people that are mobile according to seasonal rounds, moving from place to place to utilize
different resources and assure their resources are not completely consumed. They were purely
hunters and gatherers who shared production and consumption of the entire social product.
Within these groups, the political and social organization is very simple. Some bands have no
political leader but instead look to elders who hold more prestige than others due to their age
and experience. Such individuals do not have power over other members of the band. In other
cases, a band may have a headman who leads by example rather than by force. There tends to
be very little conflict between people because of the small group size and due to the fact that
bands are kin-based units. Economies were based on generating heaps of processed and stored
foods. Pacific Northwest Coast peoples' diets generally consisted of berries, bulbs, shoots,
waterfowl, land mammals, shellfish, chitons, sea urchins, crabs, seaweeds and, most
importantly, salmon. They hunted and gathered only what was available, with great respect to
life and the interconnection of nature, believing that all living things possessed a spirit,
presented themselves as food willingly and had to be honored accordingly (Jessop, 1990).

Since were no permanent surplus product produced, there is also no class inexistence. It is
said to be classless mode of production using crude productive forces. This has also been
called primitive communism.

2.5.2 Asiatic mode of production

This is a controversial contribution to Marxist theory, initially used to explain pre-slave and
pre-feudal large earthwork constructions in China, India, the Euphrates and Nile river valleys
(and named on this basis of the primary evidence coming from greater "Asia"). The Asiatic
mode of production is said to be the initial form of class society, where a small group extracts
surplus through violence aimed at settled or unsettled communities.

19
Marx tended to chronologically overlap the Asiatic mode of production with slavery and
feudalism as two other, successive pre-capitalist societies where laborers are not separated
from the means of production. Marx’s definition of the Asiatic mode of production included
the absence of private ownership of land, autonomous village communities, and a despotic
centralized state in charge of public works, especially irrigation. To finance public
infrastructure, the state extracts, mainly through coercion and the control of the armed forces,
an economic surplus produced by local communities in the form of tributes and collective
work. Once surplus is extracted, village communities remain relatively independent within
their “self-sustaining” economies (Gale, 2008).

2.5.3 Slave mode of production

It is similar to the Asiatic mode, but differentiated in that the form of property is the direct
possession of individual human beings. Additionally, the ruling class usually avoids the more
outlandish claims of being the direct incarnation of a god, and prefers to be the descendants of
gods, or seeks other justifications for its rule. Ancient Greek and Roman societies are the most
typical examples of this mode.

Slave labor was distinguished by extremely low productivity; the slave was not interested in
the results of his work, he hated being under the yoke of work. The concentration of a large
number of slaves in the hands of the State or individuals made possible the contribution of
large-scale labor. This is endorsed by the gigantic works built in ancient times by the peoples
of China, India, Egypt, Italy, Greece and Central Asia: irrigation systems, roads, bridges,
cultural monuments. The slave trade was one of the most profitable and flourishing branches
of economic activity. Land and labor were the fundamental productive forces. The slave was a
property, it belonged to another person. It was the object of the law, not a subject, and legally
did not have relatives. The owner could control the physical reproduction of his slaves. The
division of society into classes aroused the need of the State. This arose to keep the exploited
majority at bay in the interests of the exploiting minority (Pierce, 2018).

Features of Slave mode of production

 Existence of two antagonistic classes.

There was existence of two antagonistic classes, that is slaves and slave masters.
Slaves were producers of their own material requirement’s and surplus products for
their masters.

 Private ownership.
There was private ownership of the major means of production, whereby means of
production are slaves and are owned by slave masters.

 Existence of exploitation.
It was characterized by exploitation of man by man, because Slaves were the ones
who were involved in production and whatever they produced was appropriated by
the slave masters.

 Relatively advanced tools.

20
 The level of productive forces was still low but relatively advanced than under
communal mode of production. Production relatively advanced leading to surplus.

 Relatively high level of political institutions.

This is due to the use of better tools of production which increased production which
supported increase in population leading to formation of states or Kingdoms.
NB: - The slave mode of production later declined due to conflicts between the slaves
and slave masters over exploitation of the slaves by slaves masters. The decline of
this mode, paved way for the rise of another mode known as feudal mode of
production.

2.5.4 Feudal mode of production

It is usually characterized by high feudalism in Western Europe. The primary form of property
is the possession of land in reciprocal contract relations: the possession of human beings as
peasants or serfs is dependent upon their being entailed upon the land. Exploitation occurs
through reciprocated contract (though ultimately resting on the threat of forced extractions).
The ruling class is usually a nobility or aristocracy.

Features of feudal mode of production

 Agriculture became the major economic activity: Following the discovery of iron
technology productive forces were improved drastically.
 Payment of rent to the land lords; rent was paid in various forms. Labour rent; existed
in form of labour or service in which peasants (serf) were required to work for three
days in week for the land lords. Rent in kind: The serfs regularly had to deliver the
quantities of his products to the land lords. The products could be in form of grain,
cattle or vegetables. Money rent: Was the system in which money used as a major
means of paying rent.
 Exploitation of man by man example peasants (serf) were exploited by land lords and
the distribution of production was not equal.
 Little freedom to peasant; peasants were tired due to various restrictions as they were
treated as children.
 Private ownership of major means of production such as land, mining sites, houses and
cattle all these belonged to feudal lords.
 Division labour, this based on age and sex where men specialized in military while
women specialized in farming and taking care of children.
 Existence of classes; landlords as exploiters and serfs as exploited class.
 Little surplus enjoyed by feudal lords.
 Existence of strong political institutions in form of kingdoms and empires example
Bunyoro, Buganda and Karagwe. Feudalism in Africa existed in various forms. Its
nature depended on place in which it was practiced for instance societies that exercised

21
 feudalism were those found in the interlacustine region of East Africa, South Africa,
West Africa and the North Eastern Africa.
 Improved productive forces: Especially tools applied in agriculture and military
warfare, this was brought about by iron technology. Generally, African kingdoms such
as Buganda and some forest states of West Africa, used means of production centered
on either land or livestock-especially cattle-peasants could use the land freely but they
were required to pay rent.

2.5.5 Capitalist mode of production

This is usually associated with modern industrial societies. The primary form of property is
the possession of objects and services through state guaranteed contract. The primary form of
exploitation is wage labour of which the ruling class is the bourgeoisie, which exploits the
proletariat. Bourgeoisie possesses the means of production for the whole society and
proletariat possess only their own labour power that they must sell for survive. Simply, the
social formation concept introduces to us the very important understanding. This is the modes
of production that tells us how societies are transformed. If students follow well they will
realize that there are societies that still fall on the earliest modes of production while others in
the latest mode of production.

Exercise
1. Write short notes on the modes of production.
2. What are the differences between feudal and capitalist modes of production?
3. Does the modes of production relate to Tanzania’s history?

Further Readings
Gale, T. (2008). Asiatic Mode of Production. International Encyclopedia of the Social
Sciences.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/sociology-and-social-
reform/sociology-general-terms-and-concepts/asiatic
1. Hindess, B. and Hirst, P. (1977). Concepts of Mode of Production and Social
Formation. In: Mode of Production and Social Formation. Palgrave Macmillan:
London
2. Jessop, B. (1990). Mode of Production.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314115117_Mode_of_production
3. Pierce, F. (2018). Slave Production Mode: Background, Characteristics, Final.
LifePersona.

22
LECTURE3
ARTICULATION OF THE MODES OF PRODUCTION

3.1 Introduction
Lecture one dealt with the modes of production as a departure point to the understanding of
development. Lecture two deals with the modes of production and its articulation. Different
issues related are covered in this lecture including productive forces, Labour, relations of
production, and other aspects concerned to productive forces.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to explain the following concepts:
i. Productive forces
ii. Productive forces in relation to labour
iii. Relations of production
iv. Social relations of production and be able to relate this to their daily activities toward
development.

In any specific society or country, different modes of production might emerge and exist
alongside each other, linked together economically. These different modes of production
corresponds different social classes and strata in the population. So, for example, urban
capitalist industry might co-exist with rural peasant production for subsistence and simple
exchange and tribal hunting and gathering. Old and new modes of production might combine
to form a hybrid economy.

However, Marx’s view was that the expansion of capitalist markets tended to dissolve and
displace older ways of producing over time. A capitalist society was a society in which the
capitalist mode of production had become the dominant one. The culture, laws and customs of
that society might however preserve – (for better or worse) – production.

3.2 Productive forces

Productive forces, “productive powers” or “forces of production” are a central concept in
Marxism and historical materialism. In Karl Marx and Frederick Engels’s critique of political
economy, it refers to the combination of the means of production with human labour power.
Although this is little known, Marx and Engels in fact derived the concept from Adam
Smith’s reference to the “productive powers of labour”.

23
All those forces which are applied by people in the production process (body & brain, tools &
techniques, materials, resources and equipment) are encompassed by productive force,
including management and engineering functions technically indispensable for production (as
contrasted with social control functions).

In the Marxist theory, however, productive forces include labour and materials, both the
material means and results of production. Productive forces are both means of production
(such as machines), etc, goods and raw materials, and workers who operate the means of
production and enter the social division of labour.

It is self-evident that the means of production and the worker are mutually dependent and,
from the capitalist viewpoint, the purpose of applying the worker to the means of production
lies in producing commodities which contain surplus value. Productive forces are not, then,
simply a collection of material objects, but include also and above all people, their living
conditions and nature, which is the object of labour.

3.3 Productive forces and labour

As emphasized by Karl Marx, with few exceptions, means of production are not a productive
force unless they are actually operated, maintained and conserved by living human labour.
Without applying living human labour, their physical condition and value would deteriorate,
depreciate, or be destroyed (an example would be a ghost town or capital depreciation due to
strike action).

In addition, Marx shows that in capitalist society, the productive forces take the form of, or
appear as, capital i.e. tradable assets that earn money. The reason is, that in such a society,
both means of production and human labour power are alienable as more or less freely traded
commercial goods (as exchangeable commodities).

3.4 Productive forces and the reflection of technology

Other interpretations, sometimes influenced by postmodernism and the concept of commodity
fetishism have by contrast emphasized the reification of the powers of technology, said to
occur by the separation of technique from the producers, and by falsely imputing human
powers to technology as autonomous force, the effect being a perspective of inevitable and
unstoppable technological progress operating beyond any human control, and impervious to
human choices. This means that technology has a greater role to play in the change of
productive forces.

24
3.5 Productive forces and productivity
Modern economics theorizes productivity in terms of the marginal product of the factors of
production. Marx theorizes productivity within the capitalist mode of production in terms of
the social and technical relations of production, with the concept of the organic composition
of capital and the value product. He suggests there is no completely neutral view of
productivity possible; how productivity is defined depends on the values and interests’ people
have. Thus, different social classes have different notions of productivity reflecting their own
station in life, and giving rise to different notions of productive and unproductive labour.

3.6 Relations of production

This is a concept frequently used by Karl Marx in his theory of historical materialism. It is
evident that it refers to all kinds of social and technical human interconnections involved in
the social production and reproduction of material life. “Social” denotes belonging, group
membership and co-operative activity. “Technical” refers here to a relationship between
producers and objects worked upon.

A social relation can be defined, in the first instance, as

 a relation between individuals insofar as they belong to a group, or
 a relation between groups, or
 a relation between an individual and a group
The group could be an ethnic or kinship group, a social institution or organization, asocial
class, a nation or gender etc.

Society for Marx is the sum total of social relations connecting its members. Social relations
of production in Marx’s sense refer to

 ownership and control relations pertaining to society’s productive assets,

 the way people are formally and informally associated within the economic sphere of
production, including social classes,
 work relations (including household labor),
 socio-economic dependencies between people arising from the way they produce and
reproduce their existence.

Lastly the quantitative proportions of different aspects of the sphere of production, considered
from the point of view of society as a whole. In a nutshell, this lecture has highlighted us on
crucial matters regarding production. It is a bare fact that without productive forces and
production relations then development would be at a standstill as production could not take
place. Students are required to highly reflect their daily responsibilities with productive forces
and relations so as to see the fact.

25
3.7 Class
There is no single definition of class because class is the subject of analysis for social,
political and economics. Social class is defined as people having the same social, economic,
cultural, political or educational status. It is relatively stable sociocultural background.

Karl Marx thought "class" was defined by one's relationship to the means of production (their
relations of production) for this case he thought of Proletarians (working class) and
bourgeoisie (capital owners) in capitalist society.

Max Weber, argued "class" is determined by economic position, in contrast to "social status"
or "Stand" which is determined by social prestige rather than simply just relations of
production

All in all, social Class refers to divisions in society based on economic and social status.
People in the same social class typically share a similar level of wealth, educational
achievement, type of job and income.

Types of Social class

Upper class
The upper class is the social class composed of those who are rich, well-born, powerful, or a
combination of those. They usually wield the greatest political power. In some countries,
wealth alone is sufficient to allow entry into the upper class. In others, only people who are
born or marry into certain aristocratic bloodlines are considered members of the upper class
and those who gain great wealth through commercial activity are looked down upon by the
aristocracy as nouveau rich. In the United Kingdom, for example, the upper classes are the
aristocracy and royalty, with wealth playing a less important role in class status.

Middle class
The middle class is the most contested of the three categories, the broad group of people in
contemporary society who fall socio-economically between the lower and upper classes. One
example of the contest of this term is that in the United States "middle class" is applied very
broadly and includes people who would elsewhere be considered working class. Middle-class
workers are sometimes called "white-collar workers".

Lower class
In the United States the lowest stratum of the working class, the underclass, often lives in
urban areas with low-quality civil services The working class is sometimes separated into
those who are employed but lacking financial security (the "working poor") and an
underclass—those who are long-term unemployed and/or homeless, especially those receiving
welfare from the state. The latter is analogous to the Marxist term "lumpenproletariat.
Members of the working class are sometimes called blue-collar workers.

26
 Exercise
1. Write short notes on the following concepts
i. Productive forces
ii. Productive forces and labour
iii. Productive forces and technology
iv. Productive forces and productivity
v. Relations of production

2. Differentiate any two of the above concepts.

3. What does ‘social relations of production’ mean according to

Marx?

References
Baran, A. P. (1952). On the Political Economy of Backwardness. Economic
Review.Vol 3, Issue 3, 207-215.

Brown, D.F. (2009). "Social class and Status". In Mey, Jacob. Concise Encyclopedia
of Pragmatics. Elsevier. p. 952. ISBN 978-0-08-096297-9.

Lawrence, K. (1977). The Asiatic Mode of Production; Sources, Development and

Critique in the Writings of Karl Marx (Book Review). Novak Ondrej: Archive
Orientaini: Praha vol 45, 266-267..

Mandel, E. (1968). An Introduction to Marxist Economic Theory. Merlin Press. ISBN-

13:978-0850361667.

Marx, Karl (1971). Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, Tr.
S. W. Ryanzanskaya, edited by M. Dobb. London: Lawrence & Whishart.

Weber, Max (1921/2015). "Classes, Stände, Parties" in Weber's Rationalism and

Modern Society: New Translations on Politics, Bureaucracy and Social Stratification.
Edited and Translated by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters, pp. 37–58.

27
 SECTION TWO
THEORIES OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT

28
LECTURE 4
CAPITAL LABOUR AND SURPLUS VALUE

4.1 Introduction
This lecture deals with issues of capital labour, surplus value (absolute and relative) and
related aspects. As development is a multidimensional, this is a lecture that deals with
conceptualizing the very key aspects of labour and its operation. Labour being necessary
capital for means of livelihood of the worker ("necessary labour") and development. This is
discusses how intensification of capital labour leads to surplus value necessary for the
development at large. According to Marx's theory, surplus value is equal to the new value
created by workers in excess of their own labor-cost, which is appropriated by the capitalist as
profit when products are sold.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Describe labour and its associated concepts.
ii. Identify different types of labour.
iii. Distinguish the concepts such as capital, compensation, surplus value, social class
and sociological class.

In classical economics and all micro-economics labour is a measure of the work done by
human beings and is one of three factors of production, the others being land and capital.
There are macro-economic system theories which have created a concept called human capital
(referring to the skills that workers possess, not necessarily their actual work), although there
are also counter-posing macro-economic system theories that think human capital is a
contradiction in terms.

4.2 Definition of the terms

4.2.1 Capital
Capital can be defined as assets available for use in the production of further assets, or Wealth
in the form of money or property owned by a person or business to human resource of
economic value.

29
4.2.2 Labour
Labour is an ability to work. Labour is a broad concept because it includes both physical and
mental labour (as per above picture). Labour is a primary or human factor of production. It
indicates human resource.

4.2.3 Labourer
Labourer is a person who owns labour. So labourer means worker. It is a person engaged in
some work.

4.3 Compensation and Measurement

Wage is a basic compensation for labour, and the compensation for labour per period of time
is referred to as the wage rate. The two terms are sometimes used interchangeably.
Other frequently used terms include:
 wage = payment per unit of time (typically an hour)
 earnings = payment accrued over a period (typically a week, a month, or a year)
 total compensation = earnings + other benefits for labour
 income = total compensation + unearned income
 economic rent = total compensation - opportunity cost
 Economists measure labour in terms of hours worked, total wages, or efficiency.

4.4 Labour and division of labour

Labour is characterized by the following features;
 Labour is joined from labourer i.e. you cannot separate the two. Worker sells their
service and doesn't sell themselves.
 Labour is a perishable factor i.e. can not be stored. Once the labour is lost, it can not
be made up. Unemployed workers can not store their labour for future employment.
 Cost of producing a labour cannot be determined. It is easy to calculate production
cost of a commodity produced in an industry. But cost of producing a labour is a vague
concept because it includes expenses incurred by parents on education of their children
and other expenses incurred on them right from their birth date. It is impossible to
estimate all such casts accurately.

30
  Labour is an active factor of production. Other factors like land, capital are passive,
but labour is an active factor of production. Being a human being, this factor has its
own feelings, likes and dislikes, thinking power, etc. We can achieve better quality and
level of production, if land and capital are employed properly in close association with
Labour. So without labour, we cannot imagine the smooth conduct of production.
 Labour is a heterogeneous factor in terms of Skills and efficiency differs from person
to person.
 Labour has imperfect mobility; Labour doesn't move easily from one occupation to
another because of several factors like family and cultural background, limited
educational and technical skills, lifestyle, housing and transport problems, language
barrier, adaptability to new environments, etc.
 Labour has a derived demand like other factors of production; labour has a derived /
indirect demand. It contributes to production process.
 Labour is a Mean as well as an End, is a mean of production in factory. But outside
the factory premises worker may be a consumer of that product. So, he might be an
end user of that commodity.

4.4.1 Division of Labour

Division of labour is generally speaking the specialization of cooperative labour in specific,
circumscribed tasks and roles, intended to increase efficiency of output. Historically the
growth of a more and more complex division of labour is closely linked with the growth of
trade, the rise of capitalism, and of the complexity of industrialization processes.

4.4.2 Types of labour

 Brain work
Brain work or effort consisting principally or largely of mental activity, thought,
imagination, etc., as opposed to physical or manual work. It is the effort of thought,
reasoning, planning, or the like; ordered or directed thinking.

 Free-work
It also describes certain permissible restrictions that respect or protect these essential
freedoms

 Manual labour
Manual labour is physical work done by people, most especially in contrast to that
done by machines, and to that done by working animals. It is most literally work done
with the hands (the word "manual" comes from the Latin word for hand), and, by
figurative extension, it is work done with any of the muscles and bones of the body.

 Slavery

31
 Slavery is a form of forced labor in which human beings are forcibly held under the
involuntary control of others, and required to work under legal penalty.

 Unfree labour
Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations, especially in
modern or early modern history, in which people are employed against their will with
the threat of destitution, detention, violence (including death), compulsion, or other
forms of extreme hardship to themselves or members of their families. It includes all
forms of slavery, and related institutions (e.g. debt slavery, serfdom, corvée and labour
camps). Many of these forms of work may be covered by the term forced labour,
which is defined by the International Labour Organization (ILO) as all involuntary
work or service exacted under the menace of a penalty.

 Volunteer
Volunteering is generally considered an human activity where an individual or group
provides services for no financial or social gain "to benefit another person, group or
organization". Volunteering is also renowned for skill development and is often
intended to promote goodness or to improve human quality of life. Volunteering may
have positive benefits for the volunteer as well as for the person or community served.

 Wage slavery
Wage slavery is usually used to refer to a situation where a person's livelihood
depends on wages or a salary, especially when the dependence is total and immediate.
Wage slavery" has been used to criticize exploitation of labour and social
stratification, with the former seen primarily as unequal bargaining power between
labor and capital (particularly when workers are paid comparatively low wages, e.g. in
sweatshops

 Wage labour
Wage labour is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer,
where the worker sells his or her labour under a formal or informal employment
contract. These transactions usually occur in a labour market where wages are market
determined..In exchange for the wages paid, the work product generally becomes the
undifferentiated property of the employer, except for special cases such as the vesting
of intellectual property patents in the United States where patent rights are usually
vested in the employee personally responsible for the invention. A wage labourer is a
person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her labour in this
way.

4.5 Surplus value

Total surplus-value in an economy is basically equal to the sum of net distributed and
undistributed profit, net interest, net rents, net tax and various net receipts associated with
royalties, licensing, leasing, certain honorariums etc. Of course, the way generic profit income

32
is grossed and netted in social accounting may differ somewhat from the way an individual
business does that.

Absolute and relative surplus value

According to Marx, absolute surplus value is obtained by increasing the amount of time
worked per worker in an accounting period. Marx talks mainly about the length of the
working day or week, but in modern times the concern is about the number of hours worked
per year.

In many parts of the world, as productivity rose, the working classes forced a reduction in the
workweek, from 60 hours to 50, 40 or 35 hours; but casualization and flexibilisation of
working hours also permits higher paid workers to work less

Relative surplus value is obtained mainly by

 Reducing wages
 Reducing the cost of wage-goods,
 Increasing the productivity and intensity of labour generally.

4.6 Social class

Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or
cultures. While anthropologists, historians and sociologists identify class as a social structure
emerging from pre-history, the idea of social class entered the English dictionary about the
1770s. Social classes with more power usually subordinate classes with less power. Social
classes with a great deal of power are usually viewed as elites, at least within their own
societies.

4.7 Sociological class

Schools of sociology differ in how we conceptualize class. A distinction can be drawn
between analytical concepts of social class, such as the Marxian and Weberian traditions, and
the more empirical traditions such as socio-economic status approach, which notes the
correlation of income, education and wealth with social outcomes without necessarily
implying a particular theory of social structure.

Traditions differ about which social traits are significant in defining class, although when
sociologists speak of "class" in modern society they usually mean socioeconomic classes. The
relative importance and definition of membership in a particular class differs greatly over time
and between societies, particularly in societies that have a legal differentiation of groups of
people by birth or occupation.

33
Karl Marx defined class in terms of the extent to which an individual or social group has
control over the means of production. In Marxist terms a class is a group of people defined by
their relationship to the means of production. Classes are seen to have their origin in the
division of the social product into a necessary product and a surplus product. Therefore, the
concept described in this lecture tells us a lot about how economic development starts by
imposing in us the understanding of capital, labour and surplus.

Exercise
1. What is capital?

2. What is labour. Identify different types of labour.

3. Differentiate between absolute and relative surplus values.

4. Write short notes on the following:

i. Division of labour
ii. Surplus value
iii. Social class
iv. Sociological class

References
Andrees, B. and Belser, P. (2009). "Forced labor: Coercion and exploitation in the
private economy", Lynne Rienner and ILO. .229pp.
Benefits of Volunteering (2007)". Corporation for National and Community Service. A
review of recent research. Washington DC.
https://www.nationalservice.gov/sites/default/files/documents/07_0506_hbr.pdf ;
retrieved 12 April 2017
Boss, Helen (1990). Theories of surplus and transfer: parasites and producers in
economic thought. Unwin Hyman, 346pp.
Carsel, W. (1940). "The Slaveholders' Indictment of Northern Wage Slavery". Journal
of Southern History, 6 (4): 504–520. JSTOR 2192167.
George Dalton (February 1961). "Economic theory and primitivesociety". American
Anthropologist, LXIII, no. 1, 1–25.

34
 Mandel, E. (1968). An Introduction to Marxist Economic Theory. Merlin Press. ISBN-
13:978-0850361667.
Wilson, John (2000). "Volunteering". Annual Review of Sociology (26): 215.
doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.215. Retrieved 12 April 2017.

LECTURE 5
TRADITIONAL THEORY OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Introduction
This lecture intends to introduce the readers to the basic understanding of social development
theories so as to reflect the development of Africa in their perspective and to also enable them
think alternatively where necessary. Through this and the following (lecture four) students
will get insights on socio-economic development theories. It will be realized through these
two lectures that, development follows a certain trend but not as a general rule. Some
countries follow certain trend while other not.

Learning Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:

i. Demonstrate a clear understanding of traditional theories of socio-economic
development.
ii. Identify different stages of development as stipulated by Marx (the modes of
production).
iii. Relate the modes of production to their respective societies/countries.
iv. Judge whether or not the Marxist theory of development is realistic to African
societies and other underdeveloped regions.

5.2 Marxist Understanding of Social Development

Marxist theory is one of the leading theories that attempt to provide a critical understanding of
the social development process. The founder of Marxist theory was Karl Marx, a German
philosopher who lived during the nineteenth century in Europe.

35
Marx lived during a period when the majority of people in industrial societies were poor. This
was the early period of industrialization in such nations as England, Germany, and the United
States. Those who owned and controlled the factories and other means of production exploited
the masses who worked for them. The rural poor were forced or lured into cities where
employment was available in the factories and workshops of the new industrial economies. In
this way the rural poor were converted into an urban poor. Marx tried to understand the
institutional framework that produced such conditions and looked for a means to change it in
order to improve the human condition.
On development of society Marx argues that the entire history of human societies may be seen
as the history of class conflict: the conflict between those who own and control the means of
production and those who work for them-the exploiters and the exploited. He believed that
ownership of the means of production in any society determines the distribution of wealth,
power, and even ideas in that society.

5.3 Marx’s stages of development of society

Marx identified five stages of development of society.
i. Primitive Communalism/communal mode of production
ii. Feudalism/feudal mode of production
iii. Capitalism/capitalist mode of production
iv. Socialism/socialist mode of production, and
v. Communism/communalism/communist mode of production.

5.3.1 Communalism

This mode of production marks the rise of society from sheer animal to human society.
 Productive Forces: (The instruments) of labour were crude and underdeveloped. Due
to this the primitive man was unable to engage in production alone i.e. without the
help of others. Ownership of the means of production was owned communally.
 Relations of production: The relations of production were collective; people lived
together and jointly conducted their economy for survival.
 Labour productivity: Was low without surplus and distribution of the products were
equal.
 Organization: No classes and therefore no states, kingdoms etc. People organized
themselves in clan or family.
 It is notable that at this stage there are no classes and no class struggles.

5.3.2 Feudalism

Emergence of surplus in production and the emergence of classes

36
  This mode of production was based on class antagonism – Conflict/strugglebetween
opposing classes.
 Was based on private property in land, it consisted of two classes: thelandowners and
the serfs. Serfs were not slaves because they had a landholding to build their shelters.
They rented this land holding from thelandlord. However, the serfs owned their means
of labour
 The landlords exploited the serfs and the serfs struggled to free themselvesfrom this
exploitative relationship.
 Contradictions and growing class struggle led to the disintegration offeudalism.

5.3.3 Capitalism

This stage emerged as the result of the industrial revolution in Europe.

 Capitalism led to the emergence of commodity production.
 Under capitalist commodity production, all products became commodities being
produced for exchange. Human labour also became a commodity.
 Private ownership of means of production is a basic characteristic of capitalism.
 Relations of production are exploitative: capitalists-, who are owners of means of
production, exploit the workers. The working class is exploited by selling their labour
power.
 According to Marxists, capitalist economies expand through export of capital and this
become a driving force for imperialist expansion
 The contradiction between capital and labour leads to the decline of capitalism.

5.3.4 Socialism

Is the mode of production established after the overthrow of the capitalist system. Socialism
according to Marx is the logical stage of social development after mature capitalism.
 It is the consequence of the growth of productive forces.
 Socialism establishes the dictatorship of the proletariat
 Public ownership and control of the major means of production and distribution. All
means of production are in the hands of the working class.
 Relations of production are non-antagonistic/non-exploitative relations. There is no
exploitation of any man’s labour by any other man; people will work not because they
are forced to but because labour has for them the first necessity of life. Therefore all
people will work according to their abilities and will be remunerated according to
their needs.
 The distinction between the physical and mental labour will disappear and likewise the
difference between city and countryside.

37
5.3.5 Communism
Is supposed to be the highest level of social development with
 Absence of exploitative relations of production
 There is a ”withering” away of the state towards a classless society
 In a communist or socialist economy, investment and consumption are primarily
determined by the national plan.

Conclusively, from a Marxist approach, development is seen as the unfolding in human

history of the progressive emancipation of peoples and nations from the control of nature and
from the control of other peoples and nations. It is important to emphasize that Marxist theory
remains significant because of its ability to highlight the exploitative nature of the capitalist
economic system and how this gives rise to classes/social divisions and conflicts. This is of
great relevance as most African countries have embarked on the road to capitalist
development.

Exercise
1. Write clear short notes on the following:
i. Communalism
ii. Feudalism
iii. Capitalism
iv. Socialism
v. Communism

2. Explain why is it important to mention Marx when discussing socioeconomic development.

References
George Dalton (1961). "Economic theory and primitive society". American
Anthropologist, LXIII, no. 1, 1–25.
Wallerstein, I. (1980). The Modern World-System II: Mercantilism and the
Consolidation of the European World-Economy, 1600-1750. New York: Academic
Press

38
LECTURE 6
MODERNIZATION THEORY OF SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT

6.1 Introduction
Lecture six is all about modernization/bourgeois theory that looks at development on a
different perspective. The lecture will highlight on different issues as pointed out by
modernization theories of which students can develop their thinking and arguments towards
development of their respective societies and countries.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Discuss the modernization theories clearly.
ii. Compare the theories of development and underdevelopment.
iii. Argue with examples the routes of development in underdeveloped nations as a whole
and specific country.
iv. Clearly show the applicability of the modernization theories towards the understanding
of development and underdevelopment in third world countries.

Most Modernization theories argue that countries pass through phases during the course of
development and that by identifying these stages, according to certain characteristics, a
country can be deemed to have reached a certain stage of development. The simplest stage
theory is the sector thesis of Fisher 1 and Clark2 who employ the distinction between primary,
secondary and tertiary production as a basic of theory of development. Countries are assumed
to start as primary producers and then, as the basic necessities of life are met, resources shift
into manufacturing or secondary activities. Finally, growing to rising income, more leisure
and an increasingly saturated market for manufactured goods, resources move into service or
tertiary activities producing 'commodities with a high income elasticity of demand.

Examples of the bourgeois theories of development include Nurkse's Vicious Circle

of Poverty and Rostow’s Stages of economic growth
.

6.2 Rostow’s stages of economic growth

39
Rostow’s stage of growth model is the best known and most explicit presentation of the
bourgeois view of historical development. Rostow in his book “The Stages of Economic
Growth” applies a stage approach to the course of development. Rostow presents a political
theory as well as a descriptive economic study of the pattern of the growth and development
of nations. The essence of the Rostow thesis is that it is logically and practically possible to
identify stages of development and to classify society according to those stages.

6.2.1 Rostow’s stages of development

Traditional Society

A period of traditional society is characterized by the following features;

 A traditional society is one with – very little production for subsistence living
 A period in history when men had little knowledge of the outside world e.g. many
thought that the world was flat!
 Low level of science and technology hence limited production with very high
proportion of their resources were devoted to agriculture.
 Family and clan/tribal connections played a large role in social organization.
 The unit of production was the family.

Pre-Conditions for “Take-off” (Transitional Stage)

This is the period that the society is preparing to take off.The main economic and social
requirements in the transition stage are;
 The level of investment should be raised to at least 10 per cent of national income to
ensure self-sustaining growth.
 Translation of advance science and technology into new production functions in both
industry and agriculture.
 The main direction of investment must be in transport and other socialoverhead capital
to build up society's infrastructure.
 On the social front a new elite must emerge to fabricate the industrial societyand it
must supersede in authority the land-based elite of the traditionalsociety. The new elite
must channel surplus product from agriculture toindustry.
 The establishment of an effective modern government is vital.

“Take-Off”
There appears little distinction between the transitional stage and take-off. It is a decisive
transition in a society’s history and it is a short stage of development during which growth
becomes self-sustaining. It is characterized by the following;

40
  The Take-off is a period “when the scale of productive economic activityreaches a
critical level and produces changes which lead to a massive andprogressive structural
transformation in economies and the societies of whichthey are part.

 Came up through a technological innovation, which sets in motion a chain of

secondary expansion in modern sectors and has powerful external economy effects.

 The Take-off may take the form of a newly favorable international environment such
as the opening of British and French markets to Swedish timber in the 1860’s.

Drive to Maturity
According to Rostow, drive to maturity is a period when society effectively applies the range
of modern technology to the bulk of its resources.
 During the period of maturity new leading sectors replace the old.
 Development of the steel industry as one of the symbols of maturity. In this respect
America, Germany, France and Great Britain entered the stage of maturity roughly
together.

High Mass Consumption

This is the stage where there is increased productivity to satisfy society's demands. It is
characterized by;
 High advanced technology and highly consumers’ sovereignty bring a society with a
wide choice in the market.
 Free competition is the key to economic development. Economic growth is practically
automatic.
 The process of development is automatic and technically determined.
 According to Rostow, free choices are expected to overcome scarcity and to result in
progress through the automatic adjustments of free exchange in markets.

6.2.2 Rostow’s Applicability

The use of Rostow's model as a framework for analysis of the process of development
assumes that present-day developed countries were once underdeveloped and that all countries
move through all these stages of growth. This, as historical experience indicates is not the case
for many third world countries, particularly African countries that suffered from slavery and
colonialism.

For African countries, underdevelopment is not a natural stage of human development. In the
first place, poor countries are attempting to accelerate their development from a lower
economic level than was true for the presently rich countries at the time of their rapid rates of
development. The so-called developed countries established the basis for their take-off on the

41
basis of looting and stealing from overseas e.g. India, the Middle East and on the basis of the
slave trade.

6.3 Nurkse's Vicious Circle of Poverty

Ragnar Nurkse (1907 – 1959) was a prominent economist professor who attempted to
examine problems of capital formation in underdeveloped countries.
Nurkse’s theory expresses the circular relationships that afflict both the demand and the
supply side of the problem of capital formation in economically backward areas.
Nurkse stresses the role of savings and capital formation in economic development. He was
one of the early expounders of the “balanced growth” doctrine.
According to Nurkse a society is poor because it is poor. A society with low income has both
low levels of savings and low levels of consumption. The low level of savings means that low
investment, while the low levels of consumption means no enough market to induce
investments - that is, even if the capital for investment were available. This low investment in
turn means little ability of the society to expand its productive capacity or transform the
quality of the productive forces as a whole. This finally leads to a continuation of low incomes
in the economy and then the circle continues.

According to Nurkse one of the most important reasons as to why the backward countries
have been prevented from enjoying the stimulating effects of the manufacturing industry is
not the wickedness of foreign capitalists and their exclusive concern with raw material
supplies, but merely the limitation of the domestic market for manufactures articles.

6.3.1 Nurkse’s Theory Applicability

The theory does not provide a practical solution to the poverty problem. The theory ignores
the reality of underdeveloped countries characterized by dependent economies, which makes
it impossible to create an environment for massive investment and balanced growth.

Thus Nurkse's theory, indicates the status of poverty of the third world countries, it highlights
very little on our understanding of the causes of poverty.

6.4 Modernization Theories applicability

Modernization theorists believed that the task of planned development is to hasten the
evolution of preconditions to facilitate the take off period. Secondly, the rapid success of the
take off period is tied to radical changes in methods of production. Others though have that
inflows of industrial technology must be supplemented with “modern management, modern
education, etc…” (Matthew’s, 1981). The goal is to create economic and social conditions
similar to those in currently developed nations in the hope that these created conditions will
achieve similar results.

42
The bourgeois Modernization view of development grows out of the model of competitive
market capitalism. It is thought that an automatic, self-regulated mechanism to manage
economic affairs naturally emerges in the course of history. These free choices are expected to
overcome scarcity and to result in progress through the automatic adjustments of free
exchanges in markets. The forces of competition ensure that the economy produces those
goods which people desire and that maximum output is produced in the most efficient manner.
This process appears not to be functioning in most third world countries bring to the fore the
validity of the bourgeois theoretical understanding of development in the third world.

Bourgeois theories of development can be blamed from different angles.

 First of all is their isolated treatment of the national economy from the rest of the
world. Even where the world economy is considered, this exaggerated the possible
positive impacts of the international economic relationships on the developing
countries.
 Secondly, it can be argued that these theories are both mechanistic and tautological. To
think that simply by expanding investment a country will be able to raise its income or
that by raising income the country will raise savings and consumption is a highly
mechanical way of looking at things. We see increased investment in many
developing countries, but this has not given rise to savings, consumption or more
important to sustainable development.
 Bourgeois/modernization theories fail to explain the structure and development of the
capitalist system as a whole and to account for its simultaneous generation of
underdevelopment in some parts and of economic development in others.

Exercise
1. Argue on the importance of studying different development theories.
2. Third world countries suffer under development for the advantage of first world
countries. Discuss
3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the development theories towards the
development of African Countries?
4. Discuss the stages of economic growth pointed out by Rostow.

References
Fisher, A. G. B (1939). Production: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary,' Econpapers;
The Economic Record, vol 15, issue 1, 24-38.
Colin, C.M.A. (1940). The Conditions of Economic Progress. London:
Macmillan.515pp.

43
 Frank, A.G. “The Development of Underdevelopment” Monthly Review Reprint, vol
18
Hettne, B. (1982). Development Theory and the Third World. SAREC Report

LECTURE 7
THEORIES OF DEPENDENCE AND UNDER
DEVELOPMENT

7.1 Introduction
Lecture seven is all about theories of dependence and underdevelopment. The lecture will
highlight on Central arguments of dependence and under development and the relevance of
the theory to the development of under developing countries.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Discuss dependency theories clearly
ii. Compare the theories of development and underdevelopment
iii. Clearly show the applicability dependence theories towards the understanding of
development in third world countries.

"Dependence is a conditioning situation in which the economies of one group of countries are
conditioned by the development and expansion of others. There are many dependency
theorists including Furtado, Frank, Graffin, Sunkel, Dos Santos, Szentes and others who may
all be loosely described as part of the dependency school. Dependency theorists are concerned
with the whole relationship between advanced countries and third world countries. The
dependent relationship is exhibited in all aspects including cultural, social, political, and
economics of third world countries. Due to this, many third world countries are incapable of
following an alternative path.

This is not only because the world economic facts of life make it impossible, but because the
cultural, psychological and economic pressures of the dependent relationship have
conditioned decision-makers in third world countries so that they do not wish to follow an
alternative strategy.

44
7.2 A central argument of the dependency school
Dependency theorists concentrate on explaining the fundamental specific flows of
modernization approaches. They agree that some effort within developing countries must be
made to break the cycle of economic and political reliance on dominant capitalist nations. The
dependency school of thought encompasses many variations. There are that who’s thought
originates from Marxist analysis (often called neo-Marxism) – Paul Baron is considered the
father of neo-Marxism. For them dependency is the inevitable outcome of capitalist
development in the advanced countries, and the internalization of conflicts within the third
world represents the Marxist class struggle transferred to the third world.

Using the experience of Latin America, Andre Gunder Frank points out that, third world
countries cannot move from traditional society towards the stage of High Mass consumption.
He argues that the underdeveloped countries can hardly be regarded as traditional since the
capitalist system has "effectively and entirely penetrated even the apparently most isolated
sectors of the underdeveloped world." This penetration has made the economies of the
underdeveloped dependent upon those of the developed nations. This assures the stagnation of
the economy of poor countries. A central argument of the dependency school is that
dependence generates under development. Dependency theorists believed that, the economy
of under developed countries cannot be analyzed in isolation from the development of
capitalist countries. This is due to the fact that, their economy was in large part conditioned by
events in the advanced countries; through trade, migration, capital and technology flows. In
this way the advanced capitalist countries determine the nature of the economy of third world
countries.

Dependency theorists argue that the underdeveloped state of third world countries was
attributed not to the fact that they were at an earlier stage of history than the advanced
countries, but to the fact that the impact of the advanced countries on the third world had
caused their under development.

There are a number of propositions, all of which are contestable, which form the core of
dependency theory. These propositions include:

Underdevelopment is a condition fundamentally different from underdevelopment. The latter

term simply refers to a condition in which resources are not being used. For example, the
European colonists viewed the North American continent as an undeveloped area: the land
was not actively cultivated on a scale consistent with its potential. Underdevelopment refers to
a situation in which resources are being actively used, but used in a way which benefits
dominant states and not the poorer states in which the resources are found.

The distinction between underdevelopment and underdevelopment places the poorer

countries of the world is a profoundly different historical context. These countries are not
"behind" or "catching up" to the richer countries of the world. They are not poor because they
lagged behind the scientific transformations or the Enlightenment values of the European
states. They are poor because they were coercively integrated into the European economic

45
system only as producers of raw materials or to serve as repositories of cheap labor, and were
denied the opportunity to market their resources in any way that competed with dominant
states.

Dependency theory suggests that alternative uses of resources are preferable to the resource
usage patterns imposed by dominant states. There is no clear definition of what these
preferred patterns might be, but some criteria are invoked. For example, one of the dominant
state practices most often criticized by dependency theorists is export agriculture. The
criticism is that many poor economies experience rather high rates of malnutrition even
though they produce great amounts of food for export. Many dependency theorists would
argue that those agricultural lands should be used for domestic food production in order to
reduce the rates of malnutrition.

The preceding proposition can be amplified: dependency theorists rely upon a belief that there
exists a clear "national" economic interest which can and should be articulated for each
country. In this respect, dependency theory actually shares a similar theoretical concern with
realism. What distinguishes the dependency perspective is that its proponents believe that this
national interest can only be satisfied by addressing the needs of the poor within a society,
rather than through the satisfaction of corporate or governmental needs. Trying to determine
what is "best" for the poor is a difficult analytical problem over the long run. Dependency
theorists have not yet articulated an operational definition of the national economic interest.

The diversion of resources over time (and one must remember that dependent relationships
have persisted since the European expansion beginning in the fifteenth century) is maintained
not only by the power of dominant states, but also through the power of elites in the
dependent states. Dependency theorists argue that these elites maintain a dependent
relationship because their own private interests coincide with the interests of the dominant
states. These elites are typically trained in the dominant states and share similar values and
culture with the elites in dominant states. Thus, in a very real sense, a dependency relationship
is a "voluntary" relationship. One need not argue that the elites in a dependent state are
consciously betraying the interests of their poor; the elites sincerely believe that the key to
economic development lies in following the prescriptions of liberal economic doctrine.

7.3 Relevance of dependence theory to the development

According to Frank underdevelopment was not an original stage, but rather a created
condition. To emphasize this, he points to the British de-industrialization of India, the
destructive effects of the slave trade on African societies and the destruction of the Indian
civilizations in central and South America. The dependency theory was a most valuable
contribution to modern social science. Not only did it contain an effective criticism of the
modernization paradigm/theory; it also provided an alternative perspective and still functions
as a catalyst in the development theory, which is taking shape at the present.

Policy implication of dependency theory

46
The success of the advanced industrial economies does not serve as a model for the currently
developing economies. When economic development became a focused area of study, the
analytical strategy (and ideological preference) was quite clear: all nations need to emulate the
patterns used by the rich countries. Indeed, in the 1950s and 1960s there was a paradigmatic
consensus that growth strategies were universally applicable, a consensus best articulated by
Walt Rostow in his book, The Stages of Economic Growth. Dependency theory suggests that
the success of the richer countries was a highly contingent and specific episode in global
economic history, one dominated by the highly exploitative colonial relationships of the
European powers. A repeat of those relationships is not now highly likely for the poor
countries of the world.

Dependency theory repudiates the central distributive mechanism of the neoclassical model,
what is usually called "trickle-down" economics. The neoclassical model of economic growth
pays relatively little attention to the question of distribution of wealth. Its primary concern is
on efficient production and assumes that the market will allocate the rewards of efficient
production in a rational and unbiased manner. This assumption may be valid for a well-
integrated, economically fluid economy where people can quickly adjust to economic changes
and where consumption patterns are not distorted by non-economic forces such as racial,
ethnic, or gender bias. These conditions are not pervasive in the developing economies, and
dependency theorists argue that economic activity is not easily disseminated in poor
economies. For these structural reasons, dependency theorists argue that the market alone is
not a sufficient distributive mechanism.

Since the market only rewards productivity, dependency theorists discount aggregate
measures of economic growth such as the GDP or trade indices. Dependency theorists do not
deny that economic activity occurs within a dependent state. They do make a very important
distinction, however, between economic growth and economic development. For example,
there is a greater concern within the dependency framework for whether the economic activity
is actually benefitting the nation as a whole. Therefore, far greater attention is paid to indices
such as life expectancy, literacy, infant mortality, education, and the like. Dependency
theorists clearly emphasize social indicators far more than economic indicators.

Dependent states, therefore, should attempt to pursue policies of self-reliance. Contrary to the
neo-classical models endorsed by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank,
greater integration into the global economy is not necessarily a good choice for poor
countries. Often this policy perspective is viewed as an endorsement of a policy of autarky,
and there have been some experiments with such a policy such as China's Great Leap Forward
or Tanzania's policy of Ujamaa. The failures of these policies are clear, and the failures
suggest that autarky is not a good choice. Rather a policy of self-reliance should be interpreted
as endorsing a policy of controlled interactions with the world economy: poor countries
should only endorse interactions on terms that promise to improve the social and economic
welfare of the larger citizenry

Conclusively, although Rostow’s stages of economic development are important in some way
while understanding the route towards development, the level of development of most less

47
developed countries can highly be traced back since the emergence of colonialism in Africa.
However, there are several countries which were colonized but today are far ahead and this is
to argue that less developed countries should not only blame colonialism. It’s high time that
less developed countries work harder and harder to make things change than keeping on
blaming the blames that can never offer changes.

Exercise
1. Third world countries cannot develop without a big push from outside. Discuss.

2. Tanzania must break the dependency relation so as to be able attain development.

Discuss.

3. Nurkse insists on the vicious cycle of poverty and he says countries are poor because
they are poor. Argue for or against this theory in the understanding of African
development.

References
Szentes, T. (1971). The Political Economy of Underdevelopment. Budapest:
Akadenia Kindo
Onimode, B. (1988). A Political Economy of the African Crisis. London: Zed
Books
Vincent Ferraro (2008) "Dependency Theory: An Introduction," in The
Development Economics Reader, ed. Giorgio Secondi. London: Routledge, pp. 58-
64
Wallerstein, I. (1980). The Modern World-System II: Mercantilism and the
Consolidation of the European World-Economy, 1600 -1750. New York:
Academic Press.

48
 SECTION THREE
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA

49
LECTURE 8
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA

8.1 Introduction
An understanding of social and political development in Africa is important in the study of
development as a whole. The fact is that, there is no way political development can easily be
separated from economic development and this marks the need to understand the concept.
Lecture eight acts as a departure point in exploring the social and political development in
Africa.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Define the concept of pre-colonial Africa.
ii. Explain the Africa’s colonial legacy
iii. Describe the political organization under pre-colonial period

Before the African continent was colonised one could find development of diverse systems of
political organisations. The African continent was colonised during the last quarter of the 19th
century by European colonial powers, notably the British, the French, the Germans, the
Belgians, and the Portuguese. With exceptions of coastal belts of Mozambique, Angola, and
Guinea Bissau which were under Portuguese colonialism from the 19th century, the rest of the
African continent, and in particular sub-Saharan Africa was not colonized before that time

8.2 Features of Pre-colonial African Society

In order to understand Africa's present social and political development as well as Africa’s
future we must as a starting point revisit Africa's past. A historical perspective is necessary to
understand the dynamics of African development. Focus on political and social development
in Africa has been mainly on the period after independence. However, in order to be able to
clearly understand developments after independence it is necessary to know a background

50
situation on development of political systems and social development during the pre-colonial
and colonial periods.

 Hunting and gathering including herding cattle and goats were the primary means of
production especially in early of stone age
 Communal ownership of major means of production with human man power and stone
and iron tools.
 The division of labour based on age and specialization in late stage
 Kinship organization determine by clan relationship

8.3 Political Organization under Pre-colonial Society

By the middle of the 19th century in Africa, political organizations and systems greatly
corresponded with the level of development of social formations.
 Most African societies by this time were based on advanced communal relations of
production. Advanced communalism differs from primitive communalism in that
primitive communalism presupposes a social formation characterized by the lowest
level of socio-economic development in which the most common mode of
appropriation was the appropriation of nature. Thus hunting and gathering were the
predominant forms of economic activity.
 The most predominant form of political organization under advanced communalism
was kinship or clan organization. This was an organization based on the same blood
relationship. Head of the clan was the political leader who was assisted by a council of
elders.
 Chiefdoms were dominant with chieftaincy and support offices of councils, advisors,
governors, subordinate chiefs, and commanders throughout pre-colonial Africa
 Later developed states and kingdoms which were either centralized or non-centralized.
The centralized states and kingdoms were run by Monarchs who possess high degree
of power those other leaders (Political figures). The decentralized states and kingdom
are the ones that power was displaced throughout the entire community and societies
were often broken into age group system.

8.4 Political dynamics from pre-colonial to colonial and Post-

colonial society
Before African continent was colonized, one could find development of diverse systems of
political organization. By the 19th century the most common social formations included
communalism and the high community modes of production. Feudal relations of production
had already developed in some parts of the continent, while slavery relations had also

51
developed in some coastal city-states. Development of political systems was greatly based on
these social formations.

In many parts of Africa centralized political systems had developed and in some cases were
beginning to develop. In these systems you had state organizations that covered larger
territories, incorporating several clans and kinship groups. In the different levels of political
systems discussed above, we can identify democratic institutions and practices such as the
existence of councils of elders and participatory discussions and decisions making practices.
However, it has to be underscored that these developments took place under pre-capitalist
social formations, while contemporary democratization processes are taking place in
underdeveloped capitalist relations of production. Thus the experiences have to be adopted
while recognizing these major differences.

8.5 Colonial Legacy

Colonial legacy is qualities or characteristics economically, politically and socially that has
been left by colonialism. Colonialism has impacted the political and economic conditions of
the contemporary Africa. Post-independence African states are a western model. African
states adopted the more centralized and authoritarian system of administration of their
colonizers. Post-independence African political system is characterized by ethnic based
exclusion and marginalization. African states tended to one-party system, and though
opposition parties are emerged they are highly restricted in their operation. Besides, corrupt
behavior of the contemporary leaders of Africa also contributed by the colonial experience.
Economic wise, African resources are extensively exploited by colonizers, thereby rendering
Africa economically weak and looser in its interaction with the global economy.

Colonial legacy exhibited in many ways such as:

British rule through indigenous authorities

Governor Byatt took measures to revive African institutions by encouraging limited local rule.
He authorized the formation in 1922 of political clubs such as the Tanganyika Territory
African Civil Service Association, which in 1929 became the Tanganyika African Association
and later constituted the core of the nationalist movement.[citation needed] Under the Native
Authority Ordinances of 1923, limited powers were granted to certain recognized chiefs who
could also exercise powers granted by local customary law.

Sir Donald Cameron became the governor of Tanganyika in 1925."His work was of great
significance in the development of colonial administrative policy, being associated especially
with the vigorous attempt to establish a system of 'Indirect Rule' through the traditional
indigenous authorities. He was a major critic of Governor Byatt's policies about indirect rule,
as evidenced by his Native Administration Memorandum No. 1, Principles of Native
Administration and their Application.

In 1926, the Legislative Council was established with seven unofficial (including two Indians)
and thirteen official members, whose function was to advice and consent to ordinances issued

52
by the governor. In 1945, the first Africans were appointed to the council.[17]:page 5 The
council was reconstituted in 1948 under Governor Edward Twining, with 15 unofficial
members (7 Europeans, 4 Africans, and 4 Indians) and 14 official members. Julius Nyerere
became one of the unofficial members in 1954.The council was again reconstituted in 1955
with 44 unofficial members (10 Europeans, 10 Africans, 10 Indians, and 14 government
representatives) and 17 official members

Governor Cameron in 1929 enacted the Native Courts Ordinance No. 5, which removed those
courts from the jurisdiction of the colonial courts and provided for a system of appeals with
final resort to the governor himself.

Exercise
1. What is meant by pre-colonial period?
2. What do you understand by ‘colonial legacy’?
3. Clearly explain the concept of ‘political organization; in pre-colonial period.

References
1. Crummey, D. and C. Steward (eds), (1981). Modes of Production in Africa: The Pre-
Colonial Era. Beverly Hills : Sage Publications.256p.
2. Hindess, B. and P. Hirst, (1975). Pre-Capitalist Modes of Production. Economic
History, Part I: Pre-Colonial Economy and Social Formations. Routledge and Kagan.
3. Kwako, P.O. and Robison, J.A. (2013). Political Centralization in Pre-colonial Africa.
NBCR. Massachussets Avenue.
4. Marx, K. (1964). Pre-capitalist Economic Formations. International Publishers,
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/precapitalist/index.htm.
Retrived on may 2017.

53
LECTURE 9
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE
COLONIAL RULE

9.1 Introduction
As was the period before colonialism, during and after colonial period there were
dynamics on social and politics although different from the pre-colonial period. This
lecture will therefore look at these dynamics for the two periods.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. The concept of colonialism and the colonial state
ii. How colonialism let to the struggles for liberation

9.2 Colonialism and the Colonial State

Like the pre-colonial political systems discussed above, the colonial system constitutes an
important background towards an understanding of political and social developments in
Africa after independence. Colonial political and social institutions transformed, modified,
and in some cases even preserved pre-colonial political and social institutions to enable the
colonial system achieve its objectives. Colonialism broke Africa into bits and pieces
irrationally carved up by the notorious scramble of the last century. The demands of
capitalism - the search for new markets, the export of capital and the need for new areas
for investment led the capitalist countries of the west to divide and partition Africa
amongst themselves. Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, Portugal, Holland, e,t.c led these
countries. The division led to the establishment of artificial boundaries and countries,
which took no consideration of existing socio-economic and cultural situation in the area.
The small African states which were formed became appendages of imperialist powers and
the source for raw materials.

54
9.3 Reasons for Colonization
There were many reasons for the colonization of Africa, including economic, political, and
religious motives. Probably the most important was economic as a depression was
occurring in Europe. Countries like Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, other
powers were losing money, and Africa appeared to be a way out of the depression. To
make money out of Africa, Europeans used its many raw goods. They hoarded oil, ivory,
rubber, palm oil, wood, cotton, and gum (for paper). Because of cheap African labor, these
materials were easily acquired. These materials could possibly spark an financial boom in
Europe. The industrial revolution was also making progress, making these goods of utmost
importance. New African markets set up by the Europeans could also produce more
commerce. Individuals also wanted money. King Leopold ruled the Congo just for his own
financial gain, not of his country, Belgium.

Another reason for the colonization of Africa was because of rivalries between countries.
Britain and France had hated each other for centuries due to the infamous hundred years
war, and they both wanted to out-do the other in Africa. However, the race for power was
not limited to Britain and France. Other nations wanted to benefit as well, like Germany,
Italy, and Spain. Nationalism was quite popular in many Western European countries,
everyone wanted their country to be the strongest.

Once Africa was starting to be colonized, moral issues became an concern as well. One
huge topic was to stop the Muslim Swahili slave trade. Europeans were shocked at how
Africans could do this. They also wanted to implement the three “C’s”. Those were
commerce (to make money), Christianity (to save the heathen Africans), and Civilization
(to make civilized). David Livingston, a missionary and doctor, was an example of
someone who supported building roads for commerce, ending slavery, and improving the
health care and education of Africans. Europeans would find it easier to do this in the
1800’s because of new improvements in technology. The Maxim gun, an early edition of
the machine gun, was far superior to the native tribes’ muskets or spears. This would help
protect attempts to bring commerce, and stop any resistance to the missionaries bringing
Christianity like David Livingston. Hence, many native religions were severely impacted
or whipped out like the Ibo and the Swahili religions. There were also new advances in
medicine, allowing (to an extent) Europeans to better survive malaria and yellow fever.
Thus, the three major motives for the colonization (economics, political
rivalries/nationalism, and religious proselytism) converged during the 1800’s and
propelled Europe to colonize Africa. These motives are reflected in my ending quote from
King Leopold, “To open to civilization the only part of the globe where it has yet to
penetrate…is, I dare to say, a crusade worthy of this century of progress

55
9.4 Destruction of local economies and the struggle for liberation
The process of colonialism led to the destruction of Africa's self-sustaining economies.
Though characterized by low level of development of productive forces, Africa's
economies were self-sustaining and were geared to meet the basic needs of society.
Colonialism left behind a legacy of dependent economies, social unrest/civil war/and
political instability. Therefore, Colonialism destructed the economies of African countries,
Tanzania specifically for this case. Later the same colonialism fuelled the struggles for
independence. Liberation struggles and eventually to political independence in the 1960s
by many African countries. Africa remains underdeveloped regardless of political
independence.

9.5 Struggle for Independence

Some colonies tried to remove the colonialist out of their country, this is struggle for
independence. The struggles were either peaceful in others or were complicated by the
problems of tribalism and regionalism while in others they involved prolonged wars of
liberation.

People hut their narrow minded tribal and ethnic affiliations and forged a sense of national
consciousness in confronting a common problem i.e. the colonizers. The political
organizations like the United Gold Coast Convention and Convention Peoples Party in Ghana,
National Council for Nigeria and Cameroons in Nigeria, Tanganyika African Association and
later Tanganyika African National Union in Tanganyika, Kenya African Union in Kenya etc.
are sighted as cases of this national consciousness, and therefore they symbolized a sense of
nationalism. The independence process in Africa could be divided in four categories;

9.5.1 The first category

This category is comprised of those countries whose independence process was rather smooth
and peaceful.
These countries include Ghana, Tanganyika, Zambia, Malawi and the French West African
territories.

9.5.2 The second category

This category is comprised of those countries whose independence processwas complicated
by the problems of tribalism and regionalism.

56
Such countries include Nigeria, Uganda, Belgian Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. Then there
were

9.5.3 The third category

This is comprised of those countries whose independence had to be attained after prolonged
wars of liberation.
The countries included in this category were the Portuguese colonies and the settler dominated
colonies like Algeria, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa.

9.5.4 The fourth category

Comprise the country whose independence had to be attained through revolution
The last category refers to Zanzibar case which attained majority rule by a revolution.

Exercise
1. With some examples explain the impact of colonial state to the economies of the
colonized nations.
2. Do the colonized countries need to blame the colonizer for the today’s economic
backwardness of their countries?

References
Crummey, D. and C. Steward (eds), (1981). Modes of Production in Africa: The
Pre-Colonial Era. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.256p.

Hindess, B. and P. Hirst, (1975). Pre-Capitalist Modes of Production. Economic

History, Part I: Pre-Colonial Economy and Social Formations. Routledge and
Kagan.

Marx, K. (1964). Pre-capitalist Economic Formations. International Publishers,

https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/precapitalist/index.htm.Retrive
d on May 2017.

57
LECTURE 10
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AFTER
COLONIALISM

10.1 Introduction
Lecture eight and nine focused on the periods before colonialism and post colonialism.
Lecture ten speaks about the political development after colonialism i.e. independence. This
lecture covers the formation of nation states, one party and multi-party systems including
factors for the both two states. Issues of social and political conflicts in Africa and prospects
for multi-party are also high lightened.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Demonstrate a clear understanding of the emergence of one party and multiparty
political system in Africa.
ii. Describe the factors for social and political conflicts in Africa.
iii. Explain the end results of social political conflicts in Africa, hence a possibility of
suggesting sustainable measures.
iv. Discuss the prospects brought in by multiparty democracy.
v. Discuss as to why most conflict resolution steps and measures in Africa have not been
successful.

10.2 Establishment of One Party and Military State Systems

In recent years African continent has been involved in a process referred to as
democratization. Since independence most African countries had developed undemocratic
institutions through one-party and military state systems.

58
Most African countries achieved their political independence with a multiparty system. This
was so because during the nationalist struggles in all colonies a number of political parties
were formed. In Tanganyika, for instance, between 1954 and 1960we had TANU, ANC,
AMNUT and UTP. Some political parties were even formed soon after independence in 1962.
In Zanzibar you had also a number of political parties such as ASP, ZNP, and ZPP. In Kenya
there were KANU, KADU and others.
Similar developments took place in other African countries.

10.2.1 Factors for Establishment of One-Party System

Tanzania adopted a one-party system by 1965 after four years of independence. Malawi
abolished opposition parties soon after independence. Kenya began with defacto one party
system and ended up with de-jure one party system. In short we can say that by 1970 most
independent African countries had adopted a one-party system. We can identify two major
categories of factors, which facilitated development of the one-party system as internal and
external factors.

10.2.1.1 Internal factors

 Nature and character of political competition to state power.

We have observed earlier that the various political parties were formed by different interest
groups within the ranks of the petty bourgeois class. Political competition took place at two
stages, first at the stage of struggling for independence and second at the stage of
consolidating state power after independence. At the stage of consolidating state power after
independence you had the ruling party and opposition parties. The interest of the opposition
parties was to take over state power from the ruling parties during subsequent elections, while
the interest of the ruling party was to consolidate and perpetuate their position of power. This
means that post-independence struggles between different factions of the petty-bourgeois
class became sharper.

 Lack of economic base

The post-independence economy was mainly under the control of foreigners. Worse still most
members of the ruling group had poor economic background. This means that struggles for
political power were also struggles for economic power.

 Colonial legacy
Colonialism was rule by force and the colonial system was by nature a non-democratic system
as the colonial state was an imposed state not based on democratic institutions and practices.
This means that under colonialism pre-colonial democratic institutions and aspects of
democratic culture were destroyed, and new ones could not be developed. The process of
struggling for independence also meant to facilitate an emergence of potential democratic
institutions such as trade unions, peasant cooperative and other organizations. But these had
not reached a level of independent sustainable development. Thus given these conditions the
democratic character that emerged with the struggle for national independence could easily be
hijacked by those in position of state power.

59
10.2.2.2 External Factors

 Political philosophy of Plato:

It has been argued that in his life his political philosophy became authoritarian and hostile to
democratic ideas. He developed the theory of rule by few that are good and wise, to rule over
many who are bad and ignorant. Plato criticized democratic rule as mob rule thus justifying
the right to political office by a minority group. Thus most African leaders soon after
independence are said to have been influenced and thus adopted Plato's ideas, and had
therefore become Platonic. Thus establishment of one-party political systems by these leaders
was due to Platonic tendencies and attitudes.

 Communist influence:
It has also been argued that some ruling political parties in Africa such as TANU in Tanzania
had by the 1960s developed associations with Mao's China and later Eastern Europe. It was
due to these contacts that African independent state were influenced in adopting one-party
state system, particularly given the fact that the socialist countries greatly supported African
territories in their armed struggle against colonialism. While we cannot reject the contribution
of external influence in the development of one-party state systems in Africa we would like to
argue that the internal dynamics appear to have played a more significant and predominant
role. First, both external sources of influence as presented above seem to be based on weak
foundations.

On the influence of communism from China, Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union, etc., there
are a number of facts, which seem to water down the magnitude of its contribution. First the
ideas on one-party system began to be developed by some African leaders such as Nyerere
and Nkurumah long before contacts and relations were developed by with the communist
countries. For instance, Tanzania began to establish friendly relations with China in 1965,
while Nyerere's ideas on one-party democracy began to be developed as early as 1962.
Secondly a number of African countries that established one-party systems were ideologically
hostile to Marxism, Leninism and Maoism where Kenya and Malawi are typical examples.
Thus we can argue that rather than being important factors, these external influences merely
facilitated the consolidation and the nature and character of the functioning of one party
political system in Africa.

10.3 Establishment of Multiparty System

There are indications that the democratization process in Africa is facing a number of
problems. One area concerns the legacy of one-party and military state systems. These state
systems have been consolidating themselves for a period of nearly three decades. So even if in
principle the ruling parties and their governments have accepted multi-party and

60
democratization, in practice they perpetuate main tendencies of one party. This tendency is
reflected in a number of ways.

One way has been to ensure close central guidance of the democratization process, or to put it
in a different way, to ensure democratization from above. Another way arising out of
democratization from above has been various types and form of manipulations. These include,
for instance, prevention of emergence and development of strong and powerful opposition
parties, rejection of Constitutional and legal changes, and the use of state and financial power
to rig multi-party elections and so on.

In essence the structure of the one-party political system is still very much in existence and
continues to operate bringing Chaos and disharmony to society. Various examples stand out
but perhaps the most outstanding being in Zambia where the ruling party enforced a law
barring Ex-president Kaunda to contest the elections. This law was pushed through in
parliament at rapid face supported by the ruling, party in Zambia led by president Chiluba.
The other example is that of the Zanzibar elections of 1995. The aftermath of the elections
which were bitterly contested showed the misuse of power and the growing division and
bitterness of the defeated civic party and Pemba People. The 2000 election in Zanzibar once
again indicates the apparent weaknesses of the multi- party political system in Tanzania. The
elections and outcome are still contested and the democratic process of free and fair elections
is once again in dispute in Zanzibar.

There is thus growing evidence of a failure or inability of those in power and the elite to
transform the political system into an efficient agent for Democracy and Development. It can
be argued with some substance that Africa has in the words of Rene Dumont – a false start - in
the democratization process. The process of democratization process in many African
countries was and has not focused on the need to integrate and involve the broad masses of the
population in decision-making on key issues that affect their lives. Political change in the
form of multi-party democracy has been unable to bring about transformation and
development of the political process and to spearhead the process of social change and
development. The legacy of the one-party political system continues to influence political and
social development in Africa. Real democracy in African countries can only be achieved and
sustained through the process of empowerment, particularly for the most vulnerable elements
in society - women and children. Equality, justice and the rule of law are also important
elements of the democratization process. It is therefore important to point out that collective
action and civil societies strengthens the democratization process. More people need to
become involved in the democratization process so as the change to happen.

10.4 Social and Political Conflicts in Africa

10.4.1 Factors for Conflicts and civil wars
Among the most serious and challenging problems facing the African continent is the increase
and persistence of conflicts most of which have caused. There are a number of conflicts in

61
almost every corner of the African continent. There have been ethnic conflicts in Rwanda,
Burundi and The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). There are civil wars in Sudan,
Liberia, Sierra Leone, The Horn of Africa - Ethiopia vs. Eritrea, Congo, Uganda, Angola,
Ivory Coast, etc.
i. Artificial Boundaries
The colonial legacy left behind artificial boundaries and countries with no stable political
foundations and this was to lay the foundations for conflicts, civil wars and political
instability. Most African leaders who led their countries to independence were unable to
create stable democratic institutions and resorted to one-party politics, which in turn led to
power struggles, and dictatorships. This was to become the seeds of present day conflicts in
Africa.

ii. Economic and social factors

After independence, African economies were not only highly dependent on developed
capitalist countries, but also whose economy was stagnant or slow growing. African
economies lacked internal bases and internal bases and internal linkages for sustainable
growth and development. History and experience has showed that it is difficult to have
political stability under conditions of socio-economic backwardness, poverty and
underdevelopment. There are thus struggles for economic resources and the se often give rise
to violent conflicts. The conflicts take the form of class, interests groups, regional, ethnic,
racial and religious. Ideological differences have also accelerated internal and international
conflicts. Mass killings and civil wars have been the main forms of violent conflicts in Africa.

10.4.2 The end results of conflicts, civil wars and political instability
i. Loss of life
Thousands of people lost their lives as a result of conflicts and civil wars; many more have
suffered serious injuries. Most of those killed and injured are young, able bodied people who
would be the driving force for development.

ii. Economic stagnation/decline

No economic development is able to take place in a situation of conflict and destruction.

Declining agricultural productivity in most parts of Africa is linked to the existence of
conflicts.

iii. The refugee problem

This is one the most devastating results of conflicts and civil wars in Africa and other areas
where conflicts are taking place.

62
iv. Hunger, starvation and food insecurity
This affect mostly women and children and the elderly being the most affected.

v. Break down of law and order

This is often a result of conflict and civil wars. Monstrous human rights abuses are part and
parcel of civil wars. The loss of democracy and the weakening of political institutions are also
an outcome of conflicts.

Exercise
1. What are the factors for conflict in Africa?
2. The existing political parties are satellites of the ruling party. Discuss.
3. Multiparty political system is essential in fostering the democratization process. Discuss.
4. Explain the main causes of the emergence of multi-party politics.

References
Botha, C.B. (1992). A Historical Perspective on, and an Analysis of the evolution of
Democratic Practices in Africa.
Cliffe, L. (ed), (1967). One-party Democracy: The 1965 Tanzania General Election.
Mpangala, G.P. (1992). The Crisis of African Democracy as underlyingFactor for the
Multi-party movement in Africa. In Hunter J. and C. Lombard (eds) (1992). Multi
party Democracy, CivilSociety and Economic Transformation in Southern Africa.
Mazrui, A.A. (1969). Violance and Thought: Essays on Social tensions inAfrica.
Nnoli, A. (1989). Ethnic conflict in Africa, CODESRIA working paper1/89, Dakar.
Slcar, R. (1991). African Politics and Problems in Development.

63
 SECTION FOUR
POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT

64
LECTURE 11
CONCEPT OF POVERTY

11.1 Introduction
The previous lectures dealt with various aspects of development. This lecture and the next
one concentrate in the understating of poverty and environment which are also crucial
while studying socio-economic development. Many aspects are highlighted in these two
lectures and students should seek more literature from different available sources.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, students must be able to:
i. Clearly define poverty and its related terms
ii. Mention the indicators of poverty
iii. Explain causes of Poverty
iv. Analyze Poverty Status in Tanzania
v. Explain strategies to alleviate poverty in Tanzania

11.2 Definition of Poverty

Poverty is a multi-dimensional concept covering various aspects of economic, social,
political, and cultural. This therefore provides a wide range of definitions of the concept,
which may be complex in a way as different people; groups and institutions define the
concept differently.
Government officials in most cases define poverty in reference to what people buy and sell
but quite often both international and local non-governmental organizations such as
UNICEF, Haki Elimu, Water Aid, TGNP, and Haki Ardhi to mention a few, define
Poverty in reference to getting a fair share of education and health care; equal access to
structures of decision making; having respect and status in community; and having
security in the sense that one has some influence over what happens in his/her life and
therefore of having hope for the future9

65
It is therefore a reality that poverty is a very wide phenomenon hence the strategies to
deal-with, requires being well thought-of and acted upon. Frequent usage of the term
poverty in different contexts and within conceptual frameworks has resulted in a variety of
new meanings and conceptions.
According to Brown and Madge (1982), Poverty is unsatisfactory and undesirable
circumstances, whether material, emotional, physical or behavioural, as admitted by a high
level of societal consensus. It involves a lack of something generally held to be desirable.
For example, an adequate income, good health, shelter, education etc., a lack, which goes
with a greater or lesser extent with some degree of suffering?

Poverty may also be defined as a lack of means to satisfy material and social needs, as
well as a feeling of powerlessness. Poverty, being a multi-dimensional concept, must be
conceived beyond low levels of income.

United Nations: defined, poverty is the inability of having choices and opportunities, a
violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in
society. It means not having enough to feed and clothe a family, not having a school or
clinic to go to, not having the land on which to grow one's food or a job to earn one's
living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of
individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often
implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or
sanitation

Poverty is the scarcity or the lack of a certain (variant) amount of material possessions or
money. Poverty is a multifaceted concept, which may include social, economic, and
political elements. Absolute poverty, extreme poverty, or destitution refers to the complete
lack of the means necessary to meet basic personal needs such as food, clothing and
shelter7

Poverty can be defined as absolute/extreme poverty and relative poverty.

Absolute/ Extreme Poverty measures poverty in relation to the amount of money
necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing, and shelter. It is not concerned with
broader quality of life issues or with the overall level of inequality in society. The concept
therefore fails to recognize that individuals have important social and cultural needs. This,
and similar criticisms, led to the development of the concept of relative poverty7

Relative Poverty defines poverty in relation to the economic status of other members of
the society: people are poor if they fall below prevailing standards of living in a given
societal context. An important criticism of both concepts is that they are largely concerned

66
with income and consumption7.

11.3 Indicators of Poverty

Since definition of poverty is a multidimensional and its causes varies with different
dimensions including gender, age, culture, and other social and economic contexts,
therefore indicators of poverty varies. To mention the few indicators are;

11.3.1 Income poverty

In pure economic terms, income poverty is when a family's income fails to meet a
federally established threshold that differs across countries. Typically it is measured with
respect to families and not the individual, and is adjusted for the number of persons in a
family levels of extreme income poverty (the proportion of people living on less than
$1.25/day)

11.3.2 Unemployment and joblessness

Unemployment rate is the number of unemployed people as a percentage of the labour
force, where the latter consists of the unemployed plus those in paid or self-employment.
Unemployed people are those who report that they are without work, that they are
available for work and that they have taken active steps to find work in the last four
weeks5
Employment has a positive impact on individual satisfaction and happiness. It also
increases participation in society and the productive capacity of the economy.
Unemployment increases the risk of poverty and consequent social exclusion.

11.3.3 Low educational qualifications

Education is the formal process by which society, through schools, colleges, universities
and other institutions, deliberately transmits its cultural heritage and its accumulated
knowledge, values and skills to the next generation. Education, as the basis of human
civilization and a major driver of economic growth, benefits society, and it also has a
major impact on the quality of life of individuals. A lack of skills and competencies limits
the access to good jobs and economic prosperity, increases the risk of social exclusion and
poverty, and may hinder a full participation in civic and political affairs1

Other indicators of poverty include material deprivation, poor housing and poor access to
health care and poor child well-being.

67
11.4 Causes of Poverty
Many people/institutions have talked on the causes of poverty but very briefly and that
could be a reason that it has become difficult to overcome the enemy. Poverty is a multi-
dimensional problem and is being made up and constructed by many factors ranging from
internal to external ones. For students using this manual, it is expected that they will
consult other relevant literatures so as to acquire a comprehensive knowledge on the
matter, as this manual acts as a guideline and not a comprehensive document.
Causes of poverty in Tanzania are complex and often reflected in the socio-economic
situation of a society. The inability of Tanzania to transform its economy is one of the
factors contributing to the state of growing poverty and destitution in the country10.
However, it appears to me (and other writers probably) that the causes of poverty are not
such much complex but are straight forward and this will be raised at the end of this
section.
The level of immediate causes of poverty in rural area, the situation can largely be
explained by low level of productivity, which is exacerbated by repeated incidences of
drought; and post-harvest loses.
The underlying causes include inadequate access to inputs, low level of technology, very
limited access to credits, and poor transfer of knowledge due to collapsed extension
services. at the basic level, poor infrastructure is a major obstacle to agricultural growth,
dependence on seasonal unpredictable rains, insecurity of land tenure and land use
conflicts, access to land particularly for women and the youth. Other factors include high
levels of unemployment and under-employment.
The ability of the poor to benefit from growth has been impaired by their low human
development and lack of access to productive assets, inputs, and credit. This statement
points out three important causes of poverty in Tanzania, education, access to inputs and
credit particularly to the rural areas where the majorities are concentrated in smallholding
farming11There is no doubt that these are among the most important issues to tackle
although there are still other connected causes.
Poverty according to the government of Tanzania as claimed in its National Poverty
Eradication Strategy is caused by a number of factors (internal and external) as explained
here. Internal causes include poor economic policies, insufficient support to the
agricultural sector, inadequate support to rural industries, disruption of local institutional
structures, low level of technology, poor gender division of labour, laziness and
irresponsibility, diseases, and big families. Three external causes are identified which are
debt burden, unequal exchange in international trade, and refugees8. This is an indication
that poverty is multidimensional as its presence is a product of many factors most of which

68
are internal although the few external causes may also have a large weight.

The Structural Adjustment Policies, nations that are learnt money are done so on condition
that they cut social expenditure (such as health and education) in order to repay the loans.
Many are tied to opening their economies and being primarily commodity exporters. The
point is that, this has increased poverty and dependency for most people and it forms a
backbone to what is today called globalization which maintains the historic unequal rules
of trade4. The introduction of market economy and privatization is leading to a process of
de-industrialization and disinvestment which in turn is creating conditions for increasing
mass poverty and destitution in Tanzania10.

TABLE 1: Causes of poverty

The government WB&IMF Grassroots level Others
Individuals and groups) Low human Land tenure inputs Low productivity
dependency development
Household size Lack of access to Credit Post-harvest loses
Education Productive assets Technology Credits
HIV/AIDS Inputs transportation extension services
Economic policies Credit Market Infrastructure
Insufficient support to the Low human Health Insecurity
agricultural sector,
Inadequate support to Insecurity Land tenure
rural industries,
Disruption of local Gender inequality Inputs
institutional structures,
Low level of technology Collapse of Technology
cooperatives
Poor gender division of Climate Unemployment
labour
Laziness and Land tenure Low productivity
irresponsibility
Diseases Climate
Big families
External Causes
debt burden,
unequal exchange in
international trade, and
refugees

69
Source: Compiled from various sources

11.5 Status of poverty in Tanzania

Since independence, the government has sought to combat poverty, ignorance, and hunger.
To achieve this, various strategies have been launched including state intervention to
reduce economic and social inequalities in resource distribution and control.
Furthermore, mass mobilization has been undertaken using catch-phrases, such as:
 "Freedom and Work" (Uhuru na Kazi) to express the virtues of work as a basis of
development and self-dignity as well as a strategy to enhance employment
opportunities;
 "Politics is Agriculture" (Siasa ni Kilimo) to increase rural incomes and ensure
food security and to improve small holder agriculture through better farm
management practices and the use of improved technologies;
 "Life is Health" (Mtu ni Afya) to increase mass awareness of the importance of
health care and to catalyze community action towards the provision of health care
services;
 "Universal Primary Education" (UPE) to promote primary education and
functional literacy in the adult population; and
 "Modern Houses" (Nyumba Bora za Kisasa) to promote adequate and decent
housing for all.

Tanzania does not yet have a national definition of poverty. The country still uses
conventional measures as indicators of national poverty. In order to develop better poverty
indicators, the Government launched a study on poverty statistics. One indicator currently
used is per capita income, and its changes; a measure which relates to population and
gross domestic product (GDP) growth. However, this measure does not lead to an estimate
of the proportion of the population which could be considered economically poor. Other
indicators of national poverty include the rate of employment, dependence on external
assistance in financing development, etc. The per capita income was estimated to be TZS
5,890 in 1995 at 1985 prices, having increased from TZS 4,919 in 1985 (National
Economic Survey for 1995 published in June, 1996).

11.6 Strategies to alleviate poverty in Tanzania

Efforts to eradicate poverty, while exciting, have some shortcomings mainly because there
have been no coherent policy to provide direction and guidance to stakeholders on:
 Creating an enabling environment for effective poverty eradication;

70
  Empowering the poor to participate in poverty eradication programmes
 Ensuring full participation of women in poverty eradication initiatives;
 Providing coordination mechanisms for the implementation of poverty eradication
initiatives; and
 Promoting equality of opportunity for men and women to lead a decent and
productive life,

Besides that the government, non-governmental, community, and religious organizations

are playing an important role in eradicating poverty. These organizations have been
particularly active in the provision of education at both primary and secondary levels, and
health care facilities. For example, about 49% of the hospitals in the country have been
constructed and are managed by voluntary organizations. The contribution of voluntary
organizations in the education sector is equally significant. Donor agencies have also been
active partners in poverty eradication efforts.

11.6.1 Strategies

With poverty increasing in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa, urgent measures are
required. These must aim towards poverty eradication and not mere poverty alleviation or
reduction as is the present case. Below are suggested measures that may help pull Africa
out of persistent poverty.

Strategies
 Identifying and increasing access to new farm land by farmers and improving
means of communication
 Establishing food preservation at district and household level
 Intensifying production on already cultivated land through improved technologies
and inputs
 Increasing the availability of basic farm inputs and promotes the use of organic
fertilizer by farmers.
 Improving marketing services including marketing research for agricultural
products
 Developing and promoting improved on-farm storage facilities to reduce post-
harvest crop loses
 Encouraging increased investment in small holder irrigation systems

71
  Increasing the availability of credit and other forms of financial support to the
agricultural sector.
 Improving and speeding up the process of land surveying and issuing title deeds to
individuals and communities
 Developing and setting aside grazing land
 Improving the marketing research for agricultural and livestock product.

Poverty is a complex phenomenon with both national and international dimensions. The
eradication of poverty and equity in income distribution, and human resource development
remain major challenges in Tanzania. As Agenda 21 proposes, properpopulation, health
care, and education policies must be put in place in order to fight poverty.

A multi-focus approach to poverty alleviation/eradication is central to economic

management in Tanzania. The need to integrate poverty concerns and development
requires effective coordination and cooperation among all relevant organs of Government,
the business community, civil society, and people. In recognition of this important
principle, a department to coordinate efforts to combat poverty has been created. The
Poverty Alleviation Department is a division in the Office of the Vice President.
Combating poverty is a critical element in the country's development endeavour.

Exercise
1. Define poverty
2. With examples from your country of interest, identify and explain the causes of
poverty.
3. Identify the causes of poverty in the society in which you live or surround you and
bring forward some concrete measures that can be employed to alleviate the
situation.
4. What strategies should be employed to eradicate or reduce poverty in your
country?
5. Do you think the strategies for poverty reduction in one society are same as those
in another society? You could differentiate two families in your society.

References

72
EUROSTAT, (2017). Quality of life indicators – education.
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics
explained/index.php/Quality_of_life_indicators_-_education
Gould, G. (2005). The Politics of Poverty Reduction Strategies.
Hakikazi, (2005). Growing out of Poverty. A Plain language guide to Tanzania’s
National Strategy for growth and reduction of poverty (NSGRP).
Shah, A. (2002). Causes of Poverty. From
http://www.globalissues.org/TradeRelated/Poverty.asp
OECD (2018). Unemployment rate (indicator).
https://data.oecd.org/unemp/unemployment-rate.htm (Accessed on 03 February
2018)
UN (2001). United Nations Development Assistance Framework: Tanzania, 2002-
2006.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2015)."Poverty.
www.unesco.org. Retrieved 4 November 2015
URT (1998). The national Poverty Eradication Strategy. Vice President’s Office, Dar
es salaam, Tanzania.
URT (2005). Poverty and Human Development Report.

73
LECTURE 12
POPULATION AND POVERTY

12.1 Introduction
Population and poverty are crucial while one tells about development. It’s not very easy to
find out a society that its development has no relations to its population. Population can
leads to poverty or development and likewise poverty can leads to population growth and
hence affect development.

Population trends and dynamics can have an enormous effect on prospects for poverty
reduction and sustainable development. Poverty is influenced by – and influences –
population dynamics, including population growth, age structure, and rural-urban distribution.
All of this has a critical impact on a country’s development prospects and prospects for raising
living standards for the poor. Investments in better health, including reproductive health, are
essential for individual security and for reducing mortality and morbidity, which in turn
improve a country’s productivity and development prospects8.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Clearly describe the relationship between population and poverty
ii. Clearly describe the relationship between population and development as pointed out
by Malthus.
iii. Explain the relationship between population and development in your society and
family in particular.

12.2 Population
Population may be defined as a group of individuals or items that stage one or more
characteristics from which data can be gathered and analysed. In our case let’s consider
population as a group of individuals. There are many theories that speak about population and

74
development apart from those which concentrate solely on population or development.
However, it should be clear that there are no theories that can just focus on one aspect without
linking to other issues of concerned population. In this lecture we will look at a few issues that
can build our understanding on population and development as interlinking aspects. One
cannot easily speak about population and development without talking of Thomas Malthus
who is a pioneer in the subject. Malthus tried and wrote a lot about the relation between
population growth and development by focusing on food production.

12.3 The nature of the relationship between poverty and

population growth

1. Lack of access to
education and health
leads to...
care.

7. More children needed 2. Few job prospects

to provide labor, security & low earnings.
in old age, & to replace
those that died young.

Results in..
Results
in..
6. Lack of job prospects
outside of manual labor, 3. Poor health &
subsistence farming. nutrition; stunted
physical/mental
development.

Causes..
5. Poor cognitive skills contributes to..
and lack of energy; poor
4. High rates of
performance in school,
leads to... leads to …. maternal/infant/child mortality;
work, & overall
overall lack of energy.
learning.

75
Source: 1999 Creative Change Educational Solutions

There is no doubt that high population growth has an important role in shaping the patterns of
economic development. Nevertheless, the relationship between population growth and
economic progress is not an easy one. There is a strong relationship between population and
available resources hence a link to the development process. However, in relating population
change to both agricultural and industrial development it is essential to realise that technology
plays a significant role. Usually the standard of living of a population is not simply a ratio of
physical resources to population size but it is also related to technological ability of the
population to convert agricultural and industrial raw materials into goods which can be
consumed by the population. The improvement of technology opens up the utilization of wide
range of resources which otherwise could not be utilized. This is an indication that the
relationship between population and development should be handled with care. The global
concern over the exhaustion of scarce resources in the world started a long time ago. The view
that man’s capacity to reproduce was unlimited, whereas that of producing his means of
subsistence was limited was proposed by scholars like Botero in the sixteenth century. This
proposition was also echoed by people like Wallace in the eighteenth century who saw that
the population was doubling within a short time.

This pace of population growth was also compared with that of food production. This concern
was also raised in other parts of the world. In the last decade of the eighteenth century a
Chinese called Hung Lianga-Chi saw that the increase in the means of subsistence was not in
direct proportion to that in a population. He predicted that in the course of the century the
population can increase from five-fold to twenty-fold while the means of subsistence due to
the limitation of land area could increase only from three to five times.

12.4 The Mathematics of Malthus

Populations and development concern was forcefully and systematically presented by Rev.
Thormas Robert Malthus who wrote a book called “An Essay on the Principle of Population”
in 1978. The main argument of Malthus was that population, when unchecked would increase
in a geometric progression, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 128, 256, ……………While the means
of supporting this population increases in an arithmetic progression, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,…..
as a result he envisaged the emergence of a chronic imbalance between population and
physical resources, with population growth rapidly out-pacing the means of supporting even a
subsistence life style. The consequences of such imbalances according to Malthus were vice,
famine or war leading to a rise in mortality rates which would reduce the population to the
level where population numbers would once again be in equilibrium with resources. Malthus
further predicted that overpopulation could only be overcome if measures were introduced to
limit population growth such as deferring marriage and vice. These preventive checks would
take the form of prevention of birth of children, extramarital sexual relation and prostitution.
On the other hand, the positive checks were assumed to be extremely various and to include
all factors which contributed in any degree to a shortening of the normal duration of life. To
mention a few, these are epidemics, wars and plague. Therefore, population can act as an

76
obstacle towards development. This implies that, Increase in population means more mouths
to feed. In this case if the increase in population doesn’t go hand in hand with the increase in
food production then Poverty will increase in such society. Population can in the other way
round fuel development in the manner that when there are fewer mouths to feed it more
resources can be directed to development projects. There is no general rule but history can
prove Malthus theory to some extent. European countries are less populated and the highly
developed while the reverse is the fact for Africa and some other categorized countries. Africa
is highly populated and less developed. We may conclude that the increase in population leads
to underdevelopment.

Exercise
1. Define population and relate it to poverty and Development.
2. Population growth can lead to either development or poverty. Discuss.
3. Tanzania can use its big number of population to utilize abundant resources.
4. Discuss with examples. (As other cases, this question can be attempted basing on any
country)

References
Creative Change Educational Solutions. (1999). Microsoft Word - 20-Poverty
Population Cycle.dochttp://rprogress.org/training_manual/20-PopulationPoverty.pdf
Ehrlich, P. and Freedman, J.L. (1971). Population, Growing and Human Behaviour,
New Scientist.
Freedman, R. (1964). The Vital Revolution, Garden City, New York: Anchor Bulletin.
James, P.E. (1954). The Geographical Study of Population, in James,
Newman, J.L. and Matzke, G.E. (1984). Population, Patterns, Dynamics and
Prospects. Englewood Cliff, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
P.E. and Jones. C. (eds.), American Geography: Inventory Perspectives Syracuse NY.
University Press, pp. 106-122.
United Nations, (1981). Determinants and Consequences of Population Trends, New
York: United Nations.
UNFPA, (2014). State of the world population

77
LECTURE 13
ENVIRONMENT AND POVERTY

13.1 Introduction
Poverty and environment are unarguably cross-cutting important issues in the study of
development. Poverty is a result of underdevelopment while environment can be a result of
both. Poorly managed environment leads to underdevelopment and poverty. Poverty also
causes poorly managed environment and well managed environment can lead to
socioeconomic development. This means a very diverse kind of relationship.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Define environment
ii. Explain the interrelationship between poverty and the environment.

13.2 Definition of the terms

Environment could be defined as the combination of external physical conditions that affect
and influence the growth, development, and survival of organisms.

A resource is any useful material or information. In other words a resource is something

useful for humanity. However, what is useful or useless can change because of technology,
economics, and the environmental effect of getting and utilizing a resource.

Natural resource can be defined as “goods and services supplied by the environment”. This
term is sometimes used interchangeably with

Environmental resource is defined as “anything needed by an organism that can be obtained

from the environment”. People meet their basic needs by harvesting and utilising the earth's
natural resources: water, air, plants, soil and wildlife.

Development

78
Modern scholars defined the term development, as a rational gradual process for the integral
betterment of people’s life.

Sustainable Development
Sustainable development implies a balance between meeting immediate needs and looking to
the future with a long-term vision. Everyone knows by now that the hierarchy of human needs
dictates that someone who is hungry and has a family to feed is not going to think of
protecting the environment first. Because of this, much environmental destruction has been
caused by the subsistence farming of poor families throughout the developing world. To
reverse this phenomenon, concerted efforts to meet the basic needs of poor families, as well as
strong programs of education that are capable of instilling a long-term vision and teaching the
responsible use of resources, will be indispensable

13.3 Environment and Development

Awareness of the environment and natural resources as a determining factor affecting growth
became more widely appreciated from 1960’s. Attention to the interfaces between the natural
and economic worlds initially came from natural resource and environmental economists
interested in problems of limits to growth. In the late 1970’s, development economists began
seriously rethinking the neoclassical growth model because of the realization that
macroeconomic policy recommendations would be incomplete without reference to
environmental policy components. Over time, as a result of efforts by specialists of both
types, theories of growth with various kinds of natural resource inputs and environmental
implications became fairly well developed.

Environment contributes to economic development in the following manner;

Environment / natural resource as a factor of production (inputs) such as natural occurred

fertile soil used for agriculture production of various agriculture crops (outputs It is about
production of life support materials (water, food, fuel and energy), raw materials for (building,
clothing and household fabrics),

Environmental services e.g. regulation of the local and global climate; assimilation of wastes
and pollutants, water catchments and ground water recharge Climatic conditions, including
temperature and rainfall, are more or less conducive to agricultural and silvicultural
production. Water bodies (rivers, lakes, estuaries, wetlands) of certain water quantity,
turbidity, flow rate, temperature, and chemical composition provide more or less fruitful
habitat for valued aquatic organisms (shrimp, fish, plant life) as well as water resources for
human consumption and manufacturing. Air quality and broader climatic conditions affect

79
ambient temperatures, health conditions, and variability of weather in ways that affect the
productivity of inputs in various household and manufacturing activities.

Environment play a role of preservation values; these derives from existence of natural
resources e.g. preservation of scenic beauty, preservation of biodiversity and information
functions This contributes to ecological stability as well as to tourism, long-term agricultural
productivity, and possibly pharmaceuticals.

Carrier functions involve providing space and suitable substrate for the following: human
habitation and settlements, cultivation (crop production, animal husbandry, aquaculture)

13.4 Interrelationship between poverty and the environment

Poverty and environment are highly interrelated and thus why it becomes important to study
them together. It is in this sense that the knowledge on poverty and environment remains
necessary for different professionals to enable one argue correctly on poverty and
environmental issues in particular and development in general.

Poverty is linked to environment in a complex way, particularly for a natural resource-based

economy like Tanzania. Degradation of natural resources reduces the productivity of the poor
and makes them even more susceptible to extreme events (climatic and economic). Poverty
makes recovery from such events even more difficult and contributes to lowering social and
ecological resistance. Poverty is also a factor in accelerating environmental degradation in
many parts of the country, since the poor, with shorter time horizons and usually less secure
access to natural resources, are unable and often unwilling to invest in natural resource
management but rather strive for survival existence.

80
Source; International Development Research Centre

In a nutshell, poverty is a very diverse concept with varied causes and possible measures.
Environment is unarguably one of the causes of poverty when not well managed while can be
a remedial measure to poverty when well conserved. The measures for poverty have to be
implemented from individual to the national level and this is to say everyone is responsible for
the changes. Students are advised to explore some case studies to realise the interrelationship
between poverty and the environment. One could easily explore for instance a farm land that
has been degraded hence low production in terms of output and its effect on people’s
livelihood. One could also compare how land is managed by well-off farmers and how is it
with the poor peasants. There are a number of live case studies one could come-up with. Take
trouble to visit different fields and research for any changes happening.

Exercise
1. Define the following terms;
a) Poverty
b) Environment
c) Resource

81
 d) Natural resource
e) Development
f) Sustainable Development

2. Why should one bother to study the inter-relationship between poverty and development?

3. On what ways do environment contributes to economic development?

References
Gould, G. (2005). The Politics of Poverty Reduction Strategies.

Hakikazi, (2005). Growing out of Poverty. A Plain language guide to Tanzania’s

National Strategy for growth and reduction of poverty (NSGRP).

Morrow, Rosemary (1993). Earth User’s Guide to Permaculture,Kangaroo Press Pty

Ltd, Australia.

Shah, A. (2002). Causes of Poverty. From

http://www.globalissues.org/TradeRelated/Poverty.asp

UN (2001). United Nations Development Assistance Framework: Tanzania, 2002-

2006.

URT (1998). The national Poverty Eradication Strategy. Vice president’s office, Dar
es salaam, Tanzania.

URT (2005). Poverty and Human Development Report.

82
LECTURE 14
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

14.1 Introduction
Lecture fourteen unfolds some environmental problems and conservation suggestions. The
concept of sustainable development, relationship between development and environment and
discusses the global efforts to attaining sustainable development will also been discussed.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Conceptualize important terms related to environment and sustainable development.
ii. Identify the reasons as to why environment is important for life.

14.2 Definition of concepts

Environment usually refers to all living and non-living components, such as plants, animals,
mountains, valleys and oceans and all what surround us. Plants, animals, mountains, valleys
and the like constitute the crucial part of the environment. The most serious factor leading to
environmental degradation is rapid population growth especially of humans, that doesn’t
match with the capacity of the environment.

Sustainable Development Is simply defined as the development that enables the current
generation meet their needs without jeopardizing the needs of the future generation. In other
words, is a situation in which the current generation exploits the available resources for their
needs in a way that the needs for the future generation cannot be denied.

83
14.3 Tanzania and the Environment: Basic Understanding
Tanzania covers an area of 945,000 sq km and is one of Africa's most ecologically rich
countries. The diverse climatic and physical conditions range from arid, semiarid, and
mountainous areas of afro-alpine vegetation, woodland and dry land savanna. About 40% of
Tanzania is covered by forests and woodlands, which host various types of ecosystems.
Tanzania's eastern coastline extends about 240km north to south along the Indian Ocean.
Additionally, there are several lakes, rivers and swamps, which contain diverse types of
aquatic life.

The National Environmental Policy identifies six (6) major problems, which require urgent
attention. These are: 1) loss of wildlife habitats and biodiversity; 2)deforestation; 3) land
degradation; 4) deterioration of aquatic systems; 5) lack of accessible, good quality water; and
6) environmental pollution. Further, the Government of Tanzania (GOT) admits, in this
policy, that the country needs to adopt environmentally sustainable natural resource
management practices in order to ensure that long term sustainable economic growth is
achieved8. It can therefore be concluded that, the country's long-term economic growth is
dependent among other factors, upon its coherent natural resource management.

Accordingly, the government of Tanzania has formulated a number of policies, enacted pieces
of legislation- principal and subsidiary and established various institutions to facilitate and
carry out its duty to protect and manage the country's environment. Local government
authorities are to protect and manage the environment in their respective areas of jurisdiction.
Institutions falling under the rubric of "local government authorities" include: village councils,
district councils, township and municipal authorities. These were established through the
process of decentralization.

14.4 Importance of environment to the economy

 It provides the basic resources for virtually all socio-economic activities
 It holds natural habitats, plants and animals that are art of an irreplaceable global
heritage,
 Is a foundation for eventual alleviation of abject poverty?

Therefore, the major thrust of environmental management is protection of the natural living
space of humankind and integration of environmental scarcity in making decision on all
economic issues and activities.

84
14.5 Major environmental problems and management in
Tanzania
14.5.1 Land Degradation
Human impacts on deforestation, soil erosion, overgrazing, and degradation of water
resources and loss of biodiversity have all resulted into land degradation. Poor agricultural
practices such as shifting cultivation, lack of crop rotation practices, lack of agricultural
technology and land husbandry techniques exacerbate the problem7 contends that the effects
of overstocking, which are localized, give rise to serious degradation in places such as
Shinyanga and Mbulu where livestock units have exceeded the carrying capacity. To get rid of
land degradation, afforestation should be prioritised, soil erosion have to be topped by good
agricultural practices, overgrazing should be eliminated by educating livestock keeping
communities to cut the number of livestock. Further, water resources and biodiversity in
general should be conserved and well managed.

14.5.2 Pollution Management and Urbanization

Pollution is a major problem in urban areas of Tanzania. Improper treatment and disposal of
solid and liquid wastes are the major contributors to urban pollution. The combined results of
these problems are that both air and water have been contaminated with pollutants, which are
detrimental to human health. In Dar es-salaam, for example, less than 5% of the population is
connected to a sewage system. Where a sewage system exists, raw sewage is discharged
directly into the Indian Ocean without prior treatment. Thus a workable water supply and
sewage treatment is needed for the urban areas.

14.5.3 Agricultural and Range Land Resources Management

Agriculture and rangeland resources are the backbone of Tanzania's economy. It is estimated
that about 55% of the land could be used for agriculture and over 51% for pastoral lands.
However, only about six percent of the agricultural land is not cultivated with the practice of
shifting cultivation which causes deforestation and land degradation on the pastoral land. Lake
Manyara basin, Geita Gold Mines, Usangu Wetlands and Ngorongoro Conservation areas
have been affected the most by inadequate control and land management. The main cause for
these problems is due to lack of proper instruments of enforcement of the existing legislation,
policy and by-laws by local authorities. This is therefore to say that there is a pressing need to
first separate the two: crop fields and pastoral fields while at the same time discouraging
shifting cultivation. It’s also important to keep in mind that introducing and educating farmers
the modern agricultural methods remains key in conserving the environment.

14.5.4 Management of Forest Resources

Forest resources provide both direct products and by-products. The forest reserves are also
linked with agriculture, beekeeping, energy, water uses and biodiversity. It is estimated that
fuel wood and agricultural residues account for 92% of the total energy consumption in the
country. As a result, this contributes significantly to deforestation and environmental
degradation. This means that forest resources should well be managed. The exploitation of
forest resources have to keenly consider sustainability of the same.

85
14.5.5 Management of Wildlife Resources
Tanzania is one of the few countries with vast number of wildlife resources. For example,
Tanzania's "protected areas" cover about 25% of the total land6.The protected land is
comprised of national parks, game reserves, game controlled areas and the Ngorongoro
Conservation Authority Area. Unfortunately, communities living around these protected areas
do not benefit from the wildlife industry. They live in uncertain conditions visited by
persistent attacks by the wild animals and destruction of their crops. This has resulted in an
antagonistic relationship between the wildlife authorities and the local people. Local
communities resort to activities like poaching to gain access to and benefits from the wildlife
and other natural resources. This calls for local communities’ involvement in wildlife
conservation and management which actually have evolved recently. At the same time the
respective authorities and the government in particular needs to make sure that communities
surrounding wildlife resources are benefiting from the same.

14.5.6 Management of Mineral Resources

The Tanzanian economy depends upon mineral resources for a major source of its revenues.
However, mineral exploitation is often done without regard to environmental and social
impacts. Mining activities cause major environmental degradation by deforestation,
destruction of habitat, loss of biodiversity and general damage to the land. Thus the Mining
Act of 1998 addressed this problem and required mining companies to conduct environmental
impact assessments. Environmental problems are diverse and come as a result of human
activities at large. If human activities play a big role in destructing the environment then
it’simportant that human being put in place strategies for management as stipulated above.
Every human being have to think of the right way to exploiting natural resources which can
ensure sustainability of these resources for the future generation. The government should also
design proper policies which should also be enforced otherwise talking of environmental
management and sustainable development will remain a daily song.

Exercise
1. Identify and explain the environmental problems in your country.
2. What are possible environmental conservation measures?
3. Why do we need to conserve the environment?

References
Backer (1997). Poverty Reduction and Human Development in the Caribbean
Bagachwa eds (1994). Poverty Alleviation in Tanzania

86
Narayan-Parker, D. (1997). Voices of the Poor: Poverty and Social Capital in
Tanzania. World Bank. Washington DC. 97 p.
Lugalla, J. (1995). Adjustment and poverty in Tanzania: Business and Economics.
Munster Lit. 127p
SIDA (2002). Perspectives on poverty:
https://www.sida.se/contentassets/b1f1b6e40e31403eaad2365174193b04/15551.pdf

Nshala, Rugemeleza (1999). Granting of Hunting Blocks in Tanzania: The Need for
Reform Policy Brief No.5 Dar es Salaam LEAT, Dar es Salaam

87
LECTURE 15
TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT

15.1 Introduction
Lecture fifteen is going to show the relationship between technology and development as they
all influence each other in differently and dependent ways. It is believed that application of
science in manufacturing of various tools that when used and applied bring about development
likewise improvement and advances on discovering of knowledge (knowledge development)
bring about advances in technology.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Define the word technology and development
ii. Explain the trend of technology in developing country
iii. Show the relationship between technology and development

15.2 Technological terminologies

Technology
Can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the
application of mental and physical effort in order to achieve some value. In this usage,
technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems

Science
Science can be defined as the systematic knowledge of the physical or material world gained
through observation and experimentation.

Engineering
Is the goal-oriented process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural
phenomena for practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques
from science.

88
15.3 Technology and Development

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/journal/1877-0428_Procedia Social_and_Behavioral_Sciences

Economic development is a long-term process of changes taking place in the economy. It

includes both changes in quantity and quality. Quantitative changes concern an increase in
production, employment, investments, amount of functioning capital, income, consumption
and other economic values characterizing the economy from the quantitative side (economic
growth). They are accompanied by qualitative changes, which concern the organization of
society as well as structural changes. Economic development results in changes in the creation
of Gross Domestic Product and changes in employment structure. Economic development is
currently not possible without the development of technology which, in turn, is not possible
without the development of science (Maddison, 2014). From the point of view of the quality
of life of human societies, a generally positive impact can be observed of the development of
economy, science and technology on the nutritional status of people, the infant survival rate,
prolongation of life expectancy, health, comfort of life, work safety, etc. At the same time, the
development of technology and the accompanying economic development and prosperity are
paid for by the costs that are incurred in other areas: unemployment rises, while in many
professions there is a lack of skilled workers; the occurrence of detrimental changes in mental
and emotional characteristics, in social bonds, recognized values and authorities, and above all
– the main cost is borne by the natural environment, animate and inanimate.

Development is closely related with technology. The stage of development the human being
has arrived could have been possible without the advancement in technology. The radical
change and advancement in the economy, as we observe today, is the result of the modern
technology1.

The effect of technology in development is of two sides which are positive and negative sides.

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15.3.1 The positive effects of technology

Mechanized Agriculture
Technology has mechanized agriculture: Modern agricultural technology allows a small
number of people to grow vast quantities of food in a short period of time with less input
which results into high yields and RIO ”return on investment”. Through government
subsidies, small and medium-sized farmers have managed to acquire plowing, sowing,
watering and harvesting machines. The use of technology in agriculture has also resulted in
the manufacturing of genetic crops which can grow fast and they can be resistant to many
pests and diseases. Also, farmers have access to artificial fertilizers which add value to the soil
and boost the growth of their crops and enable them to produce high-quality yields. Farmers
in dry areas have been in a position to grow healthy crops, they use advanced water pumps
and sprinklers which derive water from rivers to the farms, the all process can be automated to
save time. A good example is Egypt, this is a desert country which receives little rain, but
small and big farmers have used automated sprinklers to irrigate their farms. In Egypt, they
grow a lot of rice, yet this crop needs sufficient water to grow well. The water is pumped from
River Nile to the rice fields on a daily basis.

Improved Transportation
Technology has improved transportation: Transportation is one of the basic areas of
technological activity. Both society and businesses have benefited from the new transpiration
methods. Transportation provides mobility for people and goods. Transportation, like all other
technologies, can be viewed as a system. It is a series of parts that are interrelated. These parts
all work together to meet a certain goal. Transportation uses vehicles, trains, airplanes,
motorbikes, people, roads, energy, information, materials, finance and time. All these parts I
have mentioned work together to move and relocate people and goods. Technology has helped
in advancing all the four types of transportation and these include ; (1) road transport used by
automobiles ,(2) air transport which is used by airplanes , (3)water transportation which is
used by ships and speed boats and (4) space transportation used to go to the moon. The most
used of all these is Road transportation, this one facilitates the movement of goods and people.
Technologies like automobiles, buses, and trucks have improved the way humans move and
how they transport their goods from place to another. Also, developing countries are getting
funds from wealthy countries to improve their road transport which has resulted in the
development of rural remote areas.

Improved Communication
Technology has improved communication: Communication is used for a number of purposes.
Both society and organizations depend on communication to transfer information. People use
technology to communicate with each other. Electronic media like radios, televisions, internet,
social media have improved the way we exchange ideas which can develop our societies. In
many countries, radios and televisions are used to voice the concerns of the society, they
organize live forums where the community can contribute through mobile phones or text

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service systems like tweeter. During political elections, leaders use radio, television and
internet media to reach the people they want to serve. A good example is the recent
presidential election in the USA,”President Barak Obama ” has embraced the communication
technology to reach and voice out his concerns towards the development of America.
Communication technologies like Televisions, radios, and internet can be used to persuade,
entertain and inform the society. Small businesses have also used the internet and mobile
communication technology to grow and improve their customer service.

Improved Education and Learning Process

Technology has improved education and learning process: Education is the backbone of every
economy. People need well and organized educational infrastructures so that they can learn
how to interpret information. Many schools have started integrating educational technologies
in their schools with a great aim of improving the way students learn. Technologies like smart
whiteboards, computers, mobile phones, iPads, projectors, and internet are being used in
classrooms to boost students moral to learn. Visual education is becoming more popular and it
has proved to be the best method of learning in many subjects like mathematics, physics,
biology, geography, economics and much more. The business community has invested money
in various educational technologies which can be used by both teachers and their students.
For example, on iTunes, you will find many educational applications which can allow
students and teachers exchange academic information at any time, this has made learning
mobile. Also, programs like Long distance learning have opened boundaries too so many
scholars around the world.

15.3.2 Negative Impacts of Technology on Society

The more demand for new technologies and advancement of current technologies, the more
pressure we put on earth’s natural resources. Look at the total number of mobile phones and
computers being manufactured today, our population is increasing every day and all these
billion consumers demand either a mobile phone or a computer in their homes or offices. This
is good news for the manufactures, like Apple or Samsung, the demand for their gadgets is
high, but to sustain this demand, they have to exploit Mother Nature for resources like
aluminum, once these resources are extracted from the earth plates, they will never return
back because it took them a billion years to mature. That means that at one time, we shall be
left with no natural resource which can be a problem to the future generation and economy.
Likewise, the intensive farming practices will deplete the soil. This makes heavy applications
of commercial fertilizers necessary to yield healthy harvests, but also these fertilizers have
chemicals which are dangerous to the soil and human lives.

Increased Population
Technology has helped us live longer by improving health facilities and aiding in the research
for solutions for most health problems which affect humans. This is good news for developed
countries but is bad news for developing countries which have not been in a position to access
these health care benefits brought by technology. In developed countries population growth is

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controlled by advanced birth control methods, this has helped them balance their population in
relation to natural resources and other opportunities which come with a planned population.
This is different in developing countries, the rate at which people produce is very high, the
mortality rate is high, food is scarce and health care is poor.

Increased Pollution
Pollution affects the land we grow crops on, the water we drink and the air we breathe. The
increased demand for new technologies and advancement of technologies has resulted in
many manufacturing and processing factories. As they work so hard to create the best
technologies for both society and business, they release harmful chemicals and gasses which
have polluted our environment and this has resulted in climate changes (global warming). So
the more technology we enjoy, the more we harm our environment. Experts have tried to
implement ways of reducing this impact by encouraging factories to go green, to a small
extent, this has been achieved through the development of green technologies like; green cars,
green computers, but a great effort is still needed to reduce the pollution of the air and the
earth.

Exercise
1. Differentiate between technology, science and engineering

2. Show the significance of technology in developme

References

Maddison, A. (2014). Economic growth in the West: Comparative experience in

Europe and North America. London: Routledge.
Mondal, P. (2018). Essay on Technology and Development.
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/essay-on-technology-and-development/30718
Ranis, G. (2011). Technology and Human Development. Center Dicsussion Paper No.
1004. Economic Growth Center. Yale University.
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) (2001) Human Development
Report Making New Technologies Work for Human Development (New York:
UNDP).
Worldbank (2008). Technology and Development: Global Economic Prospects:
Technology Diffusion in the Developing World. Washington D.C

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 SECTION FIVE
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AND
DEVELOPMENT

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LECTURE 16
CONCEPT OF REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

16.1 Introduction
Lecture sixteen is going to conceptualize the word reproductive health in general and tries to
explain why it is considered as a development issue. It is believed that improved reproductive
health also helps individuals, particularly young women, breaks out of intergenerational cycles
of poverty.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Define reproductive health and its related terms
ii. Identify reproductive health problems in the society
iii. Explain the role of reproductive health in development

16.2 Definition of the terms

Health
According to WHO's definition of health as a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, reproductive health addresses
the reproductive processes, functions and system at all stages of life4

Reproductive health
Reproductive health, therefore, implies that people are able to have a responsible, satisfying
and safe sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce and the freedom to decide if,
when and how often to do so. Implicit in this are the right of men and women to be informed
of and to have access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of fertility
regulation of their choice, and the right of access to appropriate health care services that will

94
enable women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth and provide couples with the
best chance of having a healthy infant.
This broad definition of reproductive health suggests that individuals or couples have right to:
 Regulate their fertility without risk to their health.
 Have safe pregnancies and births when they choose to have children.
 Have sex safely, without the fear of sexuality transmitted disease (STD).

Reproductive health covers a broad area and includes ethical and philosophical questions
about reproductive rights, across all relevant areas. The main areas those are relevant to the
health of people.
 Contraception
 Abortion
 Sexual transmitted diseases
 HIV/AIDS.

The reproductive health needs of young people, who in most countries comprise the largest
segment of the population, are not adequately addressed. Furthermore, young people are
usually not involved in the planning, design and implementation of reproductive health
programmes for youths.

Contraception
Contraception is the practice of one or more actions, devices, sexual practices, or medications
followed in order to deliberately prevent or reduce the likelihood of pregnancy or
childbirth1.In common usage, term "contraception" is often used for both contraception and
contragestion. It is sometimes refered as birth control.

Abortion
Abortion is a generic term for pregnancies that do not end in a livebirth or a stillbirth. It is the
premature expulsion from the uterus of the products of conception, which include the
placenta, bag of waters, and fetus, if present.

Types of Abortion
 Spontaneous abortion is the expulsion of an embryo or fetus due to accidental trauma
or natural causes before approximately the 22nd week of gestation; the definition by
gestational age varies by country.

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  Induced abortion; this is intentionally abortion depending upon the gestational age of
the embryo or fetus, which increases in size as it ages.
Sexual transmitted diseases
Sexually transmitted diseases (also called STDs or STIs for sexually transmitted infections)
are infections that can be transferred from one person to another through sexual contact.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there are more than 25 diseases
that are transmitted through sexual activity. Other than HIV, the most common STDs are

Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Genital herpes, Human papillomavirus, Hepatitis B,

Trichomoniasis, and Bacterial vaginosis.

HIV/AIDS
HIV stands for Human Immune Virus and AIDS for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
the later is the outcome of HIV infection. This is one of STD that many people are worried
about getting is HIV. While new ways of treating this infection can significantly prolong an
infected person's life, for far too many people this infection eventually progresses to AIDS
and, ultimately, death. More than 40 million people worldwide are infected with the HIV
virus; women account for 50% of those infected.

16.3 Reproductive Health Problems

Reproductive health problems are well explained specifically to men and women. To be brief
for the sake of understand here will mention the general one i.e. that might affect both men
and women. Sexual transmitted diseases (STDs)/infection (STIs) or Veneral Diseases (VD)
These are diseases that are generally acquired by sexual contact. The organisms that cause
sexually transmitted diseases may pass from person to person in blood, semen, or vaginal and
other bodily fluids. But sometimes can be transmitted through non sexually such as mother to
infant during pregnancy or childbirth, or through blood transfusions or shared needles.
Examples of these diseases are;
 Chlamydia caused by a bacteria called Chlamydia trachomatis (C. trachomatis),
 Genital herpes caused by a virus known as herpes simplex virus (HSV).
 Hepatitis B caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV).
 HIV caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
 Syphilis is the result of infection by Treponema pallidum, a bacterium.
 Gonorrhea (clap or the drip) caused by a bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae

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The general symptoms of STDs/STIs/VDs are;

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) can have a range of signs and symptoms, including no
symptoms.
 Sores or bumps on the genitals or in the oral or rectal area
 Painful or burning urination
 Discharge from the penis
 Unusual or odd-smelling vaginal discharge
 Unusual vaginal bleeding
 Pain during sex
 Sore, swollen lymph nodes, particularly in the groin but sometimes more widespread
 Lower abdominal pain
 Fever
 Rash over the trunk, hands or feet

16.4 The role of Reproductive Health in Development

Reproductive health problems including HIV/AIDS reported to affect the health of young and
reproductive age largely and hence reduce the young manpower that are potential for
development. A country’s economic growth is often shaped by overarching demographic
trends. The potential economic gains could be realized through a demographic dividend occur
when a country’s working age population grows larger relative to dependent populations, the
report shows.

Reproductive health is important in controlling population size which has got negative effect
to development. Controlling population size is done through family planning which is an
important part of this process because many countries have large youth populations that will
almost ensure continued rapid population growth unless fertility declines, which is what offers
the possibility of the demographic dividend.Where rapid population growth far outpaces
economic development, countries will have a difficult time investing in the human capital
needed to secure the well-being of its people and to stimulate further economic growth. This
issue is especially acute for the least developed countries, many of which are facing a
doubling, or even a tripling of their populations by 2050.

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Reproductive health through family planning, it provides enough time for production to
women by giving good spacing between one child to the other. When women and couples are
empowered to plan whether and when to have children, women are better enabled to complete
their education; women’s autonomy within their households is increased; and their earning
power is improved. This strengthens their economic security and well-being and that of their
families. Cumulatively, this contributes to development progress and poverty reduction3

Exercise
1. Define health and reproductive health
2. What are the contents of reproductive health?
3. Mention main areas of reproductive health
4. What is abortion?
5. Are all abortion bad practice, explain your answers
6. List at least four sexual transmitted disease common in Tanzania

References
Jauniaux, E., P. Kaminopetros and H. El-Rafaey (1999). "Early pregnancy loss". in
Martin J. Whittle and C. H. Rodeck. Fetal medicine: basic science and clinical
practice. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. p. 836. ISBN 0-443-05357-X. OCLC
42792567.
The State of World Population, (2014). The power of 1.8
Billion.http://www.unfpa.org/swop-2014
UNFPA, (2014). Population and Poverty.http://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-
and-poverty
WHO (2008). Reproductive health:
http://www.who.int/topics/reproductive_health/en/

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LECTURE 17
HIV/AIDS AND YOUTH

17.1 Introduction
Lecture seventeen is discussing the relationship between HIV/AIDS and youth. The health of
young generation cannot be ignored as they are the productive group contributes high to the
socioeconomic development.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, are expected to be able to:
i. Explain the historical information of HIV/AIDS
ii. Discusses prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Tanzania
iii. Analyze the consequences of HIV/AIDS
iv. Show the relationship between HIV/AIDS and youth

17.2 Historical Information of HIV/AIDS

HIV (Human Immune Virus) is a type of virus that attack immune system that leads to AIDS
(Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome) It is said that this virus cross from chimps (have
similar virus known as SIV) in the 1920 in Democratic Republic of Congo. The SIVcpz was
transferred to humans as a result of chimps being killed and eaten, or their blood getting into
cuts or wounds on people in the course of hunting. Normally, the hunter's body would have
fought off SIV, but on a few occasions the virus adapted itself within its new human host and
became HIV-1. It is far rarer, and less infectious than HIV-1. As a result, it infects far fewer
people, and is mainly found in a few countries in West Africa like Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria
and Sierra Leone.

Studies of some of the earliest known samples of HIV provide clues about when it first
appeared in humans and how it evolved. The first verified case of HIV is from a blood sample
taken in 1959 from a man living in what is now Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of
Congo. The sample was retrospectively analyzed and HIV detected. There are numerous
earlier cases where patterns of deaths from common opportunistic infections, now known to

99
be AIDS-defining, suggest that HIV was the cause, but this is the earliest incident where a
blood sample can verify infection. The area around Kinshasa is full of transport links, such as
roads, railways and rivers. The area also had a growing sex trade around the time that HIV
began to spread. The high population of migrants and sex trade might explain how HIV
spread along these infrastructure routes. By 1937, it had reached Brazzaville, about 120km
west of Kinshasa.

17.3 Prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Tanzania

According to UNAIDS, (2017) 1.4 million people in 2016, were living with HIV in Tanzania
which equates to an estimated HIV prevalence of 4.7%. In the same year, 55,000 people were
newly infected with HIV, and 33,000 people died from an AIDS-related illness. The number
of new infections declined by more than 20% and the number of people dying from an AIDS-
related illness halved in between 2010 and 2015. This is believed due to awareness
sensitization and control programmes done.The severity of the epidemic varies across the
country. Some regions report an HIV prevalence of around 1.5% (Manyara) while other
regions have prevalence as high as 14.8% (Njombe). Overall, the epidemic has remained
steady because of on-going new infections, population growth and increased access to
treatment.

Women are heavily burdened by HIV in Tanzania where 780,000 women aged 15 and over
are living with HIV. HIV prevalence among women ranged from 1% among those aged 15-
19 to 10% among women aged. Women tend to become infected earlier, because they have
older partners known as “sugar daddy” (often accept the sexual advances of older men for a
variety of reasons including money, affection and social advancement) and get married earlier.
They also experience great difficulty in negotiating safer sex because of gender inequality.
Intimate partner violence is also an issue with more than 30% of married or partnered women
aged 15–24 experiencing physical or sexual violence from a male partner in the previous 12
months.

People who inject drugs (PWID) are second group in infection rate. According to the
Tanzania National AIDS Control Programme estimate of 30,000 people who inject drugs in
the country, 35% of whom were living with HIV. However, data on people who inject drugs
varies widely between studies, due to the hidden nature of this population.

The mobile population for the search of better jobs ranks the third being at risk of HIV
infection in Tanzania. Young and sexually active men come into close contact with ‘high risk
sexual networks’ made up of sex workers, women at truck stops and miners: all of whom have
high levels of HIV prevalence.. Long-distance truck drivers, agricultural plantation workers
and fisherman working along coastal trading towns are also at an increased risk of HIV.

In Tanzania young generation ranks the fourth in HIV prevalence rate. It .has a very young
population, a third of the country’s population is aged 10-24, the age most become sexually
active. In 2014, an estimated 6% of adolescents were living with HIV and the rate reduced to
100
4.7% of adolescents (aged 10-19) in 2016.Young people engaging in risky sexual behaviour
(such as not using condoms), having multiple sexual partners, and first having sex before the
age of 15 remain significant challenges in the country’s HIV response. Comprehensive
knowledge about HIV is also low – less than half of young people have adequate knowledge.

The proportion of HIV infections that arise from sex between men in Tanzania is very low,
however men who have sex with men (sometimes referred to as MSM) are still
disproportionately affected by the epidemic, with 25% estimated to be living with HIV.
Although HIV prevalence has declined significantly from previous estimates of 42% more has
to be done. In 2014, less than half (45%) of all men who have sex with men reported using a
condom during their last sexual contact, and only quarter were reached with some sort of HIV
prevention programme.

17.4 Consequences of HIV/AIDS

The consequences of HIV can be explain basing o socioeconomic and sociocultural status

Health is about being physically, mentally and spiritually. Human immunodeficiency virus,
HIV destroys CD4+ cells, which are critical to your immune system i.e. responsible for
keeping you healthy from common diseases and infections. It is gradually weakens your
natural defenses, and interrupts its systems. Once the immune system is severely weakened,
leads to the risk of contracting opportunistic infections and developAcquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)

The Burden of Care which involves opportunity costs such taking off from work, agriculture
production and schooling as well.

Increase of Orphaned Children which denied the right of children in accessing the basic and
necessary needs and resulting into street children.

The Dissolution of Households Under the impact of HIV/AIDS it appears that a significant
number of households cease to exist, especially if the deceased is a woman. A widowed
woman may return to her home community and some of the children are dispersed to other
relatives1.

Exercise
1. Define HIV and AIDS
2. Explain the origin of HIV

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3. Explain why tends to be infected earlier than men
4. Explain the consequences of HIV/AIDS

References
1. CHG Commision on HIV/AIDS and Governance in Africa: The impacts of HIV/AIDS
on Females and Communities in Africa. Economic Commission for Africa.Adis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
2. Faria, N.R. (2014). 'The early spread and epidemic ignition of HIV-1 in human
populations' Science 346(6205):56-61
3. Garbus, L. (2004). ‘HIV/AIDS in Tanzania’ Country AIDS Policy Analysis Project,
AIDS Policy Research Center, University of San Francisco
4. NACP (2014). ‘‘Consensus Estimates on Key Population Size and HIV Prevalence in
Tanzania’
5. Population Reference Bureau (2013). ‘The World’s Youth: 2013 Data Sheet’
6. Sharp, P.M. & Hahn, B.H. (2011). 'Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic' Cold
Spring Harbour Perspectives in Medicine 1(1):a006841
7. Science (1998). 'Oldest Surviving HIV Virus Tells All' (accessed 11/01/2016)
8. Tanzania Commission for AIDS (2013). '2011-12 Tanzania HIV/AIDS and Malaria
Indicator Survey'
9. Tanzania Ministry of Health (2014). 'Global AIDS Response Country Progress Report
10. UNAIDS (2015). ‘Tanzania HIV and AIDS estimates.
11. UNAIDS (2016). 'Prevention Gap Report'[pd
12. UNAIDS (2017). ‘Data Book
13. Worobey, M. (2010). 'Island biogeography reveals the deep history of SIV' Science
329(5998):1487

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LECTURE 18
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION

I8.1 Introduction
This lecture discusses awareness of reproductive health in relation to development. As
reproductive health education is a key strategy for promoting safe sexual behaviors among
teenagers and people in general and hence development.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Clearly state the status of reproductive health education in Tanzania
ii. Explain the ways reproductive health education is disseminated
iii. Discuss the role of Reproductive health education in development

18.2 The status of reproductive health education in Tanzania

Reproductive health education is all about conveying comprehensive reproductive health
information to people at the correct time. It is one of the strategies initiated to respond to the
consequences of adolescents’ risky sexual behaviours, and promote sexual health life for the
economic and social development. It is the lifelong process of acquiring information and
forming attitudes, beliefs, and values about identity, relationships and intimacy. It
encompasses sexual development, reproductive health, interpersonal relationships, affection,
intimacy, body image, and gender roles.

In Tanzania, sexual and reproductive health followed after the emphasis from the various
frameworks, strategies and policies. Tanzania’s strategic framework of 1998 -2002 for
prevention and control of HIV/AIDS/STDs stated that, the in-school youth are to be provided
with HIV/AIDS education at primary and secondary levels, with Ministry of Education and
Culture (MOEC) being the key actor. Also the National Strategy for Growth and 3 Reduction
of Poverty, in cluster number eleven, goal two, focuses on improvement in quality of life and
social well-being through the reduction of HIV prevalence from 11 per cent in 2004 to 10 per

103
cent in 2010 (between the ages of 15 and 24 years) and increasing the knowledge of
HIV/AIDS transmission to the general population. Moreover, the National HIV/AIDS policy
emphasized that the prevention of transmission of HIV/AIDS can be achieved by creating and
sustaining an increased awareness through information, education and communication for
behaviour change at all levels by all sectors.

There is no one definition of adolescents’ sex education, and also its existence varies from one
place to another. Therefore, the best way of addressing sexual and reproductive health needs
of adolescents is a matter of serious discussion and decision within each country. In Tanzania,
sexual and reproductive health issues are addressed in secondary schools through the subject
of biology. The topics that are under sexual and reproductive health issues include: good
health, immunity and concept of diseases, sexual transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS,
lifestyle choices and consequences, risk behaviours and situations, responsible decision
making, assertive behaviour, delayed sex, protected sex, care and support for the people living
with HIV, family planning and contraceptive and maternal and health care.

18.3 Dissemination of Reproductive Health Education

There are various ways of disseminating reproductive health education/ information to people
in the community

18.3.1 School based

School is the best place for knowledge delivery which in turn contributes to behaviour change
since pupils spend more of their time at school i.e. 8 hrs per day five days in a week. It is easy
to educate reproductive health education by integrating it in school curriculum4.

18.3.2 Parents to child

It is traditionally that, extended parents, aunts, uncles and grandparents are traditionally the
main communicators of sexual and reproductive health values and conduct to young people.
This is due to the fact that, most of the time African parents doesn’t say what they do i.e. to
say they talk to their youth on how to live healthy life but themselves don’t live healthy live.
This makes youth not to trust and listen to them anymore. Most of the time, when parents talk
to their youth, they are not very much open i.e. hide some information which create
misunderstanding or contradiction on what they hear from parents and another source1.

18.3.3 Media
Media sources include radio, television, magazines, newspapers, conferences and billboards
have been admitted to be the most common source of sexual and reproductive health
information

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18.3.4 Religion
Religion is a social institution important in shaping the believers’ behaviours.

18.3.5 Health Workers

Health workers are the people working in hospitals, health centres and dispensaries. Health
workers provide health services and information to people in needs.

18.3.6 Peer
This involves discussing reproductive health information with friends and colleagues. It is the
good source of reproductive health information to young people since they are less likely
willing to seek professional help for more sensitive matters and turn readily to friends and
family whom they feel they can trust for sexual advice3.

18.4 The role of reproductive health education in development

Reproductive health education contributes to the following benefits
 Reduced risky sexual behaviours among the recipients which in return contribute to
maintaining general health of the people as a pre-requisite for social, economic and
human development.
 Reproductive health education brings the understanding of general features of human
being development i.e. from childhood to adolescences and adulthood.
 Reproductive health education enhance life and personal relationships related to
reproduction and STDs
 Reproductive health education concerns about health reproduction for both women
and men.

Exercise
1. What is reproductive health education?
2. List ways used in dissemination of reproductive health education
3. Show the role of reproductive health education in the development of Tanzania as a
nation.

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References
Muyinda, H., Kengeya, J., Pool, R. and Witworth, J. (2001). Traditional sex
counseling and STI/HIV prevention among young women in rural Uganda. Culture,
Health and Sexuality 3(3):353-361.
NGTF (National Guidelines Task Force), (1996). Guidelines for Comprehensive
Sexuality Education in Nigeria, Lagos. 39pp.
Obono, K. (2015). Patterns of Mother Daughter communication for Reproductive
health knowledge transfer in Sothern Africa. [27 January 2015]; Journal Canadian
Edition. 2012 5(1) [Online] availablewww.gmj.uottawa.ca/1201/v5i1_obono.pdf.
Rangi, W.S. and Mwageni, E. (2012). The Role of Sexual and Reproductive Health
Education in Adolescent’s Sexual behaviours in Secondary Schools in Morogoro
Municipality, Tanzania.
https://journals.out.ac.tz/index.php/Huria_journal/article/viewFile/119/119
UNICEF (1996). Reproductive health: Facts and figures. As cited in Bird thistle &
Vince-Whitman, 1997
URT (United Republic of Tanzania), (1998). Strategic Framework for The third
Medium Term Plan for Prevention and control of HIV/AIDS/STDS 1998-2992.
Ministry of Health, Tanzania .Dares-salaam.1-12 pp
URT (2001). National Policy on HIV/AIDS. Prime Ministers Office. Dodoma. 36pp.
URT (United Republic if Tanzania) (2005). Biology Syllabus for Secondary schools,
form I – IV, Ministry of Education and Culture, Tanzania Institute of Education,
2005.181pp
World Education Forum (WEF), (2000). Promoting population and reproductive
health especially among young people, through basic education Dakar, Senegal 26-28
April 2000 Para 7.4

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 SECTION SIX
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

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LECTURE 19
CONCEPT OF GENDER

19.1 Introduction
This lecture discusses the concept of gender and its related terms. It all about how men and
women interact in the community for development. Gender has been taken as development
issue as due rose by unequal treatment of men and women in community.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Define gender and its related terminologies
ii. Explain the gender awareness
iii. Tell why gender is a development issues by considering the concept of Gender in
Development and Gender and Development

19.2 Definition of Terminologies

19.2.1 Gender
Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female
and the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, as well as the relations
between women and those between men.

19.2.2 Sex
Sex is biologically differences between male or female which are universally determined at
birth

19.2.3 Gender role

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A gender role is a set of social and behavioural norms that are generally considered
appropriate for either a man or a woman in a social or interpersonal relationship. It varies
considerably across settings and also changes over time. The following factors can shape and
change gender roles: age, class, race, ethnicity, religion and other ideologies, geographical
environment, economic environment and political environment.

19.2.4 Reproductive roles

Reproductive roles include childbearing/ rearing responsibilities and domestic roles usually
performed by women who are required to reproduce and maintain the labour force.

19.2.5 Gender Equity

Gender equity is the process of being fair to men and women. To ensure fairness, measures
must often be put in place to compensate for the historical and social disadvantages that
prevent women and men from operating on a level playing field. Equity is a means. Equality
is the result

19.2.6 Gender Equality

Gender equality means that women and men have equal conditions for realizing their full
human rights and for contributing to, and benefiting from, economic, social, cultural and
political development. It is therefore the equal valuing by society of the similarities and the
differences of men and women, and the roles they play. It is based on women and men being
full partners in their home, their community and their society.

19.2.7 Gender Discrimination

The systematic, unfavorable treatment of individuals on the basis of their gender, which
denies them rights, opportunities or resources

19.2.8 Gender Stereotype

Gender Stereotype is a set of behaviours and qualities expected from a male or female by their
society (Masculine –men and Feminine- female). It varies on four dimensions;
 Traits (Physical features)
 Role behavior
 Physical characteristics
 Occupations

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19.2.9 Gender Violence
Any act or threat by men or male-dominated institutions that inflicts physical, sexual, or
psychological harm on a woman or girl because of their gender.

19.2.10 Gender Needs

Shared and prioritized needs identified by women that arise from their common experiences
as a gender.

19.2.11 Women Empowerment

A ‘bottom-up’ process of transforming gender power relations, through individuals or groups
developing awareness of women’s subordination and building their capacity to challenge it

19.2.12 Gender awareness

Gender awareness is an understanding that there are socially determined differences between
women & men based on learned behavior, which affect their ability to access and control
resources3It is all about making people to realize the gender disparity that exist and being able
to act accordingly. Gender awareness should be taken with precaution since gender disparity
is controversial influenced by cultural diversity.

19.2.13 Women in Development (GID)

This is the approach that focuses in women's subordination and lack of inclusion in
discussions of international development without examining broader systems of gender
relations5Influenced by this work, by the late 1970s, some practitioners working in the
development field questioned focusing on women in isolation6.

19.3 Gender and Development (GAD)

Gender and development focuses in socially constructed differences between men and women
and the need to challenge existing gender roles and relations. This approach was majorly
influenced by the writings of academic scholars such as Oakley (1972) and Rubin (1975), who
emphasize the social relationship between men and women which have systematically
subordinated women. It followed WID and challenged its concentration on women only and
emphasize the thinking and involving the need to understand how women and men are
socially constructed and how ‘those constructions are powerfully reinforced by the social

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activities that both define and are defined by them. GAD focuses primarily on the gendered
division of labor and gender as a relation of power embedded in institutions.

19.3.1 'Gender roles'

Emphasize the social construction of identities within the household; it also reveals the
expectations from ‘maleness and femaleness their relative access to resources. 'It tried to
redefine traditional gender roles such as women roles are purely on motherhood while men
are the bread earner.

19.3.2 Social Relations Analysis'

Exposes the social dimensions of hierarchical power relations embedded in social institutions,
as well as its determining influence on ‘the relative position of men and women in society6
It tries to bring gender equality, (denoting women having same opportunities as men,
including ability to participate in the public sphere 2.

Criticisms of GAD
 GAD has been criticized for emphasizing the social differences between men and
women while neglecting the bonds between them and also the potential for changes in
roles.
 GAD does not dig deeply enough into social relations and so may not explain how
these relations can undermine programs directed at women.
 GAD perspective is theoretically distinct from WID, but in practice, a program seems
to have the element of the two. Whilst many development agencies are now committed
to a gender approach, in practice, the primary institutional perspective remain focused
on a WID approach

Exercise
1. Define the following terms as related to gender
a) Gender Stereotype
b) Gender Violence
c) Gender Discrimination
d) Gender Needs

2. Differentiate between the following pairs of terminologies

a) Gender vs Sex

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 b) Gender roles vs Reproductive roles
c) Gender equity vs Gender Equality
d) Women in Development Vs Gender and Development

3. Criticize the following Gender Approach

a) Women in Development (WID)
b) Gender and Development (GAD)

References
Bertrand, Tietcheu (2006). "Being Women and Men in Africa Today: Approaching
Gender Roles in Changing African Societies.

Development Assistance Committee (DAC), 1998, p.7

European Union (2013). Glossary for Gender Equality:

https://definedterm.com/gender_awareness

Moser, Caroline (1993). Gender Planning and Development. Theory, Practice and
Training. New York: Routledge. p. 3.

Razavi, Shahrashoub; Carol Miller (1 February 1995). "From WID to GAD:

Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse: 3

Razavi, Shahrashoub; Carol Miller (1 February 1995). "From WID to GAD:

Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse: 12.

Reeves, Hazel (2000). Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions. Brighton.
p. 8. ISBN 1 85864 381 3.

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LECTURE 20
GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN DEVELOPMENT ARENA

20.1 Introduction
Lecture twenty is all about gender mainstreaming i.e. making gender part and parcel of all
development agendas. After going through discussion on concept of gender and its related
terms in lecture nigh teen, we can now be able to integrate gender aspects in development
arena including social, economic and political development.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you are expected to be able to:
i. Explain the importance of mainstreaming gender in development arena
ii. Explain the strategies used in gender mainstreaming
iii. Discuss the challenges in gender mainstreaming

20.2 Importance of Mainstreaming Gender in Development

Gender Mainstreaming; is a process of assessing the implications for women and men of any
planned action, including legislation, policies or programs, in all areas and at all levels3. It
involves making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension of
the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programs in all
political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality
is not perpetuated.

The importance of gender mainstreaming are:

 Gender mainstreaming leads It brings the contribution, perspectives and priorities of

both women and men to the centre of attention in the development arena in order to
inform the design; implementation and outcomes of policies and programs i.e. gender
equality”.

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  It helps to understand the needs of men and women to better informed policy making
and eventually better government.
 Gender mainstreaming puts people at the heart of policy making
 Gender mainstreaming will leads to efficiency utilization of resources by both men
and women
 Operational plans and Activities are now designed to address needs of both men and
women;

20.3 Principles under Gender Mainstreaming

There are four principles underlying Gender mainstreaming in development
Prioritizing gender equality
Gender mainstreaming tries, among others, to ascertain a gender equality perspective across
all policy areas, and it is called upon to emphasize gender equality even in law. According to
Jacqui True, a Professor of politics and international relations, "[every policy or piece of
legislation should be evaluated from the perspective of whether or not it reduces or increases
gender inequalities.] This concept of gender equality is not limited to formal equality; it
includes as well equality de facto, which is a more holistic approach to gender policy in order
to tackle the interconnected causes that create an unequal relation between the sexes in all
areas of life (work, politics, sexuality, culture, and violence).

Incorporating gender into politics and decision making

In order to successfully mainstream a gendered perspective in politics, language needs to be
reevaluated and used to change the parameters of how women are perceived. Historically,
documents concerning international agreements, peacekeeping arrangements and legal
resolutions have perpetuated stereotypes that disempower women. This can be seen through
the use of language, even as simply as in the UN Disarmament, Demobilization and
Reintegration program's (DDR) motto: 'One man, on weapon'.

Reference of gender issues should be found in all policy areas. "There must be evidence that
the mainstream political agenda has been reoriented by rethinking and rearticulating policy
ends and means from a gender perspective," Lombardo says, referencing Rounaq Jahan,
political scientists, feminist leader and author. As the Beijing Platform for Action states,
"women's equal participation in political life plays a pivotal role in the general process of the
advancement of women."

Further, according to the Beijing Platform for Action "[w]ithout the active participation of
women and the incorporation of women's perspective at all levels of decision-making, the
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goals of equality, development and peace cannot be achieved." Therefore, Lombardo claims
that women and men should be equally represented in any decision-making institution.
Charles worth agrees and believes that every effort should be made to broaden women's
participation at all levels of decision-making.

Post-conflict peace-building (PCPB)

An area of policy and decision making that will particularly benefit from gender
mainstreaming is post-conflict peace-building, also known as PCPB. Various feminist
research has concluded that men and women experience violent conflict differently and
moreover, the current policies surrounding PCPB are insufficient in addressing the
disadvantaged position of women in male-dominated power structures that are further
reinforced by peace-building efforts, both from the domestic and international communities.
Gender mainstreaming in PCPB would emphasize the importance of gendered considerations
of particular issues that disproportionally affect women in post-conflict settings. This would
mean that policy reflected an acknowledgment of the many instances of wartime sexualized
violence perpetrated on women, among other issues that (primarily) women face during
conflict. A major focus of the effort towards gender mainstreaming in post-conflict peace-
building policy is to lessen the international community's inclination towards building a return
to 'normal' for the post-conflict region. Much of feminist research has found that returning to
'normal' is of little comfort for women, who were burdened by the patriarchal systems that
were in place before conflict broke out. As Handrahan notes, the international community
involved in much of PCPB "tolerates high levels of violence against women in their own
societies." Policy that prioritized gender in its applications and goals would seek to build a
society where women are better off than they were before conflict broke out.

Shifts in institutional culture

Gender mainstreaming can be seen as a process of organizational change. Gender
mainstreaming must be institutionalized through concrete steps, mechanisms, and processes in
all parts of the organization. According to Lombardo, this change involves three aspects:
policy process, policy mechanisms; and policy actors. She explains as follows:

1. A shift in policy process means that the process is reorganized so that ordinary actors
know how to incorporate a gender perspective" or that gender expertise is included "as
normal requirement for policy-makers" (Council of Europe 1998, 165).

2. A shift in policy mechanism involves (a) the adoption of horizontal cooperation on

gender issues across all from a gender perspective.

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 3. The range of policy actors participating in the policy-making process is broadened to
include, apart from policy-makers and civil servants, gender experts and policy areas,
levels, and departments; and (b) the use of appropriate policy tools and techniques to
integrate the gender variable in all policies and to monitor and evaluate all policies

20.4 Strategies used in Gender Mainstreaming

Good strategy for Gender mainstreaming requires the following attention?

 Political will which involves questioning current gender relations and the
structures, processes and policies perpetuating inequality. This implies, among
other things, equal access to paid work and to economic power, and the will to
adapt the structures and processes enabling the sharing of family responsibilities
and household tasks.

 Comprehensive knowledge of gender relations i.e. the existing differences between

men and women and its extent

 Knowledge of the administration as it involves the re-organization, development,

implementation and evaluation of policy processes, as well as information about
the qualities of the administrative system.

 Necessary funds and human resources as implementations of various gender

equality involves reallocation of funds also

Challenges in gender mainstreaming

 Gender is not priority in most of most of the reform process as more focus is on the
technical aspects of development.

 Lack of technical experts as, most women are less skilled or work at lower-skilled jobs
that are easily replaced by technology. Differing working schedules of women due to
competing family responsibilities mean that women can be left out of the consultation
process unless there are strategies in place to ensure their full and active participation.

 Gender blindness and persistency patriarchy system, which develop gender

stereotyping affecting participation of men in most of development issues.

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 Exercise
1. Define Gender Mainstreaming
2. What are content of perfect strategy for gender mainstreaming
3. What is the essence of mainstreaming gender in development process
4. Explain challenges on gender mainstreaming

References
Bibbings, Sharleene May (2012). The politics of mainstreaming in critical perspective.
Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Pub. ISBN 9781443835121.
Charlesworth, H. (2005). "Not waving but Drowning: Gender Mainstreaming and
Human Rights in the United Nations", 18 Harvard Human Rights Journal 1
Council of Europe. (1998). Gender Mainstreaming: Conceptual Framework,
Methodology and Presentation of Good Practices: Final Report of Activities of the
Group of Specialists on Mainstreaming. EG-S-MS. Strasbourg: Council of Europe
Handrahan, Lori. "Conflict, gender, ethnicity and post-conflict reconstruction".
Security Dialogue. 35: 429–445 – via University of Victoria library database.
Lombardo, E. (2005). "Integrating or Setting the Agenda? Gender Mainstreaming in
the European Constitution-Making Process", Social Politics 12(3): 417
Pradhan, Rima das (2004). Practical challenges for gender mainstreaming in
governance projects: Observations of a consulting practitioner IDP Americas and IDP
Education Australia*
Shepard, Laura J. (2015). Gender Matters in Global Politics: A Feminist Introduction
to International Relations. New York: Routledge.
Strasbourg (1995). Gender Mainstreaming Conceptual framework, methodology and
presentation of good practices. Central of Europe.
True, Jacqui (2010). Mainstreaming Gender in Global Public Policy, International
Feminist Journal of Politics, 371
UNIFEM (1995). Report of the Expert Group Meeting on the Development of
Guidelines for the Integration of Gender Perspectives into United Nations Human
Rights Activities and Programmes. New York, United Nations Development Fund for
Women.
UNESCO (2015). A Guide for Gender Equality in Teacher Education Policy and
Practices (PDF). Paris, UNESCO. pp. 72–75. ISBN 978-92-3-100069-0.

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