Unit-3

(Perception & Social Thought)

 2.1.1 Concept of Perception

Perception (from the Latin,

percipio) is the
organization, identification,
and interpretation of
sensory information in
order to represent and
understand the
environment.
• Vision involves light
striking the retina of
the eye,

• Smell is mediated by
odor (scent) molecules,
• Hearing involves
pressure waves
2.1.2 Factors Influencing Perception
Factors in the perceiver
Factors in the situation
Attitudes
Motives Time
Interests Work setting
Experience Social setting
Expectations

Factors in the target

Novelty (Innovation)
Motion
Sounds
Size
Background
Proximity (nearness)
Similarity
Factors influencing perception can also be
expressed as:

• Expectation and Past Experience,

• Motivation,
• Reward and Punishment,
• Emotion,
• Ecology,
• Mental status of the person.
1.1.3 Perceptual organization
 Perception is defined as a primary mental
ability in which we organize our sensations,
meaningfully interpret them, and thereby
form a mental representation of our world.

The organization of sensory data is the

beginning of the perceptual process.

The process by which we structure the input

and create perceptual coherence (unity) is
called perceptual organization.
Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization
include:
The Law of Proximity: Stimulus elements
that are closed together tend to be perceived
as a group

The Law of Similarity: Similar stimuli tend to

be grouped, this tendency can even dominate
grouping due to proximity

The Law of Closure: Stimuli tend to be

grouped into complete figures

The Law of Good Continuation: Stimuli

tend to be grouped as to minimize change or
discontinuity

The Law of Symmetry: Regions bound by

symmetrical boarders tend to be perceived as
coherent figures

The Law of Simplicity: Ambiguous stimuli

tend to be resolved in favor of the simplest
Features of Perceptual Organization

• Form Perception
• Depth or distance perception
• Motion Perception
• Perceptual Constancy (Reliability)
1.1.4 Constancies and
Perceptual Illusions
 A perceptual illusion is a
distorting
(misrepresentation) of the
senses distorting reality,
revealing (see through)
how the brain normally
organizes and interprets
sensory stimulation.
They may occur with more
of the human senses than
vision. A high percentage
of people experience
optical illusions.
 The dictionary definition of a perceptual
illusion is, "the perception of something
objectively existing in such a way as to cause
misinterpretation of its actual nature."
 Types of Illusion
• Sensory illusion:
We have sensory receptors in our brain that
detect light, sound, temperature, etc., and most
of these receptors are on the surface of our
bodies (i.e. eyes, ears, mouth, etc.).
• Illusion of Shape or Area (Literal Illusion)
A literal illusion is an image created by smaller
images that are in no way related to the larger,
overall image created. This is the simplest type
of optical illusion which is why it is often the
least studied in psychology.
• Physiological Illusion (Illusion due to
physical process)

A physiological illusion can occur after

prolonged visual stimulation. An afterimage
(ghost image), for example, is a physiological
illusion.
• Cognitive Illusion
A cognitive illusion can be defined as the
viewer's knowledge and assumptions about the
world, or unconscious inferences(Implication).
There are three categories of cognitive illusions:
ambiguous illusions, distorting illusions, and
paradox (Puzzle), or fiction(literature) illusions.
Perceptual Constancies
• Perceptual constancies are the ability of our brain
to see the colour, location, size and shape of
objects despite changes in their distance,
orientation or lighting.
• In other words, our brain is able to “correct” for
these changes so that we can see objects as they
really are, not just how they appear to us.
• This is important because it allows us to
accurately perceive our surroundings and interact
with them effectively.
Different types of perceptual constancies
1. Size constancy:
• Size constancy is the ability to see an object as staying
the same size, even when it is moved to a different
location.
• This is important because if we didn’t have this
ability, then everything would look different
depending on where we were standing.
• For example, if you held up a pencil in front of your
face, it would look small, but if you held it up in front
of a wall, it would look large. However, with size
constancy, the pencil will always look the same size,
no matter where you are standing.
2. Shape constancy:
Shape constancy is the ability to see an object as staying the
same shape, even when it is moved to a different location.
This is important because if we didn’t have this ability, then
everything would look different depending on where we were
standing.
For example, if you looked at a circle and then looked away,
and then back at the circle again, it would look like it had
changed shape. However, with shape constancy, the circle will
always look like a circle, no matter where you are standing.
3. Colour Constancy:
• One type of perceptual constancy is colour constancy. This
occurs when we are able to see colours in different objects,
even if the light reflecting off these objects is different.
• For example, if you are outside on a sunny day and look at
a green leaf, the leaf will also look green even if you move
inside and the light is different. This is because our brain
understands that the colour of an object is not dependent on
the type of light that is shining on it.
4. Texture Constancy:
• Another type of perceptual constancy is texture
constancy. This occurs when we are able to see
textures in different objects, even if the object is
rotated or moved.
• For example, if you are looking at a piece of
fabric, you will be able to see the texture of the
fabric even if it is rotated. This is because our
brain understands that textures are not dependent
on the orientation of the object.
2.2 Person Perception
2.2.1 Concept of Person Perception

The term person perception refers to the

different mental processes that we use to form
impressions of other people.

This includes not just how we form these

impressions, but the different conclusions we
make about other people based upon our
impressions.
2.2.2 Kelly’s Attribution Theory

• Kelley’s covariation model (1967, 1971, 1972,

1973) is an attribution theory in which people make
fundamental implication to explain why other
people and ourselves behave in a certain way. It
is concerned with both social perception and self-
perception (Kelley, 1973).
• The theory suggests how we explain the causes of
behaviour and events.
• The term covariation simply means that a person
has information from multiple observations at
different times and situations and can perceive the
covariation of an observed effect and its causes.
More specifically, they take into account three kinds of
evidence:
1. Consensus:
The extent to which other people behave in the same
way in a similar situation. E.g., Alison smokes a
cigarette when she goes out for a meal with her
friend. If her friend smokes, her behavior is high in
consensus. If only Alison smokes, it is low.
2. Distinctiveness:
The extent to which the person behaves in the same
way in similar situations. If Alison only smokes when
she is out with friends, her behavior is high in
distinctiveness. If she smokes at any time or place, her
distinctiveness is low.

3. Consistency:
The extent to which the person behaves like this every
time the situation occurs. If Alison only smokes when
she is out with friends, consistency is high. If she
only smokes on one special occasion, consistency is
low.
2.2.3 Impression formation and biases in
attribution

• While people struggle/try to find reasons for

behaviors, they fall into many traps of biases
and errors.

• As Fritz Heider says, “our perceptions of

causality (interconnection) are often
distorted (biased) by our needs and certain
cognitive biases”.
The following are examples of attributional
biases.
Fundamental attribution error
• The fundamental attribution error describes
the tendency to overvalue (underestimate)
dispositional (Nature) or personality-based
explanations for behavior while under-valuing
situational explanations.

• The fundamental attribution error is most

visible when people explain and assume the
behavior of others.
Culture bias
• People in individualist cultures, generally
Anglo-America and Anglo-Saxon European
societies value individuals, personal goals, and
independence.
• People in collectivist cultures see individuals as
members of groups such as families, tribes,
work units, and nations, and tend to value
conformity and interdependence.
• This cultural trait is common in Asia, traditional
Native American societies, and Africa.
Actor/observer difference

• People tend to attribute other

people’s behaviors to their
dispositional (individual) factors while
attributing own actions to situational
factors.

• In the same situation, people’s

attribution can differ depending on
their role as actor or observer.
Dispositional attributions
Dispositional attribution is a tendency
(trend) to attribute people’s behaviors to
their dispositions (character); that is, to
their personality, character, and ability.
Self-serving bias
Self-serving bias is attributing dispositional
(characteristics) and internal factors for
success and external, uncontrollable
factors for failure.
Defensive attribution hypothesis

The defensive attribution hypothesis is a

social psychological term referring to a set
of beliefs held by an individual with the
function of defending themselves from
concern that they will be the cause or
victim of a mishap (accident).
2.3 Social Behaviour

Social behavior is behaviour directed

towards society, or taking place between
members of the same species.
Behaviors such as predation (Stealing or
destroying), which involves members of
different species are not social.

Social behavior is a term used to describe the

general conduct (behaviour) exhibited by
individuals within a society.
2.3.1 Persuasion
Persuasion (convincing) is the pressure to encourage
others to change their attitudes or behavior.
• It is a form of social influence used in daily social
life.
• The persuasion process goes on in the classroom,
in religious affairs, in the political field and in the
media.
• In business, persuasion is a process aimed at
changing a person's (or a group's) attitude or
behavior toward some event, idea, object, or other
person(s), by using written or spoken words to
convey information, feelings, or reasoning, or a
combination thereof (involving in).
The Greek philosopher Aristotle listed four
reasons why one should learn the art of
persuasion:

• Truth and justice are perfect; thus if a case

loses, it is the fault of the speaker.
• It is an excellent tool for teaching.
• A good rhetorician (speaker) needs to know
how to argue both sides to understand the
whole problem and all the options.
• There is no better way to defend one’s self.
Factors should be considered for Persuasion

• Credibility of the Communicators (trust)

• Physical Attraction
• Indirect Message
• Distraction (disturbance)
• Fitting the message to the audience
• The power of emotion
• Vocal power
2.3.2 Attitudes

An attitude is an expression of favor or disfavor

toward a person, place, thing, or event
(the attitude object).
• Prominent psychologist Gordon Allport once
described attitudes "the most distinctive (unique)
and indispensable (essential) concept in
contemporary(modern) social psychology.".
• Attitude can be formed from a person's past and
present. Attitude is also measurable and
changeable as well as influencing the person's
emotion and behavior
An attitude is "a relatively enduring (durable)
organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral
tendencies (trends) towards socially significant
objects, groups, events or symbols" (Hogg &
Vaughan 2005, p. 150)

Attitude is "readiness of the psyche to act or

react in a certain way" (Jung, [1921] 1971:par.
687).
2.3.3 Prejudices and techniques to reduce it

Prejudice is a baseless and usually negative attitude

toward members of a group.
• Common features of prejudice include negative
feelings, stereotyped (labeling) beliefs, and a tendency
to discriminate against members of the group.
• While specific definitions of prejudice given by social
scientists often differ, most agree that it involves
prejudgments (usually negative) about members of a
group.
• Prejudice can be based upon a number of factors
including sex, race, age, sexual orientations
(coordination), nationality, socioeconomic status and
religion.
Some of the most well-known types of
prejudice include:

• Racism
• Sexism
• Classicism
• Homophobia (hate of homosexual)
• Nationalism
• Religious prejudice
• Ageism
Strategies to reduce prejudice

1. Acknowledge that you have learned

prejudicial information about other people.
2. Confront (Oppose) without guilt or blame the
stereotypes (label) that you have learned.
3. Enter a supportive group or a supportive
relationship for making the needed changes.
4. Make a commitment to change and make a
commitment to a process of change.
5. Become aware of your own "self-talk" about
other groups of people.
6. Challenge the irrationality(illogicality) of the
prejudicial thoughts or "self-talk" statements.
7. Increase your exposure to or contact with those
who belong to the group(s) toward
which you have learned some prejudicial
stereotypes.
8. Thought-stopping is a valuable process for
changing one's "self-talk" about others.
9. Make use of the Premack Principle (more
probable behaviors will reinforce less probable
behaviors), a small rule that has power for change.
10. Learn how other groups see your own identity
group.
11. Feeling good about ourselves is important in being
able to accept people who are different from us.
12. Accepting indecision is an important learning
style.
13. Developing empathy (understanding) skills is an
effective way of increasing our acceptance of
others.
14. Develop listening skills so that we can really hear
other people.
15. Develop an appreciation for the complexities
(difficulties) of the universe.
16. Developing our own ability to experience caring
about other people
17. Learning about other groups is an important way
to develop understanding.
18. Valuing diversity in human appearance and in
nature is important.
19. Seeking self-understanding increases the ability
to accept oneself and others.
20. Responding to prejudicial jokes is critical if we are
to stand for something and identify ourselves.
21. Responding to negative terms about groups of
people helps us to know what we
stand for and helps others to know us as well.
22. Research your investments so that you are only
investing in firms (company) with strong policies
of affirmative (positive) action and respect for
human rights.
Prosocial Behaviour
• Prosocial behavior refers to voluntary actions intended to
benefit or help others. These actions are motivated by
empathy, compassion, moral values, or a sense of duty.
Prosocial behavior includes:
• Helping: Assisting others in need, whether by providing
physical aid, offering advice, or giving emotional support.
• Sharing: Distributing resources, time, or information with
others without expecting anything in return.
• Cooperating: Working collaboratively with others to
achieve a common goal.
• Comforting: Providing support to someone who is
distressed or in need of emotional assurance.
• Volunteering: Giving time and effort to help others, often
through organized community service or charity work.
• Prosocial behavior is essential for building and
maintaining social bonds and contributes to the
well-being and functioning of societies.
• It is influenced by various factors, including:
➢ Empathy: The ability to understand and share the
feelings of others.
➢ Moral reasoning: The process of determining
what is right or wrong in a given situation.
➢ Social norms: Expectations within a society or
group about appropriate behavior.
➢ Personal values: Individual principles and beliefs
that guide behavior.
Benefits of Prosocial Behaviour
• Individual Benefits
➢Improved Well-being and Happiness:
➢Increased Social Connections:
➢Enhanced Self-Esteem and Confidence:
➢Better Mental Health:
➢Physical Health Benefits:
• Societal Benefits
➢ Strengthened Communities:
➢ Reduced Aggression and Conflict
➢ Increased Cooperation and Trust:
➢ Economic Benefits:
➢ Promotion of Selfless Norms
2.4 Social influences
Social influence refers to the ways in which individuals'
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are affected by the real
or imagined presence of others. It encompasses a wide
range of phenomena where the attitudes, beliefs, and
actions of people are shaped by social interactions and the
social environment.

Social influence takes many forms and can be

seen in conformity (Agreement), socialization,
peer, obedience, leadership, persuasion,
sales and marketing.
2.4.1 Conformity
• The process by which individuals adjust their behavior,
attitudes, or beliefs to align with those of a group or social
norms. This can be due to a desire to fit in or be accepted
(normative influence) or because they believe the group is
better informed (informational influence).
• Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in
behavior, belief or thinking to align (arrange) with those of
others or to align with normative (norm/criteria) standards.
• It is the most common and pervasive (universal)form of
social influence.
2.4.2 Compliance
The act of agreeing to a request or following a directive from
another person, often in response to a social cue or pressure.
Compliance can occur even if the individual privately disagrees
with the request.
Compliance refers to a response specifically,
a submission made in reaction to a request.
• The request may be explicit/clear (i.e., foot-in-the-door technique) or
implicit/hidden (i.e. advertising).
• The target may or may not recognize that he or she is being urged
(requested) to act in a particular way. (obedience)
2.4.3 Obedience (Milgram's experiment)
Milgram started his experiments in 1961. In his 1974 book
Obedience to Authority, Milgram posed the question, "Could
it be that Eichmann and his million accomplices (helping
somebody to commit crime) in the Holocaust (Destruction of
human life) were just following orders? Could we call them
all accomplices?"
• Milgram developed an intimidating (Threatening) shock
generator, with shock levels starting at 30 volts and
increasing in 15-volt increments all the way up to 450
volts.
• The many switches were labeled with terms including
"slight shock," "moderate shock" and "danger: severe
shock." The final two switches were labeled simply with
an threatening "XXX."
Most participants asked the experimenter
whether they should continue. The
experimenter issued a series of commands to
prod (push) the participant along:

• "Please continue.“
• "The experiment requires that you continue."
• "It is absolutely essential that you continue."
• "You have no other choice, you must go on."
Discussion of Milgram’s Experiments

• The physical presence of an authority figure

dramatically increased compliance (obedience).
• The fact that the study was sponsored by Yale (a
trusted and authoritative academic institution) led
many participants to believe that the experiment
must be safe.
• The selection of teacher and learner status seemed
random.
• Participants assumed that the experimenter was a
competent expert.
• The shocks were said to be painful, not dangerous.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4b7YFtiE5EA
Thank you