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© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 2
 Chapter 1: Measurement

Physical quantities are measurable properties with a magnitude and a unit.

Base quantities are fundamental physical quantities defined and measured independently of other
quantities.
Derived quantities are physical quantities calculated from base quantities using mathematical
operations.
Scalar quantities are physical quantities that have only magnitude.
Vector quantities are physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction.
Systematic errors are measurement errors that consistently cause measured values to deviate from
their true value by a fixed magnitude and in one direction.
Zero error is a type of systematic error that occurs when a measuring instrument does not start from
exactly zero.
Parallax error is a type of systematic error that occurs due to incorrect eye positioning when reading
the measuring scale.
Random errors are measurement errors where the measured values differ from the mean value with
varying magnitudes and directions.
Precision refers to the degree of closeness between repeated measurements of the same quantity
under consistent conditions.
Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness between a measured value and the true or accepted
value of the quantity being measured.
Uncertainty, 𝚫 refers to the range of possible values associated with a measured quantity due to
limitations in the measurement process or instrument precision.

𝐴𝛼 𝐵𝛽
𝐼𝑓 𝑌 = ,
𝐶𝛾
Δ𝑌 Δ𝐴 ΔB ΔC
=𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾
𝑌 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶

Homogeneity of physical equations refers to the principle that a valid physical equation must be
dimensionally consistent, meaning all terms must have the same units or dimensions.
Dimensionless constants are constants with no units.

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 Chapter 2: Kinematics

Distance, 𝒅 is the total length covered by a moving object regardless of its direction of motion.
Displacement, 𝒔 is the distance measured in a straight line from a fixed reference point.

1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2

Speed, |𝒗| is the rate of change of distance with respect to time.

|v| = |𝑢| + 𝑎𝑡

Velocity, 𝒗 is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time.

𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠
2

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Acceleration, 𝒂 is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

∆𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑢
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡

Uniform acceleration is a constant rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

Free fall is the motion of an object in a gravitational field where the only force acting on the object is
the gravitational force.
Terminal velocity is the velocity at which a falling object experiences zero acceleration and travels at
a constant speed. It occurs when the air resistance acting against the object equals its weight.
Rectilinear motion is the one-dimensional motion of an object along a straight line, where the path of
the object does not change direction.

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 Chapter 3: Dynamics

Newton’s first law of motion states that a body will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line unless an external resultant force acts on it.
Inertia of an object refers to the resistance of the object to change its state of rest or motion, due to
its mass.
Newton’s second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of a body with respect
to time is directly proportional to the net force acting on it, and the change occurs in the same
direction of the force.

𝑑𝑝 𝑑(𝑚𝑣)
∑𝐹 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑚
∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (𝑖𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) ∑𝐹 = 𝑣 (𝑖𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Newton’s third law of motion states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −𝐹𝐵𝐴

Linear momentum is the product of the mass of an object moving in a straight line and its velocity

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

Impulse, 𝑱 is the product of the average force, 𝐹 and duration of impact, Δ𝑡. It represents the change
in momentum, Δ𝑝 of the object as a result of this force.

𝐽 = 𝐹Δ𝑡 = Δ𝑝

Principle of conservation of momentum states in a closed system, the total initial momentum of all
objects before interaction is equal to the total final momentum after collision provided no resultant
external force acts on the system.

∑ 𝑝𝑖 = ∑ 𝑝𝑓

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2

(Perfectly) elastic collision is a type of collision in which both the total momentum and kinetic
energy of the system are conserved after the collision.

∑ 𝐾𝐸𝑖 = ∑ 𝐾𝐸𝑓

1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
2 2 2 2
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Inelastic collision is a type of collision in which the total momentum is conserved, but the total kinetic
energy of the system is not conserved after the collision.
Perfectly inelastic collision is a type of collision where two objects stick together after the collision,
resulting in the maximum possible loss of kinetic energy for the system.

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Field of force is a region in space where a force can be experienced by objects with certain
properties such as mass, charge, magnetism.
Stability of an object refers to its ability object to return to its equilibrium position after being
displaced.
Terminal velocity is the constant maximum velocity reached by an object falling through a fluid when
the downward gravitational force acting on the object is balanced by the upward drag force due to the
fluid.
Static equilibrium is a state in which an object is at rest and the resultant force and resultant torque
acting on it is zero.
Translational equilibrium is a state in which an object is moving with constant velocity in a straight
line and the resultant force acting on it is zero.
Rotational equilibrium is a state in which an object does not rotate or is rotating with constant
angular velocity and the resultant torque acting on it is zero.

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 Chapter 4: Forces

Force is the rate of change of momentum of an object with respect to time.

Gravitational force, 𝑭𝑮 is the pull exerted by Earth’s gravity on any object.
Electrostatic force, 𝑭𝑬 is the attractive or repulsive force between electric charges.
Magnetic force, 𝑭𝑴 is the attractive or repulsive force between magnets.
Friction, 𝒇 is the force that opposes or tends to oppose motion between surfaces in contact.
Viscous Force (drag force), 𝒇𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈 is the resistive force due to the fluid’s viscosity exerted by a fluid
on an object moving through it.
Air resistance is the frictional force exerted by air that opposes the motion of moving objects.
Normal contact force, 𝑵 is the push exerted by a surface on an object pressing on it. This push is
always perpendicular to the surface.
Tension, 𝑻 is the pull exerted by a stretched spring, string, or rope on an object attached to it.
Mass, 𝒎 is a measure of the amount of matter in a body.
Weight 𝑾 is the gravitational force acting on an object that has mass.

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

Apparent weight is the perceived weight of an object that is influenced by the acceleration of the
system that the object is placed in.
Component forces are individual forces that combine to produce a resultant force in a specific
direction. These components are projections of a force vector along mutually perpendicular axes,
typically represented as horizontal (x-axis) and vertical (y-axis) components in two-dimensional
space.

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜃

Hooke’s law states that the extension or compression of a spring, 𝑥 is directly proportional to the
force exerted by the spring, 𝐹 provided the elastic limit is not exceeded.

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

Spring constant is a measure of a spring’s stiffness.

1 1 −1
𝑘𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = ( + )
𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑘// = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2

Centre of gravity of an object is an imaginary point where the entire weight of the object seems to
act.
Moment of a force, 𝑴 about a pivot, is the product of the force 𝑭 and the perpendicular distance 𝒅⊥
from the pivot to the line of action of the force.

𝑀 = 𝐹𝑑⊥

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Torque of a couple, 𝝉 is the rotational effect produced by a pair of forces that are equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction, whose lines of action do not intersect.

𝜏 = 𝐹𝑑⊥

Principle of moments states that that when a body is in equilibrium, the sum of total clockwise
moments, 𝐶𝑊 about a pivot is equal to the sum of total anticlockwise moments, 𝐴𝐶𝑊 about the same
pivot.

Taking moments about X,

𝐶𝑊 = 𝐴𝐶𝑊
𝐹1 × 𝑑1,⊥ = 𝐹2 × 𝑑2,⊥

Stability of an object is a measure of its ability to return to its original position after it has been
displaced from its initial position.
Density, 𝝆 is the mass per unit volume.

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

Pressure, 𝑷 is the force acting per unit area.

𝐹
𝑃 =
𝐴

Hydrostatic pressure, 𝑷 is the pressure exerted by a fluid at rest due to the force of gravity.

𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝑔

Upthrust (buoyant force), 𝑼 is the upward force exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas) on an object that is
wholly or partially submerged, due to the pressure difference, Δ𝑃 between the bottom and top
surfaces of the object.

𝑈 = Δ𝑃 × 𝐴 = (𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡 − 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑝 ) × 𝐴

Archimedes’ principle states that an object wholly or partially submerged in a fluid experiences an
upward buoyant force (upthrust), 𝑈 that is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid, 𝑉𝜌𝑔.

𝑈 = 𝑉𝜌𝑔

Principle of floatation states that when an object floats in a fluid, the upthrust acting on the object
must be equal to its weight.

𝑈=𝑊

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 Chapter 5: Work, Energy and Power

Work done, 𝑾 by a constant force on an object is the product of the force and the displacement in
the direction of the force.

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠
(𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠) 𝑊 = 𝑝∆𝑉

Energy is the ability to do work.

Principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only
be transferred from form store to another. The total energy of an isolated system is constant.

𝐾𝐸𝑖 + 𝐺𝑃𝐸𝑖 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 + 𝐺𝑃𝐸𝑓 + 𝑊𝐷𝑓

Kinetic energy, 𝑲𝑬 is the energy an object possesses due to its motion.

1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

Gravitational potential energy (near earth’s surface), 𝑮𝑷𝑬 is the energy an object possesses due
to its position in a gravitational field. It is the work done to raise the object to a height, ℎ from a
reference level.

𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

Electric potential energy is the energy a charged object possesses due to its position within an
electric field.
Elastic potential energy, 𝑬𝑷𝑬 is the energy stored in an elastic object when it is stretched or
compressed from its equilibrium position.

1 2
𝐸𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥
2

Power, 𝑷 is the work done per unit time.

𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣

Efficiency, 𝜼 is the ratio of useful output energy (or power) to the total input energy (or power).

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 = × 100%
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

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 Chapter 6: Motion in a Circle

Angular displacement, 𝜽 is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc.

𝑠
𝜃=
𝑟

Angular velocity, 𝝎 is the rate of change of angular displacement with respect to time.

𝑑𝜃
𝜔=
𝑑𝑡
2𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇

Period, 𝑻 of an object in circular motion is the time taken for the object to complete one full revolution.
Frequency, 𝒇 of an object in circular motion is the number of complete revolutions made by the object
per unit time.
Linear speed, 𝒗 in uniform circular motion is the constant speed at which an object moves along the
circumference of a circle.

𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔

Centripetal acceleration, 𝒂𝒄 is the acceleration experienced by an object in uniform circular motion,

directed towards the centre of the circle or axis of rotation.

𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟𝜔2
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑣𝜔

Centripetal force, ∑ 𝐹𝑐 is the net force experienced by an object in uniform circular motion, directed
towards the centre of the circle or axis of rotation.

𝑚𝑣 2
∑ 𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟

∑ 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2

Centrifugal force is an apparent force that arises due to inertia and pushes objects outward in a
rotating reference frame.
Helical motion of an object is the combination of its rotational motion around a central axis and linear
motion along the axis, resulting in a spiral path.

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 Chapter 7: Gravitational Field

Newton’s law of gravitation states that every particle in the universe attracts every other particle
with a force, 𝐹𝐺 that is directly proportional to the product of their masses, 𝑀𝑚 and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them, 𝑟 2 .

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹𝐺 =
𝑟2
𝑑𝑈
𝐹𝐺 = −
𝑑𝑟

Gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational attraction.
Gravitational field strength, 𝒈 is defined as the gravitational force, 𝐹𝐺 per unit mass acting on a
mass, 𝑚 placed at that point.

𝐹𝐺 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑔= =
𝑚 𝑟2
𝑑𝜙
𝑔= −
𝑑𝑟

Gravitational potential energy, 𝑼 of a point mass in a gravitational field is the work done by an
external force to bring a point mass from infinity to that point, without a change in kinetic energy.

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑈= −
𝑟
Δ𝑈 = 𝑚 Δ𝜙

Gravitational potential, 𝝓 at a point in a gravitational field is the work done per unit mass by an
external force to bring the mass from infinity to that point, without a change in kinetic energy.

𝐺𝑀
𝜙= −
𝑟

Geostationary orbit is an orbit around Earth where an object has an orbital period equal to the
Earth’s rotational period (24 hours) and orbits in the plane of the Earth’s equator.
Escape velocity, 𝒗𝒆 is the minimum speed an object must be projected from Earth’s surface in order
to break free from Earth’s gravitational field.

2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑒 = √ = √2𝑔𝑟
𝑟

Equipotential lines (or surfaces) are lines (or concentric spheres) in a gravitational field with equal
gravitational potential.
Kepler's third law states that the square of a planet's orbital period, 𝑇 2 is proportional to the cube of
the semi-major axis of its orbit, 𝑟 3 .

𝑇 2 ∝ 𝑟3

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 Chapter 8: Temperature and Ideal Gases

Kelvin, 𝑲 is a unit S.I. for temperature. It is measured on an absolute scale starting at absolute zero
(0 K), theoretically representing a state where particles have minimal motion.

𝑇/𝐾 = 𝜃/℃ + 273.15

Thermal equilibrium describes a state in which two or more objects/regions have the same
temperature and there is no net transfer of energy between them.
Ideal gas is a hypothetical gas that obeys the ideal gas law. Ideal gas particles have no
intermolecular forces of attraction, occupy no volume, and collide perfect elastically with each other.

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇 𝑛 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁
1 𝑁𝑚 1 𝑅
𝑝= < 𝑐2 > = 𝜌 < 𝑐2 > 𝑘=
3 𝑉 3 𝑁𝐴

3𝑅𝑇
𝑐𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √< 𝑐 2 > = √
𝑁𝐴 𝑚

Assumptions of ideal gas are simplifications made to model the behaviour of gases, enabling the
derivation of the ideal gas law and providing a useful approximation for gases under a wide range of
conditions.

1. Gas particles are in constant random motion

2. Volume of particle is negligible compared to volume of gas
3. Intermolecular forces are negligible except during collisions
4. Intermolecular collisions are perfectly elastic
5. Duration of a collision is negligible compared to the time spent travelling between collisions

Mean translational KE of an ideal gas molecule, 𝐾𝐸 is the average kinetic energy due to the
random motion of the molecules in the gas.

1 3
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚 < 𝑐 2 > = 𝑘𝑇
2 2

Boyles’ law states that the pressure of a given amount of gas, 𝑝 is inversely proportional to its
volume, 𝑉 at constant temperature.

1
𝑝∝
𝑉

Charles’ law states that the volume of a given amount of gas, 𝑉 is directly proportional to its
temperature, 𝑇 at constant pressure

𝑉∝𝑇

Gay-Lussac’s law states that the pressure of a given amount of gas, 𝑃 is directly proportional to its
temperature, 𝑇 at constant volume

𝑝∝𝑇

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 Chapter 9: First Law of Thermodynamics

Internal energy, 𝑼 is the sum of the total microscopic kinetic energy associated with the random
motion of the molecules and the total microscopic potential energy due to intermolecular forces
between the molecules in the system.

1
𝑈 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝐾𝐸 + ∑ 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝐸 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 |𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝐸| ∝
𝑟

Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with
a third system, then the two systems will be in thermal equilibrium.
First law of thermodynamics states that the increase in internal energy of a system, Δ𝑈 is equal to
the sum of the heat supplied to the system, 𝑄𝑖𝑛 and the work done on the system, 𝑊𝑜𝑛 .

∆𝑈 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊𝑜𝑛
3 3
∆𝑈 = 𝑁𝑘∆𝑇 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠)
2 2

Conduction is the process of energy transfer where energy is transferred through the passing on of
vibrational motion from one particle to another.
Convection is a process of energy transfer by means of convection currents of a fluid (liquid or gas),
due to a difference in density.
Radiation is the process of energy transfer by electromagnetic waves. It does not require a medium.
Heat capacity, 𝑪 of an object is the change in its internal energy per unit change in its temperature.

𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝜃

Specific heat capacity, 𝒄 of a material is the change of its internal energy per unit mass for each unit
change in its temperature.

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃

Latent heat of fusion, 𝑳𝒇 is the amount of energy transferred to change a substance between the
solid and liquid states, at constant temperature.
Specific latent heat of fusion, 𝒍𝒇 is the amount of energy transferred per unit mass of a substance to
change between the solid and liquid states, at constant temperature.

𝐿𝑓 = 𝑙𝑓 𝑚

Latent heat of vaporisation, 𝑳𝒗 is the amount of energy transferred to change a substance between
the liquid and gaseous states, at constant temperature.
Specific latent heat of vaporisation, 𝒍𝒗 is the amount of energy transferred per unit mass of a
substance to change it between the liquid and gaseous states, at constant temperature.

𝐿𝑣 = 𝑙𝑣 𝑚

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 13

 Chapter 10: Oscillations

Simple harmonic motion is a periodic motion of an object in which the acceleration, 𝑎 of the object is
directly proportional to its displacement, 𝑥 from the equilibrium position, and is always opposite in
direction to the displacement.
Displacement, 𝒙 is the shortest distance of the oscillating object from its equilibrium position at any
instant.

𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡

𝑥 𝑥0 - 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

𝑣 𝑣0 = 𝜔𝑥𝑜 𝑣 = ±𝜔√𝑥𝑜2 − 𝑥 2 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑥0 cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

𝑎 𝑎0 = −𝜔2 𝑥0 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥0 sin(ωt + ϕ) = −𝜔2 𝑥

Velocity, 𝒗 in a periodic motion is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time that is
directed tangentially to the path of motion.

𝑣0 = ±𝜔𝑥𝑜

Amplitude, 𝑨 is the maximum displacement, 𝑥0 of the oscillating object from its equilibrium position.
Period, 𝑻 of a periodic motion is the time taken for one complete cycle of oscillation.

1
𝑇=
𝑓

𝑚 𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√
𝑘 𝑔

Frequency, 𝒇 of a periodic motion is the number of complete oscillations that occur per unit time.

1
𝑓=
𝑇

𝑑𝜃
Angular frequency, 𝝎 of a periodic motion is the rate of change of angular displacement, with
𝑑𝑡
respect to time.

2𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇

Phase difference, 𝚫𝝓 is the difference in the positions of two oscillating bodies in their cycles
Natural frequency of a system is the frequency at which the system will oscillate freely without
external influences.
Driving frequency is the frequency of an external periodic force applied to a system to sustain or
influence its oscillation.
Resonance is a phenomenon which occurs for a system when the driving frequency of an external
force on the system matches the natural frequency of the system, resulting in a significant increase in
the amplitude of oscillation.

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 14

Free oscillation occurs when a system oscillates naturally without the influence of any external
periodic force after being displaced from its equilibrium position.
Forced oscillation occurs when a system is made to oscillate by an external periodic force, typically
at the driving frequency of that force.
Damping refers to the process by which energy is removed from the oscillating system and the
amplitude of oscillations decreases over time.
Light damping occurs when the resistive forces are small, causing the system to oscillate with
gradually decreasing amplitude over time.
Heavy damping occurs when the resistive forces are large enough to prevent oscillations, causing
the system to slowly return to equilibrium over a prolonged period without oscillating.
Critical damping is a unique condition which occurs when the resistive forces are precisely sufficient
to bring the system back to equilibrium in the shortest possible time without oscillating.

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 15

 Chapter 11: Wave Motion

Wave is a type of oscillation that propagates through space, transferring energy with it but not matter.
Transverse waves are waves in which the direction of oscillations of wave particles is perpendicular
to the direction of wave travel.
Longitudinal waves are waves in which the direction of oscillations is parallel to the direction of wave
travel.
Compressions are regions in a longitudinal wave where the particles of the medium are close
together, resulting in higher pressure.
Rarefactions are regions in a longitudinal wave where the particles of the medium are further apart,
resulting in lower pressure.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves made up of oscillating electric and magnetic fields,
which travel at 3.0 × 108 𝑚 𝑠 −1 in a vacuum, without the need for a medium.
Displacement, 𝒙 is the shortest distance moved by a particle of a wave from its equilibrium position.
Period, 𝑻 of a wave is the time taken by each point on the wave to complete one oscillation.

1
𝑇=
𝑓

Amplitude, 𝑨𝟎 of a wave is its maximum displacement from its equilibrium position.

Frequency, 𝒇 of a wave is the number of oscillations each point completes per second.

1
𝑓=
𝑇

Phase difference, 𝚫𝝓 between two particles or two waves is an indication of how much one wave (or
particle) leads or lags behind the other.

2𝜋Δ𝑥
Δ𝜙 =
𝜆

Wavelength, 𝝀 is the distance between two successive points on a wave that are in phase.
Wave speed, 𝒗 is the distance travelled by a wave per unit time.

𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
𝜆
𝑣=
𝑇

Progressive waves are waves that transfer energy through medium or space without transporting
matter.
Stationary (standing) waves are waves formed by the interference of two waves with the same
frequency, amplitude, and speed traveling in opposite directions, resulting in fixed nodes and
antinodes.

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 16

Intensity, 𝑰 is the energy transferred per unit time per unit area, measured perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation.

𝑃 𝐸
𝐼= =
𝐴 𝑡𝐴
𝑃
(𝑖𝑛 2𝐷) 𝐼 =
2𝜋𝑟
𝑃
(𝑖𝑛 3𝐷) 𝐼 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2

Plane polarisation is a process in which the oscillations of the wave are restricted to a single
direction within a plane normal to the direction of propagation.
Malus’ law states that when plane-polarised light is incident on an analyser, the intensity, 𝐼 of the
transmitted light is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle, cos 2 𝜃 between the
transmission axes of the analyser and the polariser.

𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos 2 𝜃

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 17

 Chapter 12: Superposition

Principle of superposition states that when 2 or more waves of the same kind are travelling in the
same region simultaneously, the resultant displacement at any point is equal to the vector sum of the
displacement of the individual waves at that point.
Acoustic resonance is the amplification of sound when an external frequency matches a system's
natural frequency.

4𝐿 𝑣 𝑣(2𝑖 − 1)
(𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑠) 𝜆𝑖 = 𝑓𝑖 = =
2𝑖 − 1 𝜆𝑖 4𝐿

2𝐿 𝑣 𝑣𝑖
(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑠) 𝜆𝑖 = 𝑓𝑖 = =
𝑖 𝜆𝑖 2𝐿

𝑖 ∈ { 1, 2, 3, … }

Interference is the superposition of two or more coherent wave trains superpose to produce regions
of maxima and minima in space.
Constructive Interference occurs when two or more waves arrive in phase with each other.
Destructive Interference occurs when two or more waves arrive 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 out of phase with each other.
Coherent waves are waves that have a constant phase difference.
Monochromatic waves have only a single wavelength.
Path difference, 𝚫𝒙 is the difference in distance travelled by two waves from their respective sources
to a particular point in space.

(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) Δ𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆
1
(𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) Δ𝑥 = (𝑛 + ) 𝜆
2

Phase difference, 𝚫𝝓 is the difference in the phase angles of two waves at a given point in space,
indicating how far one wave is ahead or behind the other in its oscillation cycle.

(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) Δ𝜙 = 2𝜋𝑛
(𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) Δ𝜙 = 2𝜋𝑛 + 𝜋

Diffraction is a phenomenon where waves spread out when passing through a narrow slit (of width 𝑏)
or around an obstacle.

𝜆
(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 − 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑏
𝑎𝑥
(𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 − 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡) 𝜆 =
𝐷

Diffraction grating is an optical device consisting of an array of a large number of evenly spaced,
parallel slits of the same width that diffract light into its constituent wavelengths that produce a
spectrum.

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜃 ≤ 90°

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 18

Rayleigh criterion is a standard used to determine the limit of resolution for optical systems. It states
that the minimum resolvable detail between two sources occurs when the central of maximum of the
diffraction pattern of one source coincides with the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other.

𝜆
𝜃=
𝑏

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 19

 Chapter 13: Electric Fields

Electric field is a region in which an electric charge experiences an electric force.

Permittivity of a medium, 𝜺𝟎 is a measure of the medium’s ability to permit the formation of an
electric field within it.
Coulomb’s law states that the electric force between two point charges, 𝐹𝐸 is directly proportional to
the product of their charges, 𝑄1 𝑄2 and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them, 𝑟 2 .

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑑𝑈
𝐹𝐸 = −
𝑑𝑟

Electric field strength, 𝑬 at a point in an electric field is the electric force, 𝐹𝐸 per unit charge
experienced by a small positive test charge placed at that point.

𝐹𝐸 𝑄1
𝐸= =
𝑞 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑑𝑉
𝐸=−
𝑑𝑟
Δ𝑉
(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠) 𝐸 =
Δ𝑟

Electric potential energy, 𝑼 of a charge at a point in an electric field is the work done by an external
force in bringing the charge from infinity to that point, without a change in kinetic energy.

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝑈=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑈 = 𝑞𝑉

Electric potential, 𝑽 at a point is the work done per unit charge by an external force in bringing a
small positive test charge from infinity to that point, without a change in kinetic energy.

𝑄1
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Electron volt, 𝒆𝑽 is a unit of energy that is equal to the energy gained or lost by an electron when it is
accelerated through an electric potential difference of one volt.

1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.60 × 10−19 𝐽

Equipotential lines (or surfaces) are lines (or concentric spheres) in an electric field with equal
electric potential.

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 20

 Chapter 14: Current of Electricity

Electric current, 𝑰 is the rate of flow of electric charge with respect to time.

𝑑𝑄
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑞
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Electromotive force, 𝜺 (e.m.f.) of an electrical source is the energy converted by the source from
other forms of energy to electrical energy per unit charge delivered around a complete circuit.

𝑊
𝜀=
𝑄

Ampere, 𝑨 is the unit for electric current. It is defined as the electric current that flows through a point
in a conductor when one coulomb of charge passes through the point in one second.
Coulomb, 𝑪 is the unit for electric charge. It is defined as the amount of charge which passes through
a point in a conductor in one second when a constant current of one ampere flows through it.
Drift velocity, 𝒗 is the average velocity of charge carriers (such as electrons) attained in a conductive
material due to an externally applied electric field.
Volt, 𝑽 is the unit for electric potential difference, electric potential or e.m.f. It is defined as the
potential difference between two points in an electrical circuit when one joule of electrical energy is
converted to other forms of energy to move one coulomb of charge between those points.
Potential difference, 𝑽 (or potential drop) between two points in an electrical circuit is the electrical
energy converted to other forms of energy per unit charge passing from one point to the other.

𝑊
𝑉=
𝑄

Ohm’s law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor, 𝐼 is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it, 𝑉 provided temperature and other physical conditions remain constant.
Resistance, 𝑹 of a component is the ratio of the potential difference 𝑉 across it to the electrical
current 𝐼 flowing through it.

𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼

Internal resistance, 𝒓 of a power source is the resistance of the materials within the battery that
causes the charge circulating to dissipate some electrical energy from the power supply itself.

𝑉𝑇 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟

Resistivity, 𝝆 is an intrinsic property of a material that quantifies how strongly the given material
opposes the flow of electric current.

𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 21

Ohm 𝛀 is the unit of electrical resistance. A conductor has a resistance of one ohm when an electric
current of one ampere flows through it when the potential difference across the conductor is one volt.
Power, 𝑷 of an electrical component is the rate of change of electrical energy with respect to time to
other forms of energy.

𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 𝑃= 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑅

kilowatt-hour, 𝒌𝑾𝒉 is a unit of energy equal to the amount of work done by a power of one kilowatt
operating for one hour. It is commonly used to measure electrical energy consumption.

1 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 3.6 𝑀𝐽 = 3,600,000 𝐽 = 3.6 × 106 𝐽

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 22

 Chapter 15: D.C. Circuits

Effective resistance is the equivalent resistance of a network of resistors that produces the same
total current when a voltage is applied, as if the network were replaced by a single resistor.

𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
1 1 −1
𝑅// = ( + )
𝑅1 𝑅2

Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor is a type of thermistor whose resistance

decreases as the temperature increases.
Light dependent resistor (LDR) is a type of resistor whose resistance decreases as light intensity
increases.
Potential divider is a circuit consisting of two or more resistors connected in series across a voltage
source that is used to divide the input voltage, 𝑉𝑇 into smaller output voltages, 𝑉1 based on the ratio of
𝑅
the resistances, 1 .
𝑅1 +𝑅2

𝑅1
𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑇

Current divider rule is a circuit principle states that the current in any parallel branch of a circuit, 𝐼1 is
𝑅
proportional to the ratio of the opposite branch resistance to the total resistance, 2 , multiplied by
𝑅1 +𝑅2
the total current, 𝐼𝑇 .

𝑅2
𝐼1 = 𝐼
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑇

Node in an electrical circuit is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected together.
Kirchoff’s current law (KCL) states that the total current entering a junction, ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑛 is equal to the total
current leaving the junction, ∑ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 .

∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = ∑ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡

Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the sum of all potential differences around any closed loop
in a circuit is equal to zero.

∑𝑉 = 0

∑ 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∑ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠

Balanced potentials refer to a situation in an electrical circuit where the potential difference across
two points is equal, resulting in no current flow between the two points.

𝑙
𝑉𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 𝜀
𝐿

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 23

 Chapter 16: Electromagnetism

Magnetic field is a region in which a current-carrying conductor or a moving charge experiences a

magnetic force when placed within it.
Temporary magnets are magnets that retain their magnetism in the presence of an electric current or
a permanent magnetic field.
Permanent magnets do not require the presence of an electric current or a permanent magnetic field
to retain their magnetism.
Fleming’s left hand rule (FLHR) is used to determine the direction of the force acting on a current-
carrying conductor in a magnetic field.

𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑞𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝐵𝑞

Magnetic flux density, 𝑩 is the force acting per unit current per unit length on a current-carrying
conductor placed at right angles to the uniform magnetic field.

𝐹
𝐵=
𝐼𝐿
𝜇0 𝐼
(𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒) 𝐵 =
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
(𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙) 𝐵 =
2𝑟
(𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑) 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼

Ampère's law states that the magnetic field, 𝐵 created around a closed loop is directly proportional to
𝐹
the total electric current, 𝐼1 passing through the loop. As a result, the force per unit length, between
𝑙
two parallel wires is directly proportional to the product of the currents, 𝐼1 𝐼2 and inversely proportional
to the distance between them, 𝑟.

∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼1
𝐹 𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2
(𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 2 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠) =
𝑙 2𝜋𝑟

Tesla, 𝑻 is a unit for magnetic flux density. It is defined as the magnetic flux density of a uniform
magnetic field when a wire of length 1m, carrying a current of 1A, and experiences a force of 1N in a
direction perpendicular to both the field and current.
Permeability of a medium, 𝝁0 is a measure of the medium’s ability to support the formation of a
magnetic field within it when exposed to an external magnetic field.
Velocity selector is a device that uses perpendicular electric and magnetic fields to allow only
charged particles with a specific velocity, 𝑣 to pass through.

𝐸 𝑉
𝑣= =
𝐵 𝐵𝑑

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 24

 Chapter 17: Electromagnetic Induction

Magnetic flux, 𝝓 through a plane surface is the product of the flux density normal to the surface and
the area of the surface.

𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

Magnetic flux linkage, 𝚽 through a solenoid is the sum of the fluxes through the individual turns of
the coil in the solenoid.

Φ = 𝑁𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

Weber, 𝑾𝒃 is a unit for magnetic flux. It is defined as the magnetic flux through a 1𝑚2 surface when a
magnetic field with a flux density of 1T passes through it perpendicularly.
Electromagnetic induction is the process through which an induced e.m.f. is produced in a
conductor due to a changing magnetic field.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that any change in the magnetic flux linkage, ΔΦ
will cause an emf to be induced in a conductor and the magnitude of the induced emf, 𝜀 is directly
𝑑Φ
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage, .
𝑑𝑡

𝑑Φ ΔΦ
𝜀=− = −
𝑑𝑡 Δ𝑡
ΔΦ Δ𝑁𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃
|𝜀| = |− |=
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡

Lenz’s law states that the polarity or direction of an induced e.m.f., 𝜀 and hence the induced current,
𝐼 in a closed circuit, is always such that its magnetic effect opposes the motion or change in flux
producing it.
Fleming’s right hand rule (FRHR) is used to determine the direction of the induced current in a
conductor moving through a magnetic field.

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 25

 Chapter 18: Alternating Current

Rectification is the process of converting an alternating current into direct current which only flows in
one direction.
Root-mean-square value, of an alternating current, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 (or voltage, 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) is the equivalent value of a
steady direct current, 𝐼𝐷𝐶 (or voltage, 𝑉𝐷𝐶 ) that would produce the same average heat dissipation in a
given resistor over a complete cycle.

𝐼0 𝑉0
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2 √2

𝐼0 𝑉0
𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 2

𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼0 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉0

𝑊 𝑊
𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ 𝑉 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ 𝑉
𝑇 0 𝑇 0

Mean power, < 𝑷 > is the average amount of power delivered by the source to the load over a
complete cycle.

2
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
< 𝑃 > = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅=
𝑅
1
(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 − 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑) < 𝑃 > = 𝑃
2 0

Peak power, 𝑷𝟎 is the maximum instantaneous power delivered by the source to the load at any point
during a cycle.

𝑃0 = 𝐼0 𝑉0

Diode is a semiconductor device that allows electric current to flow in one direction only.
Alternating current (or voltage) is an electric current (or voltage) that periodically reverses its
direction many times a second at regular intervals.

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡

Eddy currents are induced loops of electrical current within conductors due to a changing magnetic
field in the conductor.
Transformer is a device that can change a high alternating voltage to a low alternating voltage, or
vice versa.

𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝐼𝑝
(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 ) = =
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝐼𝑠
(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙) 𝜂𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 26

 Chapter 19: Quantum Physics

Photon is a discrete packet or quantum of energy, 𝐸 of electromagnetic radiation with each packet
having energy ℎ𝑓, where h is the Planck constant, and 𝑓 is the frequency of radiation.

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

Threshold frequency, 𝒇𝟎 is the minimum frequency of an incident electromagnetic radiation required

for the emission of electrons from a metal surface.
Stopping potential, 𝑽𝒔 is the minimum negative potential difference between the collector and
emitter in a photoelectric experiment that is sufficient to stop the most energetic photoelectron from
reaching the collector.

1
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 = 𝑒𝑉𝑠
2

Saturation current is the maximum current that can be measured when all emitted photoelectrons
are collected by the collector.
Work function 𝚽 of a metal is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from
the metal surface.

Φ = ℎ𝑓0

Photoelectric effect is a phenomenon used to demonstrate the particle-like property of light. It refers
to the emission of photoelectrons from the surface of a clean, cold metal when electromagnetic
radiation with a frequency greater than the metal’s threshold frequency is incident on it

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − Φ

Wave-particle duality is the concept that all matter exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties.
de Broglie wavelength, 𝝀 is the wavelength associated with a particle which highlights the wave-
particle duality of matter.

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝

Emission line spectra consist of discrete coloured lines of definite frequencies (or wavelengths) on a
dark background. These lines correspond to specific frequencies (or wavelengths) of photons emitted
by gas atoms or molecules when electrons are de-excited and transition to a lower energy level.
Absorption line spectra consist of discrete dark lines of definite frequencies on a coloured
background. These lines correspond to specific frequencies (or wavelengths) of photons absorbed by
gas atoms or molecules when electrons are excited and transition to a higher energy level.

ℎ𝑓 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1

Minimum cut-off wavelength, 𝝀𝒎𝒊𝒏 is the wavelength of the X-ray photon with the most energy in the
continuous X-ray spectrum that is emitted when the incident high-speed electron loses all of its KE as
it approaches the target atoms.
Continuous X-ray is a spectrum of X-rays emitted due to the deceleration of high-speed electrons
when they approach target atoms, producing (braking) radiation with a continuous range of
wavelengths.

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 27

Characteristics X-ray spectrum is a discrete spectrum of X-rays emitted when high-speed electrons
knock out the inner shell electron of the target metal atoms, causing electrons from higher energy
levels to transition into the vacancy, releasing photons with fixed energies corresponding to the
differences between the energy levels.
Heisenberg position-momentum uncertainty principle is an inherent limitation in quantum physics
which states that it is impossible to accurately and precisely measure both the position and
momentum of a particle simultaneously. The more precisely one property is measured, the less
precise, and thus more uncertain, the other measurement becomes.

∆𝑝 ∆𝑥 ≳ ℎ

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 28

 Chapter 20: Nuclear Physics

Proton number (or atomic number) is the number of protons within the nucleus of an atom.
Nucleon number is the total number of neutrons and protons within the nucleus of an atom.

𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠

Isotopes are nuclides of the same element that have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
Mass defect, 𝚫𝒎 of a nucleus is the difference between the total mass of a nucleus and the sum of
the individual masses of its constituent protons and neutrons.

Δm = total mass of constituent protons & neutrons − mass of nucleus

Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence is the principle that mass can be converted into energy and
vice versa.

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

Rest mass, 𝒎 is the intrinsic mass of an object measured when it is at rest relative to an inertial
frame of reference.
1 12
Unified atomic mass, 𝒖 is equal to of the mass of one carbon-12 atom 6𝐶 .
12

Binding energy, 𝑩𝑬 is the energy required to completely separate a nucleus into its constituent
protons and neutrons.

𝐵𝐸 = Δ𝑚 × 𝑐 2

𝐵𝐸
𝐵𝐸 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 + 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠

Nuclear fission is a process in which a high nucleon number nucleus disintegrates into smaller and
more stable nuclei with higher binding energy per nucleon, releasing a large amount of energy mostly
as kinetic energy of the products.
Nuclear fusion is a process in which low nucleon number nuclei combine to form a larger, heavier,
and more stable nucleus with higher binding energy per nucleon, releasing a large amount of energy
mostly as kinetic energy of the products.
Radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses
its energy by emission of electromagnetic radiation and/or particle(s) and transforms into a more
stable nucleus.
Half-life, 𝒕𝟏 of a radioactive nuclide is the time taken for activity of the radioactive nuclide to fall to half
𝟐
its initial value.

𝑙𝑛2
𝑡1 =
2 𝜆

Spontaneous decay describes a nuclear decay process that occurs naturally without any external
influence. It cannot be sped up or slowed down by physical means such as pressure or temperature.
Random decay describes a nuclear decay process which happens unpredictably. It is impossible to
predict which nucleus or when any particular nucleus will disintegrate.

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 29

Background radiation refers to nuclear radiation present in an environment that originates from
natural and man-made sources, where no radioactive source has been deliberately introduced.
Activity, 𝑨 is a measure of the rate at which a radioactive substance decays and is defined as the
average number radioactive nuclei disintegrating per unit time.

𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁
𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

𝑑𝑁
Decay Law states that the rate of radioactive decay, − is directly proportional to the number of
𝑑𝑡
radioactive nuclei, 𝑁 present.

𝑑𝑁
− ∝𝑁
𝑑𝑡

Decay constant, 𝝀 represents the probability of a radioactive nucleus decaying per unit time.
Becquerel, 𝑩𝒒 is a unit of radioactivity. It is defined as one disintegration per second.
Ionising strength of an electromagnetic radiation or a particle refers to its ability to eject electrons
from atoms to form ions.
Ionisation radiation is radiation with high energies that can knock off electrons from atoms to form
ions.
Range of an electromagnetic radiation or a particle in a medium is the maximum distance travelled by
the radiation/particle through the medium before being absorbed, scattered, or losing all its energy.

© 2025 Simply Tuition. All Rights Reserved. 30

 Data

Data Applicable formulas

Speed of light in free space 𝑐 = 3.00 × 108 𝑚 𝑠 −1 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

ℎ𝑐
𝐸=
𝜆

Permeability of free space 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 107 𝐻𝑚−1 𝜇0 𝐼

𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
2𝑟
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼

Permittivity of free space 𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐹 𝑚−1 𝑄1 𝑄2

𝐹𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑄
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Elementary charge 𝑒 = 1.60 × 10−19 𝐶 𝑈 = 𝑒𝑉

𝐹 = 𝑒𝐸
𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑒

Planck’s constant ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽 𝑠 ℎ𝑐

𝐸=
𝜆
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝

Unified atomic mass constant 𝑢 = 1.66 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 -

Rest mass of electron 𝑚𝑒 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔 -

Rest mass of proton 𝑚𝑝 = 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 -

Molar gas constant 𝑅 = 8.31 𝐽 𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

3𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √< 𝑐 >2 = √
𝑀

Avogadro constant 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝑁 = 𝑛 × 𝑁𝐴

Boltzmann constant 𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽 𝐾 −1 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇

3
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇
2

Gravitational constant 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁 𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2 𝐺𝑀𝑚

𝐹𝐺 =
𝑟2

Acceleration of free fall 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚 𝑠 −1 𝐺𝑀

𝑔=
𝑟2

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