DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

ARC 103 Technical Drawing

ARC 122: Architectural Graphics and Lettering

Estate, BUD 104: Building Graphics, Lettering and Modelling I

Course Moderator: Talabi I. J.

Prepared by Talabi Ibukun Joseph

COLLEGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY

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Course Structure

Week Schedule Assignments Lecturer

Introduction to graphics description and use of drawing

equipment

• Understanding the importance of technical drawing

in architecture
1 Adenaike
• Overview of drawing equipment and their uses

• Introduction to drafting tools: T-squares, triangles,

scales, compasses, etc.

• Practice exercises with basic drawing tools

Introduction to and interpretation of architectural, civil,

structural, and electrical drawings

• Introduction to architectural, civil, structural, and

2 electrical drawings Adeyemo
• Understanding different types of architectural
drawings: plans, sections, elevations, details

• Interpretation exercises with real-world examples

Basic drafting techniques; lettering convention, line

drawing, standard scaling and proportions

• Lettering conventions and standards in architectural

drawings

3 • Line drawing techniques: understanding line weights, Osisami

types, and styles

• Standard scaling and proportions in architectural

drawings

• Practical exercises on basic drafting techniques

Representation on drawing basic descriptive geometry,

surface development, inclined cuts and true sections

• Understanding descriptive geometry in architectural

drawings
4 Omotosho
• Surface development techniques

• Inclined cuts and true sections

• Hands-on exercises on representing descriptive

geometry

Effect of Light and Shadow in Architectural Drawings

5 • Importance of light on shape and form in Amusan
architectural representation

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 • Shadow projection techniques

• Rendering techniques for shadow protection

• Practical exercises on rendering light and shadow

6 Projections and Tracing Techniques

• Introduction to simple projections in architectural

drawings
Talabi
• Various types of tracing and drawing papers

• Tracing techniques for architectural drawings

• Hands-on exercises on projections and tracing

Design Process and Space Analysis

• Overview of the design process in architecture

• Example of a small house project: from

7 conceptualization to execution Talabi

• Importance of various spaces in architectural design

• Linking of various spaces for functional and aesthetic

purposes

Development of elevations, Difference between

presentation drawings and working drawings

• Development of elevations from plans and sections

• Understanding the difference between presentation

8 drawings and working drawings Ariyibi

• Importance of clear communication in architectural

drawings

• Final project: creating presentation drawings and

working drawings for a small architectural project

CBT class Test

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Course Overview

This course, provides a comprehensive foundation in the principles and techniques of technical drawing
essential for aspiring architects. Through a series of structured modules, students will learn to
interpret, create, and communicate architectural designs effectively. From mastering drawing
equipment to understanding the nuances of light and shadow in architectural representation, this
course covers essential skills for architectural visualization.

What You Will Learn in This Course

• Proficiency in the use of drawing equipment and drafting tools.

• Interpretation of various types of architectural drawings.

• Application of basic drafting techniques, including lettering conventions and line drawing.

• Representation of descriptive geometry, surface development, and sections in architectural

drawings.

• Understanding the impact of light and shadow on architectural form and mastering rendering
techniques.

• Utilization of projections and tracing techniques for architectural drawings.

• Analysis of spatial relationships and the design process in architecture.

• Development of elevations and differentiation between presentation and working drawings.

Course Aim

The aim of this course is to equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge to excel in technical
drawing within the architectural field. By providing a structured learning environment, hands-on
practice, and real-world examples, this course aims to empower students to communicate their
architectural ideas effectively through drawings.

Course Requirements

This is a compulsory course for all students in the Architecture, Building Technology, Estate and
Quantity Surveying. In view of this, students are expected to participate in all course activities and have
a minimum of 75% attendance to be able to write the final examination.

Course Summary

The course commences with an exploration of the fundamental role of technical drawing in
architecture, allowing students to gain practical proficiency with basic drawing tools and conventions.
They will delve into various types of architectural drawings, honing their ability to interpret real-world
examples with precision and clarity. Also, students will master the art of visual communication through
lettering conventions, line drawing techniques, and scaling principles. Practical exercises will reinforce
their understanding of these drafting techniques, ensuring fluency in the language of architectural
representation.

A deeper dive into descriptive geometry concepts awaits, as students learn to skilfully represent
surfaces and sections in architectural drawings. They will explore the transformative effects of light and
shadow on form, refining their rendering techniques to bring architectural visions to life on paper. The
course also delves into the realm of projections and tracing techniques, offering students the
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opportunity to experiment with various drawing papers and refine their technical skills in capturing
architectural nuances.

In the culmination of the learning journey, students will engage in a captivating small house project,
where they will apply their newfound knowledge to analyse spatial relationships and undertake the
development of elevations from plans and sections. A crucial distinction will be made between
presentation and working drawings, as students embark on practical exercises and projects to solidify
their understanding. Fundamentally, this course not only equips students with the technical prowess
necessary for architectural practice but also fosters a deeper appreciation for the intricate art of
architectural representation and design.

Reading List

Parker M. A. and F. Pickup. Engineering Drawing with worked examples. Nelson Thomas, 2009

Mott L. C. Engineering Drawing and Construction. Oxford University Press 1980

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Introduction to Graphics Description and Use of Drawing Equipment

What Is Graphics Design?

Graphics description or design is a clear language used in the design process for communicating,
solving problems and accurately visualizing objects. It is an indispensable aspect of architecture, serving
as a universal language that enables architects to communicate their design ideas with precision and
clarity. In this lecture, we will explore the significance of technical drawing in architecture and provide
an overview of the essential drawing equipment and drafting tools used in the field.

Understanding the Importance of Technical Drawing in Architecture

The ability to read drawing is the most important requirement of all technical person in any profession.
As compared to verbal or written description, this method is brief and clearer. Having a good
understanding of it is of great value to everyone who is the found in field of design, industrial design,
architecture and estate management and valuation.

In general, this course is designed to impart the following skills:

1. Communication: serve as a primary means of communication among architects, engineers,

contractors, and clients. They convey essential information about the design, dimensions, and
specifications of architectural projects.

2. Visualization: allow architects to visualize their design concepts in a detailed and systematic
manner. They provide a tangible representation of architectural ideas, facilitating the
exploration and refinement of design solutions.

3. Documentation: play a crucial role in documenting the various stages of the design process,
from initial conceptualization to construction. They serve as a record of design decisions and
serve as a reference for future modifications or renovations.

Overview of Drawing Equipment and Their Uses

1. Drawing Board: These are made of well-seasoned softwood of about 25 mm thick used for
drawing, typically equipped with a parallel motion ruler or drafting machine to maintain
straight lines. The surface of a drawing board must be smooth and with a good working edge
for T-square. The standard size of board depends on the size of drawing sheet size required.

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 2. T-Square: A T-shaped ruler used in conjunction with the drawing board to draw horizontal
lines accurately.

3. Mini Drafter: It a combination of T-square, set-squares, scales and protractor is main function
of a mini drafter. It is used for drawing horizontal, vertical and inclined lines, parallel and
perpendicular lines and for measuring lines and angles.

4. Set Squares: A set square is triangle used in technical drawing for the purpose of producing a
straight edge, a particular angle or other particular plainer angle from the base line. The most
common piece of set square is a set of transparent pieces of plastic with the centre removed;
they come in two usual forms; one with 90⁰ - 45⁰ -45⁰ angles and the other is 30⁰ - 60⁰- 90⁰
angles combining the two triangles together the hypogynies together will also yield 15⁰ and 75⁰
angles.

These days, adjustable set square is used instead of 45⁰, 30⁰and 60⁰ set square; the body of the object is
cut into half and adjustment to any angle will produce any desired angle up to a maximum of 1⁰ to 180⁰
angles Scales: Scales are used to measure distances and proportions accurately on drawings. Common
scales include architect's scales, engineer's scales, and metric scales.

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 5.
6. Compasses: A compass is used circle of a particular radius and an arc at a special distance. It
contains the following; Compasses, Dividers and Inking pens.

7. Pencils and Erasers: Pencils of different lead grades (e.g., H, HB, B) are used for drawing lines
of varying thickness and darkness. The hard lead and grade of pencil are used to produce light
lines works on machine and architectural drawings; these are 9H 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H

Medium lead and grade of pencil are used for general use on technical sketching, lettering, freehand
work. B HB F H 2H 3H. The softer lead is smudge easily for sketching various technical sketching,
artworks and architectural drawing. E.g., 6B 5B 4B 3B 2B

These days, mechanical pencils are broadly used in place of wooden pencils. They don’t need to be
sharpened so it saves time. The number 0.5, 0.7mm of the pen indicates the thickness of the line
obtained with the lead and the size of the lead diameter.

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 8. Erasers: are used to correct mistakes and erase unwanted marks.

9. Drafting Paper: High-quality paper specifically designed for technical drawing, available in
various sizes and weights.

Introduction to Drafting Tools

1. T-Squares: T-squares are used in conjunction with the drawing board to draw horizontal lines.
The vertical edge of the T-square rests against the edge of the drawing board, ensuring
parallelism.

2. Triangles: Triangular rulers come in different angles (e.g., 30-60-90 and 45-45-90) and are
used for drawing inclined lines and angles with precision.

3. Scales: Scales are precision rulers marked with graduations representing different scales (e.g.,
1/4 inch = 1 foot). Scales are used in process of drawing an object proportional to a desired
size; it can be also use to produce both horizontal and vertical lines They are made of wood,
steel or plastic.

BIS recommends eight set-scales in plastic/cardboard with designations MI, M2 and so on as shown
below.

M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8

Scale on one edge 1:1 1:25 1:10 1:50 1:200 1:300 1:400 1:1000

Scale on other edge 1:2 1:5 1:20 1:100 1:500 1:600 1:800 1:2000

4. Compasses: Drawing compasses consist of two arms, one with a sharp point and the other
with a pencil or pen holder. They are used for drawing arcs, circles, and curves of varying radii.

Precautions Necessary to Preserve Various Instruments

The following are necessary precaution to preserve the maintenance of drawing instruments:

1. Pencil
Do not sharpen the pencil over the drawing or close to any of your equipment.
Always keep the lead sharp; sharpen and store your pencils properly after use.
Clean the lead with tissue paper.
2. T-square, triangles and French curves
Avoid using the T-square for any rough purposes.
Evade cutting paper along its working edge, since the plastics can easily be damaged

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 3. Ruler or Scale rule
A ruler or scales rule should not be pricked with any sharp object (like needle points of
either the divider or compass) when measurements are taken.
Avoid the use of a scale rule as a ruler.
4. Dividers and compasses
Do not oil the joints of the legs of the dividers.
Avoid the use of divider as substitute for thumbtacks in fastening the drawing paper on the
drawing board or table top.
5. Drawing paper
Papers must be kept in a rolled form or large envelope.
It should not be crumpled or wet or kept in a moist or cold place.
6. Eraser or masking tape
It Should be kept together with other supplies to avoid losing it.
7. Drawing board or drawing tape
It must always be clean on or before using.
Avoid leaving any kind of marks on your board to retain its smoothness.

Practice Exercises with Basic Drawing Tools: Preparation of Tools

Fastening Paper to Drafting Board

1. Place the paper close to the table’s left edge.

2. Move the paper until its lower edge place about the top edge of T-square.

3. Align the top edge of the paper with T-square blade.

4. Attach the paper’s corners with tape.

5. Move T-square down to smooth the paper.

6. Attach the remaining paper’s corners with tape.

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Preparing the Compass

1. Sharpen the lead with a sandpaper.

2. Adjust the needle and the lead so that the tip of the needle extends slightly more than the lead.

Using the Compass

1. Locate the centre of the circle by two intersecting lines.

2. Adjust the distance between needle and lead to a distance equal to radius of the circle.

3. Set the needle point at centre.

4. Start circle. Apply enough pressure to the needle, holding compass handle between thumb and index
fingers.

5. Complete circle. Revolve handle clockwise.

Using a Circle Template

1. Draw two perpendicular lines that pass-through centre of a circle to be drawn.

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2. Place the template till all marking coincides with centre lines.

3. Tracing the circle. (Hold the pencil normal to the paper.)

Draw a Horizontal Line

1. Press the T-square head against the left edge of the table.

2. Smooth the blade to the right.

3. Lean the pencil at an angle about 60o with the paper in the direction of the line and slightly “toed in”.

4. Draw the line from left to right while rotating the pencil slowly.

Draw a Vertical Line

1. Set T-square as before. Place any triangle on T-square edge.

2. Slide your left hand to hold both T-square and triangle in position.

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3. Lean the pencil to the triangle.

4. Draw the line upward while rotating the pencil slowly

Draw a line at 45o with horizontal

1. Place 45o triangle on the T-square edge and press them firmly against the paper.

2. Draw the line in the direction as shown below.

Draw a line at angle 30o and 60o

1. Place 30o-60o triangle on the T-square edge and press them firmly against the paper.

2. Draw the line in the direction as shown below.

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Introduction to and Interpretation of Architectural, Civil, Structural, and Electrical Drawings

Architectural, civil, structural, and electrical drawings are indispensable tools in the field of architecture
and construction. In this module, we will explore the fundamentals of these drawing types, exploring
their purposes, components, and interpretation methods.

Introduction to Architectural, Civil, Structural, and Electrical Drawings

1. Architectural Drawings: An architectural drawing can be a sketch, plan, diagram or

schematic. Whatever form it takes, the architectural drawing is used to communicate detailed
information about what’s being built. These technical drawings are made by architects
according to a set of standards, such as the view, which can be a floor plan, section or another
perspective of the building, sheet sizes, units of measurement and scales, annotation and cross-
referencing.

In the past, these construction drawings and specifications were done with ink and paper.
Copies were made by hand, which took a lot of time and effort. This led to drawing on tracing
paper and, with the development of the computer, almost all architectural construction
drawings are done on computer-aided design (CAD) software.

There are many types of architectural drawings, most of which are a combination of words and
pictures. They all communicate precise details on the style and aesthetics of the construction
project. Various types of blueprints are used in vertical constructions, such as architectural,
structural, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC), electrical and plumbing, fire
protection plans, etc.

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2. Civil Drawings: Civil drawings represent site-specific information related to grading, drainage,
utilities, and landscaping. They provide details about site layout, topography, roads, and other
civil engineering elements necessary for site development and infrastructure design.

3. Structural Drawings: Structural drawings illustrate the structural framework of buildings,

including columns, beams, slabs, and foundations. They convey information about structural
elements' dimensions, materials, and load-bearing capacities to ensure the building's stability
and safety.

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 4. Electrical Drawings: Electrical drawings depict the electrical systems and components within
buildings, including wiring diagrams, lighting plans, power distribution layouts, and equipment
schedules. They provide guidance for electrical contractors and engineers regarding the
installation and configuration of electrical systems.

Other Drawings

1. Plumbing and Sanitary Drawing: A plumbing drawing is a type of technical drawing that provides
visual representation and information relating to a plumbing system. It is used to convey the
engineering design to plumbers or other workers who will use them to help install the plumbing
system.

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A plumbing drawing is used to show clearly the location of fixtures, sanitaryware, pipework, valves and
so on, and illustrates how fresh water is to be supplied into a building and waste water removed. To
illustrate the separate hot and cold-water supply, the pipe runs will usually be coloured red and blue
respectively.

2. Finishing Drawing: This type of drawing containing details finishing and appearance of the building
such as marble, tiles.

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Understanding Different Types of Architectural Drawings

1. Site Plan: This is an aerial view of a building and the property that surrounds it. These can
include buildings that are nearby as well as infrastructure, such as roads. This architectural
drawing is important in that it shows where the building is to be erected in context to the
property boundaries. There can also be details about landscaping, driveways, patios and other
design elements.

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2. Floor Plans: Plans are horizontal views of a building or space, typically drawn at a specific
level or elevation. They can include specific design elements, such as electrical or plumbing
systems to detailed measurements between the walls, doors and windows of the building.
There are usually surface area calculations for each room on the floor.

3. Sections: Sections are vertical views that cut through a building or space to reveal its internal
structure and spatial relationships. They provide insights into the building's dimensions,
materials, and construction details.

4. Elevations: Elevations are exterior views of a building's facades, depicting its appearance and
architectural features from different vantage points. They show the building's proportions,
design elements, and decorative elements.

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5. Details: Details are enlarged views of specific building components or construction details,
such as doors, windows, stairs, and joints. They provide detailed information about materials,
dimensions, and assembly methods to ensure proper construction execution.

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Interpretation Exercises with Real-World Examples

1. Plan Interpretation: Analyse architectural plans of residential and commercial buildings,

identifying key elements such as room layout, circulation patterns, and spatial organization.

2. Section Analysis: Study structural sections of buildings to understand the relationship

between architectural elements, structural components, and building materials.

3. Elevation Evaluation: Examine building elevations to assess architectural styles, façade

compositions, and design details that contribute to the building's aesthetic appeal.

4. Detail Examination: Evaluate construction details of building components to understand

assembly methods, material specifications, and quality standards required for construction.

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Basic Drafting Techniques in Architectural Drawing

Basic drafting techniques are fundamental skills that every architect must master to create clear,
precise, and professional architectural drawings. In this section, we will explore key drafting
techniques, including lettering conventions, line drawing, standard scaling, and proportions, essential
for effective communication in architectural design.

Lettering Conventions and Standards in Architectural Drawings

1. Importance of Legible Lettering: Legible lettering is crucial for conveying information

accurately in architectural drawings. Standardized lettering conventions ensure consistency
and clarity in communication.

Thus, it must be written with

Uniformity - size

- line thickness

Legibility - shape

- space between letters and words

2. Architectural Lettering Styles: Architectural lettering styles, such as block letters and script
letters, are commonly used in architectural drawings. Block letters are typically used for titles,
labels, and annotations, while script letters may be used for more decorative or stylistic
elements.

3. Lettering Size and Proportions: Lettering size should be appropriate for the scale of the
drawing and easily readable. Standard lettering heights are typically defined based on the size
of the drawing and the level of detail required.

Line Drawing Techniques

Architecture uses different drawings throughout the design process to communicate various ideas and
information. Every architectural drawing will use line types and line weights in similar ways to
communicate similar information about our design. All technical drawings created by architects,
draughtsman, engineers or industrial designers will use line weights and line types in similar ways.

1. Line: Line is path of point in space to form objects of different shapes. It is the starting point of
all compositional work and with the abstract relationship line, colour, form and space a pure
beauty is attained.

2. Lines Types: Line types can be a pattern of dots, dashes, text and symbols and be broken and
not continuous. Or they can be solid and continuous. Various types of lines are used in
architectural drawings to represent different elements and features. Common line types include
continuous lines for visible edges, dashed lines for hidden or concealed elements, and broken
lines for indicating dimensions or annotations.

Meaning of Lines

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Visible lines represent features that can be seen in the current view
Hidden lines represent features that cannot be seen in the current view
Centre line represents symmetry, path of motion, centres of circles, axis of
asymmetrical parts
Dimension and Extension lines indicate the sizes and location of features on a
drawing
Solid Elements that are seen or visible.
Dashed Elements that exist but are not seen or visible help explain the 3-dimensional
form and spaces. For example:
o On a plan, we may show the edge of the roof dashed over or the edge of an
overhead cupboard above a kitchen bench.
o On a plan, you may show the outline of a significant basement level below the
ground.
o On an elevation or section, you may show the outline of a significant element
hidden behind.
Long dash-short dash indicates reference points that do not exist as a physical
element but are points in space that help us locate our design. These can appear on
plans, sections and elevations. When read across multiple drawings help us understand
the three-dimensional volume of space that we design and build within. Long dash-
short dash lines include:
o Site Boundaries The edges of the site and the area you can design and build
within.
o Boundaries Setbacks They are extent of the area you need to set the building
back from the boundary to comply with local building regulations.
o Grid references A dimensioned grid set out from a critical point on the site
boundary defines points from which to set out the building. A grid reference is
dimensioned and locates points in space through an X and Y-axis grid.
o Plans show grid reference as letters left to right horizontally across the page
and numbers vertically top to bottom down the page.
o Sections and elevations will either show a numbered or letters grid reference
across them, depending on how they are oriented.

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 3. Understanding Line Weights: Architectural line weights refer to the thickness of lines in a
drawing. Different line weights are used to distinguish between different elements and indicate
their relative importance. For example, thicker lines may be used for outlines or prominent
features, while thinner lines may be used for detailing or less significant elements.

We use architectural line weights slightly differently in each drawing. But let’s start with plan, section
and elevation and refer to line weights as thickest to thinnest.

Section and cut plan – Thickest for the section through the ground line. Thick for the
cut-through primary elements such as walls, floor and roof. Thin for secondary cut
elements such as doors and windows. Thinner for tertiary element outlines such as
toilets, benches and furniture. I would also use this thickness for drawing conventions
such as text, annotations or dimensions. And finally, you can use the thinnest pen or a
pencil for material details and texture.
Elevation – Again the thickest for the section through the ground line. Thick for the
foreground or what is closest. Thin for the mid-ground and thinner for the
background. Again, use this thickness for drawing conventions such as text,
annotations or dimensions. And finally, you can use the thinnest pen or a pencil for
material details and texture.
Top Plan – The top plan is the same as the elevation, except no section is cut through
the ground.
The table gives you a good summary of how to use the line weights for each drawing type.

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 4. Line Styles: Line styles, such as solid lines, dashed lines, and dotted lines, are used to convey
specific information in architectural drawings. For example, dashed lines may indicate cut lines
or section lines, while dotted lines may represent boundaries or property lines.

Standard Scaling and Proportions in Architectural Drawings

1. Scaling Principles: Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension (length and size) of an element of
an object shown in the drawing to the real linear dimension of the same element of the object.

Scaling involves reducing or enlarging the size of a drawing relative to its actual dimensions. Standard
scaling ratios, such as 1/4 inch = 1 foot or 1:50, are commonly used in architectural drawings to
maintain consistency and accuracy.

Designation of a scale consists of the word “SCALE” followed by the indication of its ratio, as follow

SCALE 1:1 for full size

SCALE X:1 for enlargement scales (X > 1)

SCALE 1:X for reduction scales (X > 1)

Dimension numbers shown in the drawing are correspond to “true size” of the object and they are
independent of the scale used in creating that drawing.

2. Proportionality: Proportions are critical in architectural design, ensuring that elements and
spaces are harmoniously balanced and aesthetically pleasing. Understanding scale and
proportions allows architects to accurately represent the relationships between different
architectural elements.

Practical Exercises on Basic Drafting Techniques:

1. Lettering Practice: Students will practice architectural lettering styles, focusing on

consistency, legibility, and proportionality. Exercises may include writing titles, labels, and
annotations using standardized lettering conventions.

2. Line Drawing Exercises: Students will experiment with different line weights, types, and
styles to convey various elements and features in architectural drawings. Exercises may involve
drawing plan, section, and elevation views of simple architectural objects or structures.

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 3. Scaling and Proportions Practice: Students will apply standard scaling ratios to create
architectural drawings of different scales, ensuring that proportions are maintained accurately.
Exercises may include scaling floor plans, elevations, and details to specified dimensions.

Representation of Basic Descriptive Geometry in Architectural Drawings

Understanding descriptive geometry is essential for architects to accurately represent three-

dimensional objects and spaces on two-dimensional surfaces. In this section, we will explore the
principles of descriptive geometry in architectural drawings, including surface development, inclined
cuts, and true sections.

Understanding Descriptive Geometry in Architectural Drawings

1. Fundamentals of Descriptive Geometry: Descriptive geometry is a branch of geometry that

deals with the representation of three-dimensional objects and their relationships on two-
dimensional surfaces. It involves techniques for projecting points, lines, and planes onto flat
surfaces such as paper or computer screens.

2. Orthographic Projection: Orthographic projection is the primary method used in architectural

drawings to represent three-dimensional objects in two dimensions. It involves projecting
points, lines, and planes onto parallel projection planes from different viewpoints to create
multiple views of an object.

In orthographic projections, the principal views – Front view, Top view, & Side views of an object are
drawn by the direct observation. These views are drawn from the pictorial view of an object. The
pictorial view is a three-dimensional representation. By observing pictorial view, it is very easy to
visualize the shape when the object is viewed from front, top & sides.

Representation Of Orthographic Views

Consider a pictorial view as shown in the above diagram, to draw the orthographic views. Assume
different surfaces – A, B, C, D, E, & F.

By visualizing the given pictorial view, identify the following principal views – Front view, Top view, left
side view and Right-side view.
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Assignment

[1] Draw the front view, top view and right-side view of the object as shown in figure

[2] Draw the front view, top view and right-side view of the object as shown in figure

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Surface Development Techniques

1. Surface Representation: Surface development techniques involve representing three-

dimensional surfaces, such as curves, solids, and complex geometries, on flat drawing surfaces.
This may include methods such as unfolding surfaces to reveal their true shape or using
contour lines to depict surface curvature.

2. Projections of Solids: An object having three dimensions, i.e., length, breadth and height is
called as solid. In orthographic projection, minimums of two views are necessary to represent a
solid. Front view is used to represent length and height and the top view is used to represent
length and breadth. Sometimes the above two views are not sufficient to represent the details.
So, a third view called as side view either from left or from right is necessary.

Different projection methods, such as cylindrical, conical projections, may be used to represent surfaces
with varying degrees of complexity. Each projection method has its advantages and limitations
depending on the nature of the surface being represented.

Classification of Solids

Solids are classified into two groups. They are

Polyhedral
Solids of Revolution
Polyhedral
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A solid, which is bounded by plane surfaces or faces, is called a polyhedron. Polyhedral are

classified into three sub groups; these are

1. Regular Polyhedral

2. Prisms

3. Pyramids

Regular Polyhedral

Polyhedral are regular if all their plane surfaces are regular polygons of the same shape and size. The
regular plane surfaces are called "Faces" and the lines connecting adjacent faces are called "edges".

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Inclined Cuts and True Sections

1. Inclined Cuts: Inclined cuts involve cutting a three-dimensional object at an angle other than
perpendicular to its base or primary axis. Representing inclined cuts accurately requires
understanding the relationship between the cutting plane and the object's geometry and
projecting the resulting section onto a flat surface.

Conic Sections

The sections obtained by the intersection of a right circular cone by a cutting plane in different
positions are called conic sections or conics.

Circle: When the cutting plane is parallel to the base or perpendicular to the axis, then
the true shape of the section is circle.
Ellipse: When the cutting plane is inclined to the horizontal plane and perpendicular to
the vertical plane, then the true shape of the section is an ellipse.
Parabola: When the cutting plane is inclined to the axis and is parallel to one of the
generators, then the true shape of the section is a parabola.
Hyperbola: When the cutting plane is parallel to the axis of the cone, then the true
shape of the section is a rectangular hyperbola.
Focus & Directrix: Conic may be defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane in such a way that
the ratio of its distances from a fixed point, called focus and a fixed straight line called directrix.

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Eccentricity: The ratio of shortest distance from the focus to the shortest distance from the directrix is
called eccentricity.

For ellipse, eccentricity is < 1

For Parabola, eccentricity is = 1

For hyperbola, eccentricity is > 1

Axis: The line passing through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called axis.

Vertex: The point at which the curves cut the axis is called vertex

Construction Of Ellipse

1. Draw an ellipse when the distance between the focus and directrix is 50mm and eccentricity is 2/3.

Procedure:

Draw a perpendicular line AB (directrix) and a horizontal line CE (axis).

Mark the focus point F on the axis line 50mm from the directrix.
Divide the CF in to 5 equal parts.
As per the eccentricity mark the vertex ′V′ in the second division of CF
Draw a perpendicular line from vertex V and mark the point ′G′ with the distance
VF.
Join the points C& G and extend the line. Similarly mark the point G1 below the
axis line.
Now join the points C& G1 and extend it.
Draw number of smooth vertical lines 1,2,3,4,5,6, etc., as shown in figure.
Now mark the points 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′…
Take the vertical distance of 11′ and with F as centre draw an arc cutting the
vertical line 11′ above and below the axis.
Similarly draw the arcs in all the vertical lines (22′, 33′, 44′…)
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 Draw a smooth curve through the cutting points to get the required ellipse by free
hand.
2. Construct a parabola when the distance of the focus from the directrix is 40mm.

Note: Eccentricity, e = 1.

Procedure:

Draw a perpendicular line AB (directrix) and a horizontal line CE (axis).

Mark the focus point F on the axis line 40 mm from the directrix.
Divide the CF in to 2 equal parts.
As per the eccentricity mark the vertex ′V′ in the mid-point of CF
Draw a perpendicular line from vertex V and mark the point ′G′ with the
distance VF.
Join the points C& G and extend the line. Similarly mark the point G1 below
the axis line.
Now joint the points C& G1 and extend it.
Draw number of smooth vertical lines 1,2,3,4,5,6, etc., as shown in figure.
Now mark the points 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′…
Take the vertical distance of 11′ and with F as centre draw an arc cutting the
vertical line 11′ above and below the axis.
Similarly draw the arcs in all the vertical lines (22′, 33′, 44′…)
Draw a smooth curve through the cutting points to get the required parabola
by free hand.
Construction Of Hyperbola

3. Draw a hyperbola when the distance of the focus from the directrix is 60 and eccentricity is 4/3.

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Procedure:

Draw a perpendicular line AB (directrix) and a horizontal line CE (axis).

Mark the focus point F on the axis line 40 mm from the directrix.
Divide the CF in to 2 equal parts.
As per the eccentricity mark the vertex V, in the third division of CF
Draw a perpendicular line from vertex V, and mark the point G, with the
distance VF.
Join the points C& G and extend the line. Similarly mark the point G1 below
the axis line.
Now join the points C& G1 and extend it.
Draw number of smooth vertical lines 1,2,3,4,5,6, etc., as shown in figure.
Now mark the points 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′…
Take the vertical distance of 11′ and with F as centre draw an arc cutting the
vertical line 11′ above and below the axis.
Similarly draw the arcs in all the vertical lines (22′, 33′, 44′…)
Draw a smooth curve through the cutting points to get the required hyperbola
by free hand.
CYCLOIDAL CURVES:

Cycloidal curves are generated by a fixed point on the circumference of a circle,

which rolls without slipping along a fixed straight line or a circle.
In engineering drawing some special curves (cycloidal curves) are used in the
profile of teeth of gear wheels.
The rolling circle is called generating circle.
The fixed straight line or circle is called directing line or directing circle.

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CYCLOIDS: Cycloid is a curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls along a
straight line.

Epicycloid: An epicycloid is a curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls
without slipping along another circle outside it.

Hypocycloidal: Hypo-is a curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle, when the circle
rolls along another circle inside it.

Assignment

1. Construct a cycloid when the diameter of the generating circle is 40 mm.

Procedure:
Draw a circle with diameter 40mm and mark the centre O.
Divide the circle in toSVCET12equalpartsas1,2,3…12.
Draw horizontal line from the bottom points of the circle, with the
distance equal to the circumference of the circle (ПD) and mark the other
end point B.
Divide the line AB in to 12 equal parts. (1′, 2′, 3′…12′)
Draw a horizontal line from O to and mark the equal distance point O1,
O2, O3…O12.
Draw smooth horizontal lines from the points 1,2,3…12.
When the circle starts rolling towards right hand side, the point 1coincides
with 1′ at the same time the centre O moves to O1.
Take OA as radius, O1 as centre draw an arc to cut the horizontal line 1 to
mark the
point a1.
Similarly, O2 as centre and with same radius OA draw an arc to cut the
horizontal line 2 to mark the point a2.
Similarly mark a3, a4…a11.
Draw a smooth curve through the points a1, a2, a3…. a11, B by free hand.
The obtained curve is a cycloid.

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 2. True Sections: True sections are cross-sections of objects that accurately represent their true
shape and proportions. Unlike arbitrary sections, which may distort the object's shape, true
sections maintain the object's geometry and dimensions accurately.

Perpendicular to the VP and Inclined to the HP:

Let us imagine that a square prism of base 35mm and height 60mm rests with its base on the HP such
that one of its edges is inclined at 30° to the VP. A section plane inclined at 60° to the HP and
perpendicular to the VP cuts the prism through a point on the axis 20mm from the top of the prism.

Draw the line XY.

Draw the top view as a square such that it is inclined at 30° to XY and name its
corners.
Draw projectors from each corner of the top view to XY.
Draw the front view as shown in the figure and name its corners.
Draw the section plane in the front view through a point on the axis 20mm from the
top of the prism such that it is inclined at 60° to XY, and name the sectional points.
Draw projectors from each sectional point through XY.
The projectors cut the corresponding edges of the top view. Name the points and join
them.
Draw the hatching lines to get the sectional top view
To get the True Shape of the section:
Draw a line X1Y1 parallel to SP, as shown.
Draw projectors from each sectional point in the front view through X1Y1.
Transfer the distances, from XY, of the sectional points in the top view to the
corresponding projectors through X1Y1, measuring from X1Y1 in each case.
Join these points as shown and draw the hatching lines to get the true shape of the
section.

2. Let us imagine that a pentagonal pyramid of base 35mm and height 60mm, rests with its base on the
HP such that one of its edges is perpendicular to the VP. A section plane inclined at 45° to the HP and
perpendicular to the VP cuts the pyramid through its axis at 25mm from the apex.

Draw the line XY.

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 Draw the top view as a pentagon such that one of its edges is perpendicular to XY.
Name the corners of the pentagon.
Draw projectors from the top view to XY.
Draw the front view as shown in the figure and name its corners.
Draw the section plane in the front view through a point on the axis 25mm below
the apex and inclined at 45° to XY and name the sectional points.
Draw projectors from the sectional points through XY.
The projectors cut the corresponding edges of the top view. Name the points of
intersection and join them.
Draw the hatching lines to get the sectional top view
To get the True Shape of the section:
Draw a line X1Y1 parallel to SP, as shown.
Draw projectors from each sectional point in the front view through X1Y1.
Transfer the distances, from XY, of the sectional points in the top view to the
corresponding projectors through X1Y1, measuring from X1Y1 in each case.
Join these points as shown and draw the hatching lines to get the true shape of the
section.

Hands-on Exercises on Representing Descriptive Geometry:

1. Surface Development Practice: Students will practice representing various types of surfaces,
including curved, irregular, and complex geometries, using surface development techniques.
Exercises may involve unfolding surfaces, creating contour maps, or projecting surfaces onto
different planes.

2. Inclined Cut Demonstrations: Demonstrations will be conducted to illustrate the process of

creating inclined cuts in architectural drawings. Students will learn how to determine the
orientation of the cutting plane, project the resulting section onto a flat surface, and accurately
represent the inclined cut in their drawings.

3. True Section Exercises: Students will practice creating true sections of three-dimensional
objects, ensuring that the resulting sections accurately represent the objects' true shape and

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proportions. Exercises may involve cutting objects at different angles and projecting the
sections onto drawing surfaces using orthographic projection techniques.

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Effect of Light and Shadow in Architectural Drawings

The interplay of light and shadow plays a crucial role in architectural representation, shaping the
perception of form, texture, and spatial qualities in architectural drawings. Light and shadow are not
mere technicalities in architectural design; they are the soul of spatial experience. Architects wield them
as tools to sculpt emotions, define atmospheres, and enhance functionality within built environments.
From the serene glow of a morning sunrise filtering through a window to the dramatic interplay of
light and shadow in a Gothic cathedral, these elements hold profound significance.

Architectural structures serve as backdrops upon which light creates its masterpiece, casting elaborate
patterns of shadow that evolve throughout the day. The angle of incidence, material properties, and
spatial configuration all influence this interplay, resulting in a symphony of light and shadow that
enlivens spaces and captivates observers.

Importance of Light on Shape and Form in Architectural Representation

Shadows are not merely areas of darkness; they are sculptors of imagery, shaping our understanding of
spatial relationships. Drawing attention to architectural features, shadows fill spaces with a sense of
depth and rhythm. They create visual interest, drawing attention to focal points and creating a sense of
discovery within the built environment.

1. Definition of Form: Light and shadow define the form and volume of architectural elements.
They highlight the three-dimensional aspects of structures, helping viewers perceive depth and
scale. Shadows add depth to surfaces, while highlights indicate areas where light directly hits.

2. Emphasis and Contrast: Light and shadow can be used strategically to emphasize certain
architectural features or create contrast between different elements. By controlling the
intensity and direction of light, architects can draw attention to focal points or create visual
interest.

3. Mood and Atmosphere: Light and shadow play a significant role in setting the mood and
atmosphere of architectural spaces. Depending on the placement and intensity of light sources,
drawings can convey feelings of warmth, cosiness, drama, or tranquillity. For example, soft

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 diffused lighting may evoke a sense of serenity, while dramatic shadows can create a sense of
mystery or tension.

4. Visual Hierarchy: Light and shadow help establish a visual hierarchy within architectural
drawings, guiding the viewer's eye through the composition. By manipulating the contrast
between light and dark areas, architects can direct attention to specific elements or create a
sense of movement within the drawing.

5. Texture and Materiality: Light and shadow convey the texture and materiality of architectural
surfaces. Different materials interact with light in unique ways, producing varying degrees of
reflection, absorption, and diffusion. Architectural drawings should accurately represent these
material properties through the careful depiction of light and shadow.

6. Time of Day: The depiction of light and shadow can also convey the time of day within
architectural drawings. By adjusting the angle and intensity of light sources, architects can
simulate different lighting conditions such as dawn, midday, or dusk, adding temporal
dimensionality to the representation.

Shadow Projection Techniques

1. Shadow Casting: Shadow projection involves simulating the casting of shadows by

architectural elements such as walls, columns, and openings. Understanding the angle and
position of light sources relative to architectural forms allows architects to predict and control
the distribution of shadows within a space.

2. Analytical Shadow Studies: Analytical shadow studies involve the systematic analysis of
shadow patterns and their impact on architectural design. By studying the movement and
interaction of shadows over time, architects can optimize building orientation, massing, and
fenestration to maximize daylighting and minimize solar heat gain.

Rendering Techniques for Shadow Projection

1. Gradation of Tone: Rendering techniques such as hatching, cross-hatching, and stippling are
used to simulate the subtle gradation of tone in shadows. By varying the density and direction

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 of lines, architects can create the illusion of depth and volume, enhancing the realism of
architectural renderings.

2. Softening Edges: Softening the edges of shadows helps integrate them more seamlessly into
the surrounding environment, reducing their visual impact and enhancing the overall
coherence of the composition. Blending techniques such as smudging or feathering can be
employed to achieve soft, naturalistic shadow transitions.

Practical Exercises on Rendering Light and Shadow

1. Still Life Studies: Students will engage in still life studies to observe and analyse the interplay
of light and shadow on simple objects. Through observational drawing exercises, they will
develop an understanding of how light behaves in different lighting conditions and its effect on
object form.

2. Architectural Sketching: Students will practice sketching architectural scenes, focusing on

capturing the dynamic interplay of light and shadow on building forms. They will experiment
with various rendering techniques to convey the mood, atmosphere, and materiality of
architectural spaces.

3. Digital Rendering: Using digital rendering software, students will simulate the effect of light
and shadow on architectural models. They will explore different lighting scenarios, experiment
with shadow projection techniques, and refine their rendering skills to create compelling
visualizations of architectural designs.

4. Case Studies

Residential Architecture

Architects like Frank Lloyd Wright, with his iconic Prairie style homes, and Tadao Ando, with his
minimalist concrete masterpieces, demonstrate a mastery of light and shadow. Creating environments
that blur the boundaries between inside and out, nature and architecture, light and dark. Using natural
light, optimizing views, and orchestrating spatial sequences, these architects crafted homes that are
shelters with a sense of serenity, beauty, and belonging.

Commercial Spaces

Renowned architects like Zaha Hadid, with her futuristic retail spaces, and Herzog & de Meuron, with
their iconic museum designs, utilize innovative lighting strategies to create immersive environments
that captivate and delight visitors. Through the dramatic interplay of light and shadow, the strategic
placement of fixtures, and the integration of multimedia elements, these architects crafted retail
environments. These places give an experience of discovery, inspiration, and social interaction.

In essence, we have explored the role of light and shadow in architectural design extends far beyond
mere technicalities; it is a fundamental aspect of human experience, shaping our perception of space,
time, and identity. By understanding and making use of the intrinsic qualities of light and shadow,
architects can create environments that resonate with our deepest emotions, aspirations, and desires,
promoting a sense of connection, wonder, and belonging within the built environment. As we look
toward the future, we can embrace the transformative power of light and shadow to create a world that
is not just functional and efficient but also beautiful, meaningful, and sustainable for generations to
come.
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Projections and Tracing Techniques in Architectural Drawings

Architecture Drawing Projections are a means of representing three dimensional buildings, structures,
detailed components, and other architecture related information onto two dimensional surfaces. They
are used by architecture students and professionals alike to communicate designs and ideas to tutors,
peers, clients, and contractors.

There are different types of projections like orthographic and perspective, each with unique attributes
that are used to create different visual effects. Having the knowledge and understanding of how and
when to use these is an essential skill in the field of architecture.

Introduction to Simple Projections in Architectural Drawings

Projections and tracing techniques are fundamental tools used by architects to translate their ideas
from concept to reality. In the graphical sense, projection is the technique used to represent a three-
dimensional object onto a flat two-dimensional plane or surface with the help of projection lines or
rays. The projection lines or rays are imaginary lines between the 3D object, the 2D image plane and the
observer’s eye.

There are two main types of projection – Parallel and Perspective. The following flow chart will help
you picture the different projection classifications.

1. Parallel Projection: Parallel projection is a type of projection where the projection lines are
parallel to one another. This means that the image that will be projected onto the 2D plane will
be a true and accurate representation of the 3D object with no distortion. This type of
projection may appear to look less realistic but is really useful for exact measurements.

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Parallel projection can be further classified into Orthographic and Oblique projections.

Orthographic Projection: This technique involves representing a three-dimensional object

in two dimensions using multiple views from different directions (e.g., top, front, and side
views). Orthographic projections provide accurate depictions of architectural elements,
aiding in construction and visualization.

Orthographic projection is when the projection lines coming from the 3D object are orthogonal or in
other words perpendicular to the 2D image plane.

This type of projection is most commonly used in architecture and particularly useful for creating
technical drawings where clear and accurate representations of the building are required. There are two
types of Orthographic Projections – Multiview and Axonometric.

1. Multiview projection: Multiview projection is a type of orthographic projection that produces six
images called primary views of the 3D object that is being projected. These primary views are produced
using either first angle or third angle projection schemes.

With first angle projection the views produced can be named – Front, Top and Right, while the third
angle projection views can be named – Back, Bottom and Left.

In architectural drawing terms, the six primary views produced will include two plans and four
elevations. These types of projections are used in architectural drawings to communicate the design of a
building. They can depict the external as well as internal parts of a building. They can also be used to
show all the details and dimensions for the assembly and manufacturing of a complex 3D object – like
an architectural detail.

As shown in the illustration, floor plans and sections can also fall under this type of architecture
drawing projection. The main standout difference is the placement of the 2D image plane. So, instead of
being placed at a certain distance away from one of the surfaces of the 3D object, the 2D image plane is
placed in a way that it slices through the 3D building or object. If the 2D image plane cuts horizontally
through the 3D building or object it is considered a floor plan drawing and if it cuts vertically, it is a
section drawing.

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2. Axonometric projection: Axonometric projection is the other type of orthographic projection. Here
the projection lines are parallel to each other, and the 3D object is rotated around one or more of its
axes. This enables it to show multiple sides of the 3D object in one single view which often creates more
dynamic and visually appealing images. There is some distortion in the resulting projection but you can
still get a good sense of the object’s three dimensionality.

There are three main types of axonometric drawing projections:

Isometric: Isometric projection has the three coordinate axes (x,y,z) of the 3D object projected at an
angle of 120° to each other. The three axes are also projected at the same scale which is the full scale of
the object, making it appear more symmetrical.

When drawn the vertical lines remain the same and the horizontal lines are drawn at an angle of 30° to
the horizontal plane. This creates a to scale and proportionate representation of the 3D object. It is the
most used axonometric projection in architecture as it is quite easy to understand and create. You can
find isometric grid papers to use as guides that will help you draw this type of projection.

Dimetric: Dimetric projection has two of the 3D object’s coordinate axes projected at the same scale,
while the third axis is projected at a different scale. This creates a skewed appearance. In terms of the
angles, two of the 3D object’s axes make equal angles with each other and the third angle can be larger
or smaller than the other two.

This projection is used less often than isometric projection but it can create a more exaggerated look. It
can be employed to depict more complex and irregular forms.

Trimetric: Trimetric projection is the third type of axonometric projection. Here the three axes of the
3D object are projected at different angles to each other and all three axes use different scales.

This is not used very often in architecture but it does have the potential to create quite a distorted
drawing effect due to its non-uniform representation of the 3D object. It can be used to create visual
impact as certain features or aspects of a building can be emphasised.
Oblique projection: Oblique projection is when the projection lines coming from the 3D
object intersect the 2D image plane at an oblique angle. The projection lines are parallel to

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 one another but not perpendicular to the picture plane. One surface of the 3D object
remains true to size and has an angle of 90° between the two axes.

It is used in technical drawings and shows the overall shape and dimensions of an object. The result
often appears distorted but is still quite visually informative. Oblique projections can be used to show
the relationships between different parts of an object. They are mainly used for conceptual and
illustrative purposes.

There are three types of oblique projections:

Cavalier: Cavalier projection is when one axis is horizontal (x), one axis is vertical (y) and the third axis
(z) is drawn at an angle of 30°, 45° or 60° from the horizontal. All axes have dimensions that are drawn
at actual scale.

It has a distorted appearance and lacks realism, which is why it is not commonly used for realistic
representations. However, it can be used to illustrate assembly drawings and show how elements of a
design may come together.

Cabinet: Cabinet projection is also drawn similarly to cavalier projection. But the difference is in how
the dimensions of the axes are drawn. The dimensions of the horizontal (x) and vertical (y) axes are
drawn at full actual scale while the third axis (z) is drawn at half scale.

This creates a less distorted depiction of the 3D object when compared to the cavalier projection and
makes the drawings more balanced and easier to comprehend. It can be used for similar applications to
cavalier projections.

Military: Military projection is also known as ‘Plan Oblique’ or ‘Planometric drawing’. It combines
elements of orthogonal (orthographic) projection and oblique projection to create a hybrid
representation of a 3D object.

The object is projected onto the picture plane at a 45° angle, similar to cavalier or cabinet projection. It
includes an additional orthographic projection of the top view (or plan) directly above the oblique
projection, depicted without distortion using accurate dimensions and orthogonal lines.
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This projection can be used in technical drawing and architectural illustrations, particularly when
showcasing complex or distinctive architectural elements.

Perspective Projection: Perspective drawings are often used to communicate design

concepts to clients and stakeholders due to their realistic portrayal of spaces. Perspective
Projection is where the rays converge to one or more vanishing points. There is a sense of
depth and distance that is created in the image, with objects further away from the
observer appearing smaller.

Perspective projection mimics how the human eye perceives objects in space. It creates the
illusion of depth and distance by converging lines to a vanishing point.

There are various types of perspective projections depending on the number of vanishing
points.

One point perspective: In one-point perspective, all parallel lines converge at a single
vanishing point on the horizon. It can be used to show the interior of a room, street views and
even the overall shape of a 3D object.

Two-point perspective: In a two-point perspective, there are two vanishing points on the
horizon. It can be used to show building exteriors, urban scenes and landscapes that show a
building in context, as well as internal arrangements.

Three-point perspective: In three-point perspective, there are three vanishing points on the
horizon. This type of perspective is often used to create complex scenes, such as a cityscape. It
can be drawn from either a bird’s eye view or a worm’s eye view.

Curvilinear perspectives: The images produced from four-point perspective onwards begin to
have more of a curved look to them. Curvilinear perspective also known as ‘fisheye perspective’
or ‘barrel distortion’ is used to achieve visually striking and dramatic representations of 3D
objects and spaces. They are great to experiment with as they produce unconventional results.

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 Multi-point perspectives: There are also multipoint perspectives, also known as ‘many-point
perspectives’ or ‘complex perspectives’. For this type of drawing all of the multiple vanishing
points lie on the horizon line. Applications include urban environments, interiors and outdoor
landscapes with complex geometries and irregular features.

Tracing Techniques:
Overlay Tracing: Overlay tracing involves superimposing transparent sheets or tracing
paper over existing drawings to refine or iterate design ideas. Architects use this technique
to experiment with different design alternatives or to make revisions without altering the
original drawing.
Reverse Tracing: Reverse tracing, also known as transfer tracing, entails transferring a
drawing from one surface to another by placing the original drawing face down on the
target surface and tracing over it. Architects use reverse tracing to reproduce drawings
accurately or to transfer intricate details onto a final drawing surface.
Grid Tracing: Grid tracing involves dividing the original drawing and the target surface
into a grid of equal-sized squares. Architects then replicate the drawing by systematically
transferring each grid square's contents to the corresponding square on the target surface.
Grid tracing ensures accurate proportions and scale in reproduced drawings.

Various Types of Tracing and Drawing Papers

1. Tracing Paper: Tracing paper is a translucent paper that allows architects to overlay multiple
drawings and sketches for comparison and refinement. It is commonly used for preliminary
design sketches, concept development, and tracing over existing drawings.

2. Drawing Paper: Drawing paper comes in various weights, textures, and finishes, suitable for
different drawing techniques and media. It provides a stable surface for rendering architectural
drawings and is available in different sizes and formats to accommodate various drawing scales
and proportions.

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Tracing Techniques for Architectural Drawings

1. Overlay Method: The overlay method involves tracing over existing drawings or sketches to
refine or modify them. It allows architects to experiment with different design iterations,
explore alternative solutions, and incorporate feedback from clients or collaborators without
altering the original drawings.

2. Transfer Method: The transfer method involves transferring a drawing or image from one
surface to another using tracing paper or transfer paper. It is commonly used to reproduce
drawings, transfer sketches to final drawing surfaces, or create duplicates for archival
purposes.

Hands-on Exercises on Projections and Tracing

1. Projection Practice: Students will practice creating simple projections of basic architectural
forms, such as cubes, cylinders, and prisms, using orthographic projection techniques. They
will experiment with different viewpoints and projection planes to develop spatial visualization
skills.

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2. Tracing Exercise: Students will engage in tracing exercises using tracing paper and existing
architectural drawings or sketches. They will practice overlaying multiple layers of tracing
paper to analyse design compositions, explore design variations, and refine architectural
details.

3. Transfer Technique Demonstration: A demonstration will be conducted to illustrate the

transfer technique using transfer paper or carbon paper. Students will learn how to transfer
sketches or drawings onto final drawing surfaces, ensuring accuracy and precision in the
reproduction process.

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Design Process and Space Analysis in Architecture

Introduction:

The design process is a fundamental aspect of architectural practice, guiding architects through the
iterative journey of conceptualizing, developing, and realizing architectural projects. Building design is
considered as a mirror of a civilization that is shaped up by needs, society, technology, culture and
climate. The house designs evolved through generations in different parts of the country demonstrates
the experiences found in the dwellings of our ancestors.

Changing pattern of life style in the form of human settlements and socio-cultural and economic
factors, technological advancements, micro and macro climatic conditions and also external forces of
near and large environment has an impact on design aspects of housing.

Overview of the Design Process in Architecture

1. Research and Analysis: The design process begins with thorough research and analysis of the
project's context, site conditions, program requirements, and user needs. Architects gather
relevant information, conduct site visits, and analyse precedents to inform the design direction.

2. Conceptualization: The conceptualization phase involves generating ideas, exploring design

alternatives, and developing conceptual schemes that respond to the project brief and design
objectives. Architects use sketches, diagrams, and models to explore spatial relationships and
test design concepts.

3. Design Development: During the design development phase, architects refine the selected
design concept, develop detailed drawings and specifications, and address technical and
regulatory requirements. This phase involves collaboration with consultants, engineers, and
other stakeholders to ensure the feasibility and viability of the design.

4. Documentation and Execution: The documentation phase involves preparing construction

drawings, specifications, and contract documents necessary for obtaining permits and
executing the project. Architects oversee the construction process, manage contractor
interactions, and ensure that the design intent is realized in built form.

Example of a Small House Project: From Conceptualization to Execution

1. Site Analysis: Conduct a thorough analysis of the site, considering factors such as
orientation, topography, views, and surrounding context.

2. Programming: Define the program requirements and spatial needs of the small house
project, including the number of rooms, circulation patterns, and desired amenities.

3. Concept Development: Generate design concepts based on the site analysis and program
requirements, exploring ideas such as site responsiveness, spatial organization, and
architectural expression.

4. Design Refinement: Refine the selected design concept through iterations, considering
factors such as scale, proportion, materiality, and sustainability principles.

5. Documentation and Construction: Prepare construction drawings, specifications, and

documents necessary for obtaining permits and executing the construction process.

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 Oversee the construction phase to ensure that the design vision is realized with attention to
detail and quality craftsmanship.

Factors In Planning a Residential Design

Every family chooses its space for family living based on several state-of affairs and these characterize
the way in which space is planned and organized.

Some important factors to consider for building planning are as follows.

Aspect

Prospect

Furniture requirements

Roominess

Grouping

Circulation

Privacy

Sanitation

Elegance

Economy

Flexibility

Practical considerations

Location

Mobility

Climate

People

Life style

Psychology of people

Taste

1. Aspect: Aspect means the peculiarity of the arrangement of doors and windows in the
external walls of a building which permits the occupants to enjoy the gifts of nature viz sun,
breeze, outside scenery etc. Aspects gains special significance in case of residential buildings.

This provision is necessary to ensure proper comfort conditions in the room and it also helps in
providing hygienic conditions in the room as the sun rays destroy the insects and also impart
cheerful living conditions in the room. A room which receives light and air from particular side
is termed to have aspect of that direction. Needles to emphasize that different rooms/areas in
the dwelling need particular aspect.
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2. Prospect: Prospect is the term used to highlight the architectural treatment given to a
building so as to make it aesthetically pleasing from outside and arranging external doors and
windows in such a manner that the occupants are able to enjoy the desired outside views from
certain rooms.

Prospect is basically governed by the peculiarities of the selected site. Hence like aspect,
prospect of a building also requires the deposition of external doors and windows in a building
at particular places and in particular manner so as to expose the notable and pleasant features
of the openings in the external facade of the building and concealing the undesirable views in a
given site. Hence, both aspects as well as prospect demand proper disposition of doors and
windows in the external walls at particular places and in particular manner.

3. Grouping: We know that every apartment in a building has got a definite function and there
is some inter-relationship of sequence in between them. Grouping consists in arranging various
rooms in the layout plan of the building in such a manner that all the rooms are placed in
proper co-relation to their functions and in proximity with each other.

The basic aim of grouping of the apartments is to maintain the sequence of their function
according to their inter-relationship with least interference. For instance, in a residential
building dining room should be close to the kitchen. The kitchen on the other hand, should be
kept away from drawing room or living room to avoid smoke or smell from kitchen spreading
in these rooms.

The water closet should be located away from the kitchen. Main bedrooms should be so located
that there is independent and separate access from each room towards the water closet directly
or through other un-important rooms. In case of office buildings, hospitals etc., administrative
department should be located centrally for convenience and economy in the cost of providing
services. Thus, the concept of grouping plays a very important role in planning of buildings of
all types.

4. Privacy: Privacy is considered to be one of the most important principles of planning in all
buildings specially in residential buildings. Privacy may be one part to another part of the same
building or it may be the privacy of all parts of the building from neighbouring buildings,
public streets or bye ways etc.

The extent of privacy of a building from the street, bye ways or neighbouring buildings depends
mainly upon the functions performed in the building. Many a time privacy of only a part of
building is necessary from exterior whereas the remaining building as a whole may be required
to be exposed to view. This is achieved by proper layout of streets, approach roads, entrances,
provision of trees, creepers etc.

The privacy within the building means screening interior of one room from other rooms.
Screening of all the apartments or some of them from entrance, corridors etc., gets covered
under the term privacy of part of building from exterior. In case of residential buildings,
privacy can be achieved by judicious planning of the building with respect to grouping,
disposition of doors and windows, mode of hanging of doors, location of entrance pathways,
drives etc.

Sometimes, provision of lobbies, corridors, screens. curtains etc., is also made to achieve
internal privacy. Importance of privacy requires special consideration in case of bedrooms,
toilets, lavatories, water closet, urinals etc. All these services should have an independent access
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from every bedroom without disturbing the others. Doors with single shutter are desirable for
such rooms.

5. Furniture Requirements: The furniture requirements of a room or an important depends

upon the functions required to be performed there in. The furniture requirements of a living
rooms in a dwelling will be different from that of a class room in a school or an operation
theatre in a nursing home/hospital.

There are no rigid rules which govern the furniture requirements of a particular room in a
dwelling. It should be sufficient to accommodate the normal needs of maximum number of
persons who can use the room without over crowing. In case of buildings, other than
residential, it should be adequate to meet the requirements of the particular functions.

The space requirements of non-residential building is planned paying regard to the furniture,
equipment and other fittings or fixtures which are essential to meet the need of the particular
functions required to be performed in the building. In case of residential buildings, normally
not much through is given to the furniture requirements.

It is however, desirable to prepare a sketch plan indicating required furniture as well as it’s
located in different rooms (Viz drawing room, bedroom, kitchen etc.). So as to ensure that
doors, windows, cupboards and circulation spaces do not prevent the placement of required
number of furniture items in the room.

6. Roominess: The effect produced by deriving the maximum benefit from the minimum
dimensions of a room is termed as roominess. Roominess is the accomplishment of economy of
space without cramping of the plan. Particularly in case of residential buildings where
considerable storage space is needed for various purpose, adequate provision of wall
cupboards, lofts wooden/R.C.C shelves etc., should be made to make maximum use of every
nook and corner of the building.

Following points should be kept in view for creating desirable impression regarding roominess:

A room square in plan appears relatively smaller than a rectangular room of same area.
It is also considered relatively smaller from utility point of view as compared with
rectangular room of the same area. Length of beam proportion for a good room is
taken as 1.2 to 1.5. If the ratio of length to breadth exceeds 1.5 it creates an undesirable
effect. A small room having its length more than 2 times its width is objectionable, as it
creates tunnel effect.

A small room with high walls appears relatively smaller than its actual size and as such
small rooms should have the maximum permissible height as per bye-laws.

The location of doors, windows and built-in cupboard etc., should be such that they
permit easy approach -ability and do not obstruct the placement of furniture etc.

It requires skill and serious thinking in making best use of the accommodation
provided by suitable, arrangement of rooms, by locating doors and passages in such a
way that the liveability, utility, privacy and exterior appearance are not adversely
affected.

The design of the building should be evolved in such a manner that its floors, walls and
ceiling create a sense of uninterrupted surfaces carried consistently through.

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7. Circulation: Circulation means internal through fares or access providing in a room or
between rooms on the same floor. Passage, halls and lobbies perform the function of
circulation on the same floor. Such provisions are termed as horizontal circulation. On the
other hand, stairs, lifts, ramps etc., which serves the purpose of providing means of access
between different floors get covered under the category of the term vertical circulation.

Following aspects should be kept in view to achieve good circulation:

For comfort and convenience, all passages, corridors, halls etc., on each floor should be
short, straight, well-ventilated and sufficiently lighted.

The location of entrance passages and staircase which serve as link between various
rooms and floors, need careful consideration right at the initial stage of planning.

In a multi-storeyed building, the staircase, which perhaps serve the only unfailing
means of vertical circulation, should be planned paying due regard to the size of tread
and riser, width of stair and landing, light and ventilation etc. Staircase should be also
located that they do not intro-due upon privacy of any room or cause disturbances in
the horizontal circulation.

Toilets, should be planned near the staircase block for easy accessibility.

8. Sanitation: The term sanitation covers not only sanitary convenience like water closet,
urinals, bath rooms, wash basins etc., but also proper and adequate lightning ventilation and
facilities for general cleaning of the building. From hygienic considerations, all parts of
the building should be well ventilated and lighted.

The lighting of the interior of the building may be done by natural lighting, assisted natural
lighting or by artificial lighting. Uniform distribution of light in necessary, especially in offices,
schools, factories and other similar buildings where number of persons work in the same
premises and each individual has to work at specified place.

For ensuring sun light for greater length of time it is desirable to provide vertical windows. For
proper lighting the area of windows in a room should not be less than 1/10th of the floor area
which may be increased to 1/5th for buildings like schools, offices, workshops, factories etc.

9. Elegance: Elegance is the term used to express the effect produced by the elevation and
general layout of the building. Hence for a building to be elegant. It is necessary that its
elevation should be evolved that it should be aesthetically pleasing and its layout should fit in
well in relation to the site and its environment.

10. Flexibility: Flexibility means designing certain rooms required for specific purpose in such
a manner that they may be used for overlapping functions as and when desired. This concept is
particularly important for designing houses where area scan not be increased from
consideration of cost yet the provision of additional facilities is desired during functions or
other occasions of social gatherings.

It is therefore desirable to plan drawing room and dining room with a removal partition wall or
screen in between them so that a large room can be obtained by removing the partition screen
to accommodate large gathering.

11. Economy: Economy is one of the very important factors which is required to be kept in
view while involving any scheme. Every unit of the built-up area is a function of cost and as
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 such the architect has to make sure that the building planned by him can be completed within
the funds available for the project. Many a times it becomes necessary to carry out number of
alterations in the plans to keep the proposal within the limitation of funds.

12. Location: Whether the home is in the country, the suburbs, the small city or metropolitan
city will certainly have some effect on its character.

13. Mobility: When location becomes a question not of putting down roots for a life time but of
planning a temporary or semi-permanent life space, the outlook must be more flexible. The
increasing popularity of mobile homes suggests that people are less willing to commit
themselves irrevocably to living in one place forever.

14. Climate: The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, altitude, persistent ice
or snow cover, as well as nearby oceans and their currents. It encompasses the temperatures,
humidity, rainfall and numerous other meteorological factors in a given region. The location
may be too cold, hot, hot and dry, hot and humid, wet based on the above factors.

15. People: The number and relationships of people who compromise a household must be a
primary factor in planning a life space in order that needs of each individual, and of the group
as a whole, can be met. Optimally, a life space planned for more than one person should
provide just the degree of privacy and just the degree of interaction with others that each
member desires.

16. Lifestyle: It is a vague term that could be defined in many different contexts. But for
purposes of planning a life space, we might consider it to mean the portion of time devoted to
various activities in the home. It also includes taking into account the activities that are carried
out by the inmates as a part of their routine and the methods employed while carrying them
out.

17. Psychology of people: It is about mental and behavioural functions of the inmates.
Psychological knowledge is applied to various spheres of human activity, including issues
related to everyday life—such as family, sports, education, employment and physical and mental
health. It may also result in Claustrophobia, the fear of enclosed space or Agoraphobia, the fear
of being in large and unenclosed space.

18. Taste: Among the most revealing indices of personality is taste, which we can define as the
particular likes and dislikes of an individual.

Linking of Various Spaces for Functional and Aesthetic Purposes

1. Spatial Flow: Thoughtful spatial planning ensures smooth circulation and spatial flow between
different areas of the building, promoting connectivity and ease of movement.

2. Visual Continuity: Visual connections between spaces create a sense of continuity and
openness, enhancing the perception of spatial volume and cohesion.

3. Aesthetic Harmony: Harmonious design elements, such as consistent materials, colours, and
architectural details, create a cohesive and visually pleasing environment that reflects the
project's design intent.

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Space Planning Concepts

The two basic concepts of organizing dwelling space are closed plan concept and open plan concept. A
series of tightly arranged rooms with minimum intercommunication is the closed plan concept, and
results in a compact effect

In open plan concept, a large room encompass space for most of the family activities such as living,
dining, entertainment, cooking and at times sleep without any interruption and can produces a
spacious feeling.

Open planning

This concept of planning space is more suitable for places along the sea coast. for example, where it is
the moisture and not heat which mainly affects comfort. The object here is to expose as much area of
the house to the outside air and admit as much breeze into the rooms as possible. Hence an open and
extended plan resembling letters L, E, U or H with large windows on outside walls is very suitable.
Further there should be as much open space in front and around buildings as possible. Areas of rooms
in such conditions should also be larger; it does not matter if the height is curtailed. By shaping the
space with partial walls, different floor levels, and furniture arrangements, incompatible functions can
be segregated.

Advantages of open plan

Reduced construction costs

Reduced time for cleaning & upkeep

Perception of larger space

Increased utility value to the space available

Flexibility to reorganize space

More effective transmission of air.

Disadvantages of open plan

Noisy activities may interfere with those requiring quiet

Retiring soul finds little opportunity for solitude

Planning for noise control with surfaces that absorb sound waves should be planned

They also call for provision for some segregated areas – multipurpose or family rooms for
active pursuits, seclusion rooms for quiet study, meditation, and relaxation.

Closed planning

This is the conventional concept of allocating space in any residential buildings. It divides available
space into separate rooms for specific activities such as drawing, dining, puja etc that ensures desired
privacy. At places where temperature, either very cold or very hot is deciding factor, the plan needs to
be closed and compact.

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TYPES OF LIFE SPACES

In every home five basic types of activities occur, and each require certain types of spaces

Social: encompass people from outside the family

Family: involve family members

Individual: involve only one person

Private: require visual & audio privacy

Work: accomplish a specific task

Entryways

Easily accessible for household members & their guests

Front entry: somewhat separated from living area; closet near front door; powder room for
guests

Service entry: through attached garage, To & from back yard through the public zone; easy
access to kitchen for outdoor entertaining & dining

Circulation

Avoid going through middle of rooms

Don’t interfere with good furniture arrangement nor interrupt activities

Don’t interfere with private zone

Don’t go through kitchen work area

Easy access from kitchen to rest of house

Direct access from entrance to clean-up area

Short paths to conserve human energy

Kitchen and Outdoor Work Area

Convenient work space & access

Configuration of basic work centres: countertops, cabinet storage, appliances & food
preparation

Suitable space standards

Plan for efficient task operation

Laundry area: near kitchen, service entry or bedrooms; choices based on lifestyles

Privacy: highly valued

private bath for householder

private den or study

secluded and not in direct sight nor sound transfer

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Ergonomics

Ergonomics focuses more specifically on people and machines. Similarly, this term is also originated
from Greek:

Ergon + nomos

“work” “natural laws"

Ergonomics is a science, which is concerned with the physical and psychological relationship
between machines and the people who use them.

Main objective of ergonomic studies is adapting design objects for the human use. While designing
objects, people’s capabilities and limitations are taken into account. This helps to ensure that the
product is fit for use by the target users.

Reference: http://www.designingforhumans.com

Ergonomic studies also searched to find ways to keep people safe, comfortable, and productive while they perform tasks at
work and home. Therefore, the goal of ergonomics is to design equipment, tools, job tasks, and the environment to
maximize productivity, efficiency, safety and comfort by reducing worker fatigue, stress, accident and discomfort.

Ergonomics at Home Environment

Home ergonomics is the science and study of fitting the home to the resident.

Home ergonomics is the kitchen idea of having components of a home that have been bedrooms designed
with the body's comfort in mind and prevent injuries.

Kitchen
Kitchen is the heart of the home. Two things are important at ergonomic kitchen design 'kitchen work
triangle' and ergonomics of good lighting. The key ingredients of an accessible kitchen also include:

1. Adequate space for moving around in work surfaces located at an appropriate height

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2. Access to the car and the waste disposal area to enable easy transport of groceries and rubbish

3. Access to the meals or dining area where food will be consumed

4.Adequate and appropriate storage suitable cooking devices

5. Suitable lighting, convenient fittings, handles and control

Various type of kitchen plan is possible based on the “work triangle” principle

Source: http://5litn2sb3a6yphwy4due7pibj.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/kitchen-work-triangle-
kohler.png

Place the sink first, if possible, try for a window

view.
It is helpful to have countertop space next to the
fridge, for when you take food out.
Keep the distance short between stovetop and
sink since heavy pot or hot water will be carried.
All the furniture, kitchen cabinets, sink must have
appropriate size for the user.
Lighting is very important in the kitchen.

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Source: http://cedarruntownhomes.com/standard-countertop-height-kitchen/standard-countertop-height/

Living Room
The living room is usually the largest room in the house. If the kitchen is the heart of the home, the
living room is its center and it is used by every member of the house.

The key ingredients of an accessible living room also include:

1. The selected furniture should meet with all of the user’s body comfort (For example on coach
or armchair your feet should touch the floor when sitting in your typical position).
2. The proper lighting, cooling and heating should be provided.
3. The noise control should also be considered.
4. When positioning TV/PC screens ensure they are at the right height for eye focus so there is no
strain. TVs should be wall mounted or standing in a position that is comfortable for all people
to watch so you head and neck do not feel strain.

Bathroom
Bathroom is an environment to relax. However, it also contains workstations for the practical activity of
washing. Bathroom design must be “user specific”.

Since user (such as children, wheelchair person or others) needs varies in the bathroom, it is important
to about the user’s physical form dimensions.

Secondly, it is important to identify if user wants bathroom open to the bedroom or set apart and private.

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 Bedroom
Most amount of time in bedroom take place in the bed while sleeping. Therefore, the noise control and
comfortable bed are very important for human well-being in bedroom.

1. The bedroom should be located near to a bathroom.

2. Small child’s bedroom should be near parents’ bedroom
3. There should not be bathroom or shower at children’s bedrooms due to safety reasons.
4. Wardrobes should be located by considering to leave enough space for circulation after opening
them.
5. If there is a double bed in the room, from both sides there should be enough space for two people
to get in and out separately

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Development of Elevations and Difference between Presentation Drawings and Working
Drawings

In the world of architecture, the concept of elevation plays a pivotal role in shaping our understanding
of buildings and structures. It is more than just a two-dimensional representation; elevations are
essential tools for architects, designers, builders, and even clients. This introductory section will shed
light on the significance of elevations in architectural practice, emphasizing their critical role in design
and effective communication.

Definition of Elevation

In the realm of architecture, an elevation is a precise and detailed representation of one vertical plane
or face of a building or structure. It offers a flat, two-dimensional view of this particular side, capturing
critical design elements, architectural features, and the overall aesthetic composition. An elevation
drawing serves as a visual blueprint, presenting a comprehensive and scaled depiction of a building's
exterior appearance from a specific vantage point.

The Importance of Elevations

Elevations are more than just aesthetically pleasing drawings; they serve as crucial tools in architectural
design and communication for several reasons:

Design Visualization: Elevations allow architects and designers to visualize their ideas in
a tangible form. They provide a clear picture of how a building will look from different
angles, aiding in the refinement of design concepts.
Client Engagement: Clients often have a hard time deciphering complex architectural
plans or blueprints. Elevations bridge this gap by presenting a simplified, user-friendly
view of the building's exterior. Clients can easily grasp the proposed design and offer
valuable feedback.
Regulatory Compliance: Many municipalities and governing bodies require detailed
elevation drawings as part of the permitting process. These drawings help ensure that the
proposed structure adheres to zoning laws, building codes, and aesthetic guidelines.
Construction Guidance: Contractors and builders rely on elevations to construct the
building accurately. They provide precise information about dimensions, materials, and
placement of architectural elements, reducing the likelihood of errors during construction.
Communication Between Stakeholders: Elevations serve as a common language among
architects, engineers, interior designers, and various stakeholders involved in a project.
They facilitate effective communication and collaboration throughout the design and
construction phases.
Historical Documentation: Elevations also serve as historical records of a building's
design and appearance. They offer valuable insights into architectural styles and trends
prevalent during a specific era.

The Role of Elevation Drawings in Conveying Design Intent

Elevation drawings are indispensable tools for architects and designers, playing a central role in
conveying design intent for several key reasons:
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 1. Visual Clarity: Elevation drawings provide a clear and unambiguous portrayal of the building's
external appearance. They enable designers to communicate their creative vision in a manner
that is readily understandable to clients, stakeholders, and construction teams.

2. Detailed Specification: Elevation drawings offer a level of detail that goes beyond what can be
conveyed in verbal or written descriptions. They specify crucial elements such as the
arrangement of windows and doors, materials used, proportions, and architectural
ornamentation.

3. Design Evaluation: Architects use elevation drawings to critically assess and refine their
designs. By viewing the building from various angles, they can make informed decisions
regarding symmetry, aesthetics, and the integration of design elements.

4. Client Engagement: Elevation drawings serve as a powerful tool for client engagement and
collaboration. Clients can see precisely how their future building will appear, allowing them to
provide feedback and make informed decisions about design modifications.

5. Construction Guidance: During the construction phase, elevation drawings become invaluable
references for contractors and builders. They offer precise instructions on how to execute the
design, including the placement of structural components, cladding materials, and architectural
embellishments.

6. Compliance and Approvals: Many architectural projects require approval from regulatory
bodies, which often necessitates the submission of detailed elevation drawings. These drawings
help ensure that the proposed structure adheres to zoning regulations, building codes, and
aesthetic guidelines.

7. Historical Documentation: Elevation drawings also serve as historical records, preserving the
architectural history and evolution of a structure. They provide insights into the design styles
and architectural trends of their respective eras.

Types of Elevations

In architectural practice, different types of elevations are used to provide a comprehensive view of a
building's exterior from various perspectives. Each type serves a distinct purpose in design,
construction, and communication. Here, we'll explore the most common types of elevations and how
they contribute to the architectural process:

Front Elevation:

Purpose: The front elevation, also known as the "principal elevation" or "facade elevation,"
is the most commonly depicted elevation. It offers a view of the building's front-facing
exterior, the side that is typically most visible to the public and street view.

Role: Front elevations showcase the building's primary design features, architectural style,
and aesthetic character. They are vital for initial design presentations, as they provide an
immediate impression of the building's overall appearance.

Rear Elevation:

Purpose: The rear elevation provides a view of the building's backside or rear façade. It is
particularly relevant when a building has a distinct rear entrance or when there are design
considerations for the rear of the structure.

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 Role: Rear elevations help ensure that the building's design is cohesive from all sides, even
if the rear is less visible to the public. They are essential for planning issues like access
points, landscaping, and any unique features that may be incorporated into the back of the
building.

Side Elevation:

Purpose: Side elevations, also known as "side views" or "side elevations," offer a view of
one of the building's lateral sides. They are typically used when the sides of the building are
architecturally significant or when there are specific design elements or features that need
to be highlighted.

Role: Side elevations provide valuable information about the proportions, fenestration
(window and door arrangement), and materials used on the less prominent sides of the
building. They help ensure design consistency and aesthetics throughout the entire
structure.

Cross-Section Elevation:

Purpose: Cross-section elevations are used to show vertical slices through a building. They
are particularly helpful when conveying complex interior layouts, vertical circulation
(elevators and stairs), and relationships between different floors or levels.

Role: Cross-section elevations provide insights into the building's interior spatial
arrangements, allowing architects and stakeholders to understand how different parts of
the building connect vertically. This is crucial for coordinating structural, mechanical, and
plumbing systems.

Corner Elevation:

Purpose: Corner elevations, as the name suggests, focus on the building's corners,
providing views of the meeting points between two sides. They are used when corners are
architecturally significant or when specific design elements, such as corner windows, are
incorporated.

Role: Corner elevations emphasize the design details and transitions between different
sides of the building, showcasing how they come together harmoniously. They are essential
for highlighting design intricacies and the building's overall cohesion.

Each type of elevation serves a unique purpose in architectural design and construction, enabling
architects to communicate their ideas effectively, ensure design consistency, and guide the
construction process. By utilizing these different perspectives, architects can create buildings that
are not only functional but also visually appealing from all angles, enhancing the overall
architectural experience for both the occupants and the surrounding community.

Components of an Elevation

Elevation drawings in architecture are composed of several key elements that collectively convey the
visual and design details of a building's exterior. These components help architects and stakeholders
understand how a structure will look when viewed from a specific angle. Here, we will break down the
essential elements of an elevation drawing and explain how materials, textures, and shading are used to
represent these elements:

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Walls:

Description: Walls form the primary structural and visual elements of a building's
exterior. In elevation drawings, walls are represented as solid lines, typically thicker than
other lines on the drawing.

Materials and Textures: Different wall materials, such as brick, stone, or siding, are
indicated using hatching or shading patterns. The choice of pattern and line weight helps
convey the texture and materiality of the walls.

Windows:

Description: Windows provide openings in the walls for natural light, ventilation, and
views. In elevations, windows are depicted as rectangular or geometric shapes within the
wall.

Materials and Textures: Window frames and mullions are often drawn with heavier lines
to distinguish them from the wall surface. Glass areas may be shaded to indicate
transparency.

Doors:

Description: Doors are entrances or access points in a building's façade. In elevation

drawings, doors are typically shown as rectangles with notations for swing direction.

Materials and Textures: Door frames and handles are often rendered with heavier lines
for clarity. The door material may be indicated with appropriate hatch patterns or shading.

Roof and Roof Elements:

Description: The roof is a critical component of the building's elevation, defining its shape
and style. Roof elements, such as dormers, chimneys, or parapets, are also included.

Materials and Textures: Roofing materials like shingles, tiles, or metal are represented
using specific patterns or shading. Roof elements are depicted with varying line weights to
distinguish them from the main roof structure.

Architectural Features:

Description: Architectural features encompass a wide range of elements, including

cornices, columns, balconies, and decorative elements that contribute to the building's
character.

Materials and Textures: These features are often highlighted with distinct lines, patterns,
or shading to emphasize their presence and ornamental qualities.

Landscaping and Context:

Description: Elevations may include representations of landscaping elements such as

trees, shrubs, or pathways. Contextual elements like neighbouring buildings or streets may
also be included.

Materials and Textures: Vegetation is often indicated using simple symbols or silhouettes.
Contextual features can be shown with less detail than the primary building elements to
focus attention on the building itself.
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 Shadows and Shading:

Description: Shadows and shading play a crucial role in elevation drawings, as they help
convey depth, dimension, and the play of light on the building's surface.

Materials and Textures: Shadows are typically cast in the direction opposite to the light
source, emphasizing the three-dimensional aspects of the building. Shading and hatching
patterns may be used to differentiate materials, surfaces, and recesses.

Understanding the Difference between Presentation Drawings and Working Drawings

1. Presentation Drawings: Presentation drawings are intended to communicate the design intent
and aesthetic qualities of a project to clients, stakeholders, and the general public. They often
emphasize artistic expression, clarity, and visual appeal, using techniques such as colour
rendering, shading, and perspective to enhance the presentation. presentation drawings
typically include people, vehicles and trees, taken from a library of such images, and are
otherwise very similar in style to working drawings.

2. Working Drawings: Working drawings, also known as construction drawings or technical

drawings, provide detailed information and instructions for the construction and assembly of
architectural elements. They focus on accuracy, precision, and technical specifications,
including dimensions, materials, construction details, and building codes compliance.

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Final Project: Creating Presentation Drawings and Working Drawings for a Small Architectural Project

1. Presentation Drawings: Develop presentation drawings that showcase the architectural

design concept, including elevation views, perspective renderings, and artistic representations
of key spaces and features. Use colour, shading, and graphic elements to enhance visual appeal
and communicate the design vision effectively.

2. Working Drawings: Prepare working drawings that provide detailed information for the
construction of the small architectural project. Include plans, elevations, sections, details,
schedules, and specifications that adhere to industry standards and regulatory requirements.
Ensure accuracy, clarity, and completeness to facilitate the construction process and ensure
quality outcomes.

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