Elements of

Manufacturing
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Processes
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B.S. Nagendra Parashar

R.K. Mittal
 ELEMENTS OF
MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES

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B.S. NAGENDRA PARASHAR
Pro Vice-Chancellor
ta K.L. University, Guntur
Andhra Pradesh
Formerly, Assistant Dean, Practice School Division &
Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering
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Birla Institute of Technology and Science
Pilani

R.K. MITTAL
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Professor of Mechanical Engineering

and Director, Dubai Campus
Birla Institute of Technology and Science
Dubai International Academic City
Dubai, UAE
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New Delhi-110001
2011
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ELEMENTS OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

B.S. Nagendra Parashar and R.K. Mittal

© 2003 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book
may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in
writing from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-1958-5

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Tenth Printing … … July, 2011

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Sareen Printing Press, Delhi-110042.
1 Contents

Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix

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1. Manufacturing Concepts 1–14
Key Terms 1 ta
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Manufacturing Processes 3
1.2.1 Casting 3
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1.2.2 Machining 3
1.2.3 Forming 4
1.2.4 Powder metallurgy 5
1.2.5 Joining 5
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1.3 Allied Activities 6

1.3.1 Measurement 6
1.3.2 Assembly 7
1.3.3 Property changing 7
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1.4 Selection of Manufacturing Process 8

1.5 Types of Production 8
1.5.1 Job shop production 8
1.5.2 Batch production 8
1.5.3 Mass production 9
1.6 Professionalism and Ethics 9
1.7 Safety 9
1.7.1 Enforcing safety 10
1.7.2 General safety considerations 11
Review Questions 13

2. Engineering Materials 15 –37

Key Terms 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Structure of Materials 17
2.2.1 Crystalline structures of metals 17
2.3 Properties of Materials 18
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 iv Contents

2.4 Mechanical Properties 19

2.4.1 Types of stresses 19
2.4.2 Stress-strain relationship 21
2.4.3 Toughness 24
2.4.4 Hardness 25
2.4.5 Ductility 25
2.4.6 Brittleness 25
2.4.7 Malleability 25
2.4.8 Resilience 25
2.4.9 Stiffness 26
2.4.10 Poisson’s ratio 26
2.5 Modes of Fracture 27
2.5.1 Ductile fracture 27
2.5.2 Brittle fracture 28

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2.5.3 Creep fracture 29
2.5.4 Fatigue fracture 29
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2.6 Factor of Safety 30
2.7 Common Engineering Materials 31
2.7.1 Cast iron 31
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2.7.2 Steel 31
2.7.3 Aluminium 32
2.7.4 Copper 32
2.7.5 Lead 33
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2.7.6 Zinc 33
2.7.7 Tin 33
2.8 Selection of Material 33
2.9 Solved Examples 34
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Review Questions 36

3. Measurements and Quality in Manufacturing 38 –55

Key Terms 38
3.1 Introduction 38
3.2 Metrology 39
3.3 Inspection 40
3.4 Definition of Terms 40
3.4.1 Accuracy 40
3.4.2 Precision 41
3.4.3 Tolerance 41
3.4.4 Surface finish 41
3.4.5 Quality 42
3.4.6 Reliability 42
3.4.7 Interchangeability 43
3.5 Measuring and Inspection Instruments 43
3.5.1 Direct-measuring instruments 44
 Contents v

3.5.2 Indirect-measuring instruments 44

3.5.3 Gauges 44
3.5.4 Inspection in mass production 46
3.6 Limits and Fits 46
3.7 Tolerance 47
3.8 Fits 49
3.8.1 Clearance fit 49
3.8.2 Interference fit 49
3.8.3 Transition fit 50
3.9 Quality Aspects 51
3.9.1 Quality control 51
3.9.2 Zero quality control 51
3.9.3 ISO 9000 52
3.10 Solved Examples 53

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Review Questions 54

4.
Key Terms 56
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Theory of Metal Cutting

4.1 Introduction 56
56 – 84
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4.2 Machine Tools 58
4.3 Cutting Tools 60
4.3.1 Mechanism of metal cutting 60
4.4 Tool Materials 61
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4.4.1 Tool steel (TS) 61

4.4.2 High-speed steel (HSS) 62
4.4.3 Carbides 63
4.4.4 Abrasives 63
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4.4.5 Diamond 63
4.4.6 Cubic boron nitride (CBN) 63
4.4.7 Ucon 64
4.4.8 Ceramics 64
4.4.9 Tipped tools 64
4.4.10 Coated tools 65
4.5 Types of Tools 65
4.5.1 Single point tools 65
4.5.2. Multipoint tools 65
4.6 Tool Geometry 65
4.6.1. Geometry of single-point turning tool 66
4.6.2 Cutting tool angles 67
4.7 Tool Signature 69
4.8 Left Hand and Right Hand Tools 69
4.9 Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting 70
4.10 Types of Chips 71
4.11 Thermal Aspects in Machining 72
 vi Contents

4.12 Failure of Tool 73

4.12.1 Crater wear 73
4.12.2 Flank wear 74
4.13 Cutting Fluids 74
4.14 Operating Conditions in Metal Cutting 75
4.14.1 Cutting speed 75
4.14.2 Feed 75
4.14.3 Depth of cut 76
4.14.4 Material removal rate and machining time 76
4.15 Tool Life 77
4.16 Machinability 79
4.17 Solved Examples
Review Questions 82

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5. Turning Operations 85 –113
Key Terms 85
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5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 The Lathe 86
5.3 Types of Lathes 88
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5.4 Size of a Lathe 89
5.5 Work Holding on Lathe 89
5.5.1 Chucks 89
5.5.2 Centres 90
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5.5.3 Faceplates 91
5.5.4 Rests 91
5.5.5 Mandrels 92
5.5.6 Lathe dogs 92
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5.6 Operating Conditions in a Lathe 93

5.6.1 Cutting speed 93
5.6.2 Feed 93
5.6.3 Depth of cut 94
5.7 Material Removal Rate (MRR) 95
5.8 Operations on Lathe 95
5.8.1 Turning 96
5.8.2 Facing 96
5.8.3 Knurling 96
5.8.4 Grooving 98
5.8.5 Parting 98
5.8.6 Chamfering 99
5.8.7 Eccentric turning 99
5.8.8 Taper turning 100
5.8.9 Drilling 101
5.8.10 Thread cutting 103
5.9 Process Sequence 104
 Contents vii

5.10 Machining Time 105

5.11 Manufacturing Time 105
5.12 Solved Examples 105
Review Questions 110

6. Drilling and Allied Operations 114 –129

Key Terms 114
6.1 Introduction 114
6.2 Drilling Machines 114
6.3 The Drilling Operation 115
6.4 The Drill 116
6.5 Operating Conditions in Drilling 117
6.6 Material Removal Rate 117
6.7 Machining Time in Drilling 118

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6.8 Boring 118
6.9 Reaming 120
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6.10 Tapping 121
6.11 Other Related Operations 122
6.11.1 Counterboring and spotfacing 122
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6.11.2 Countersinking 122
6.12 Solved Examples 123
Review Questions 127
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7. Shaping, Planing and Slotting Operations 130–144

Key Terms 130
7.1 Introduction 130
7.2 The Shaper 131
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7.3 Types of Shaping Machines 132

7.4 The Shaping Operation 133
7.4.1 Machining of inclined surfaces 134
7.5 Operating Conditions in a Shaping Machine 134
7.5.1 Cutting speed 134
7.5.2 Feed 135
7.5.3 Depth of cut 136
7.6 Machining Time 136
7.7 Material Removal Rate 136
7.8 The Planer 136
7.9 Types of Planing Machines 137
7.10 Planing Operation 138
7.11 Operating Conditions in Planers 138
7.11.1 Cutting speed 138
7.11.2 Feed 138
7.11.3 Depth of cut 138
7.11.4 Material removal rate 138
viii Contents

7.12 Size of Shapers and Planers 139

7.13 Differences between Shapers and Planers 139
7.14 Slotting Machine 139
7.15 Solved Examples 140
Review Questions 142

8. Milling Operations 145–168

Key Terms 145
8.1 Introduction 145
8.2 The Milling Machine 146
8.2.1 Horizontal knee and column type
milling machine 146
8.2.2 Vertical knee and column type
milling machine 147

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8.3 The Milling Process 148
8.3.1 Up milling 148
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8.3.2 Down milling 149
8.4 Operating Conditions in Milling 150
8.4.1 Cutting speed 150
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8.4.2 Feed 150
8.4.3 Depth of cut 151
8.4.4 Width of cut 151
8.5 Material Removal Rate 151
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8.6 Machining Time 152

8.6.1 Length of cut 152
8.7 Different Types of Milling Operations 153
8.7.1 End-milling 154
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8.7.2 Plain milling 154

8.7.3 Side-and-face milling 155
8.8 Solved Examples 155
Review Questions 166

9. Finishing Processes 169–182

Key Terms 169
9.1 Introduction 169
9.2 Abrasive Machining 170
9.3 Abrasives 171
9.3.1 Natural abrasives 171
9.3.2 Synthetic abrasives 172
9.4 The Grinding Wheel 172
9.4.1 Construction of grinding wheel 172
9.4.2 Process of making a grinding wheel 173
9.4.3 Characteristics of a grinding wheel 174
9.4.4 Selection of a grinding wheel 174
 Contents ix

9.5 Grinding Machines 175

9.5.1 Surface grinding machine 175
9.6 Fine Finishing Operations 176
9.6.1 Lapping 176
9.6.2 Honing 178
9.6.3 Superfinishing 179
9.6.4 Polishing 179
9.6.5 Buffing 179
9.7 Surface Finish, Accuracy and Cost 179
9.8 Solved Examples 180
Review Questions 181

10. Phase Change Processes for Material Property

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Manipulation 183–202
Key Terms 183
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10.1 Introduction 183
10.2 Phase Diagrams 184
10.3 Solid Solution 185
10.4 Cooling Curves 185
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10.5 Equilibrium Diagram for two Metals Which
are Completely Soluble in Both Liquid and
Solid Phases 186
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10.6 Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) Equilibrium Diagram 188

10.7 Heat Treatment Processes 192
10.7.1 Annealing 193
10.7.2 Spheroidizing 193
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10.7.3 Normalizing 193

10.7.4 Hardening 193
10.7.5 Case hardening 194
10.7.6 Nitriding 194
10.7.7 Tempering 195
10.8 Heat Treatment Procedure 195
10.9 Strain Hardening 196
10.10 Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth 196
10.10.1 Recovery 196
10.10.2 Recrystallization 197
10.10.3 Grain growth 198
10.11 Hot Working and Cold Working Processes 198
10.11.1 Hot working 198
10.11.2 Cold working 199
Review Questions 200
 x Contents

11. Casting Processes 203 –245

Key Terms 203
11.1 Introduction 203
11.2 The Casting Process 205
11.3 Pattern Making 206
11.3.1 Pattern materials 207
11.3.2 Types of patterns 208
11.3.3 Removable and disposable patterns 210
11.3.4 Pattern allowances 210
11.4 Moulding Sands 213
11.4.1 Types of moulding sand 213
11.4.2 Properties of moulding sand 214
11.5 Moulding 215
11.5.1 Types of moulds 215

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11.5.2 Tools used in moulding 216
11.5.3 Procedure for making a mould 217
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11.5.4 Moulding processes 219
11.5.5 Types of moulding operations 219
11.6 Cores 220
11.6.1 Properties of core 221
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11.6.2 Core making 221
11.7 Gating System 221
11.8 Melting and Pouring of Metal 223
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11.8.1 Cupola furnace 224

11.9 Directional Solidification 225
11.10 Solidification Time 226
11.11 Casting Yield 227
11.12 Defects in Sand Casting 227
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11.12.1 Blowholes 227

11.12.2 Shrinkage defects 227
11.12.3 Hot tears 228
11.12.4 Misruns, cold shuts and pour short 228
11.12.5 Inclusions 228
11.13 Special Casting Processes 228
11.13.1 Plaster mould casting process 229
11.13.2 Shell moulding casting process 230
11.13.3 Permanent mould casting process 231
11.13.4 Die-casting process 232
11.13.5 Continuous casting process 234
11.13.6 Centrifugal casting process 235
11.14 Advantages and Limitations of the Casting
Processes 235
11.15 Selection of Casting Process 236
11.16 Solved Examples 237
Review Questions 243
 Contents xi

12. Metal Forming Processes 246 –271

Key Terms 246
12.1 Introduction 246
12.2 Rolling Processes 248
12.2.1 Rolling operation 249
12.2.2 Terminology used in rolling 250
12.2.3 Rolling mills 251
12.2.4 Rolling parameters 253
12.3 Thread Rolling 255
12.4 Extrusion Process 255
12.4.1 Types of extrusion 256
12.4.2 Extrusion pressure in direct and indirect
extrusion 258
12.5 Forging Processes 261

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12.5.1 Forging materials 262
12.5.2 Classification of forging operations 263
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12.5.3 Types of forging operations 264
12.5.4 Rotary swaging 266
12.6 Solved Examples 266
Review Questions 269
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13. Sheet-metal Working 272–285
Key Terms 272
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13.1 Introduction 272

13.2 Punches and Dies 273
13.3 Sheet-metal Working Operations 273
13.3.1 Piercing and punching 273
13.3.2 Blanking 274
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13.3.3 Notching 274

13.3.4 Beading 274
13.3.5 Flanging 275
13.3.6 Hemming 275
13.3.7 Seaming 275
13.3.8 Perforating 276
13.3.9 Slitting 276
13.3.10 Lancing 276
13.4 Mechanism of Blanking 277
13.5 Drawing 278
13.5.1 Drawing or shearing force 279
13.6 Coining 279
13.7 Embossing 280
13.8 Wire Drawing 281
13.9 Metal Spinning 282
13.10 Solved Examples 282
Review Questions 284
xii Contents

14. Powder Metallurgy 286 –293

Key Terms 286
14.1 Introduction 286
14.2 Powder Metallurgy Manufacturing Process 287
14.2.1 Production of metal powders 287
14.2.2 Mixing of powders 288
14.2.3 Compaction 289
14.2.4 Sintering 290
14.2.5 Secondary operations 290
14.3 Advantages of Powder Metallurgy 291
14.4 Limitations of Powder Metallurgy 292
Review Questions 292

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15. Mechanical Joining Processes 294 –318
Key Terms 294
15.1 Introduction 294
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15.2 Classification of Joining Processes 296
15.3 Welding Process 297
15.3.1 Types of welding processes 298
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15.3.2 Pre-welding requirements 298
15.3.3 Types of welding joints 298
15.3.4 Edge preparations for welding 299
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15.3.5 Welding technique 299

15.4 Arc Welding 300
15.4.1 Electron theory of arc column 300
15.4.2 Arc welding process 301
15.4.3 Weld penetration 302
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15.5 Gas Welding 303

15.5.1 Gas welding process 304
15.5.2 Types of flames 305
15.5.3 Fluxes 305
15.5.4 Filler material 305
15.6 Resistance Welding 306
15.6.1 Spot welding 306
15.6.2 Seam welding 306
15.6.3 Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding 307
15.7 Soldering and Brazing 308
15.7.1 Soldering 309
15.7.2 Brazing 310
15.8 Mechanical Fasteners 311
15.8.1 Threaded fasteners 312
15.8.2 Non-threaded fasteners 315
Review Questions 317
 Contents xiii

16. Processing of Plastics 319–325

Key Terms 319
16.1 Introduction 319
16.2 Types of Plastics 321
16.2.1 Thermosetting plastics 321
16.2.2 Thermoplastic plastics 322
16.3 Forms of Raw Plastic Material 322
16.3.1 Powder form 322
16.3.2 Laminated sheets and rods 323
16.3.3 Fibres 323
16.3.4 Resin 323
16.4 Methods of Processing Plastics 323
16.4.1 Compression moulding 324
16.4.2 Injection moulding 324

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Review Questions 325

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17. Non-conventional Resources in Manufacturing
Key Terms 326
17.1 Introduction 326
326 –342

17.2 Why Non-conventional Machining? 328

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17.3 Classification of Non-conventional
Machining Processes 329
17.4 Non-conventional Machining Processes 330
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17.4.1 Water jet machining (WJM) process 330

17.4.2 Chemical machining (CM) process 333
17.4.3 Electrochemical machining (ECM)
process 335
17.4.4 Electrical discharge machining
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(EDM) process 336

17.5 Non-conventional Forming Processes 338
17.5.1 Explosive forming process 338
17.6 Non-conventional Joining Process 340
17.6.1 Laser beam welding process 340
17.7 Non-conventional Process Selection 341
Review Questions 341

18. Computer Controlled Manufacturing Processes 343 –363

Key Words 343
18.1 Introduction 343
18.2 Numerical Control (NC) 346
18.2.1 Advantages of NC system 347
18.2.2 Disadvantages of NC system 348
18.2.3 Comparison between conventional
machines and NC machines 348
18.2.4 CNC retrofitting 349
xiv Contents

18.3 Coordinate Systems and Program Zero Point 349

18.4 Classification of Numerical Control Machines 351
18.4.1 Type of motion 351
18.4.2 Programming method 352
18.4.3 Control system 352
18.5 Direct Numerical Control 354
18.6 Adaptive Control Systems 355
18.7 Robotics 356
18.7.1 Structure of a robot 356
18.7.2 What robots can do? 357
18.7.3 Applications of robots in
manufacturing 358
18.7.4 Robotics scenario in India 360
18.8 Advantages and Limitations of Computer

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Controlled Manufacturing Processes 360
18.8.1 Advantages of automation and
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18.8.2 Limitations of automation and
computer controlled machines 361
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18.9 Solved Examples 361
Review Questions 362

19. Economics of Manufacturing 364 –377

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Key Terms 364

19.1 Introduction 364
19.2 Cost in Manufacturing 365
19.3 Break-even Analysis 366
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19.4 Break-even Analysis of a Single Product 367

19.5 Profit-volume Chart 369
19.6 Economics of New Design 370
19.7 Preferred Numbers 371
19.8 Solved Examples 372
Review Questions 375

20. Production Management 378–385

Key Terms 378
20.1 Introduction 378
20.2 Plant Layout 379
20.2.1 Product layout 379
20.2.2 Process layout 380
20.2.3 Fixed layout 381
20.3 Scheduling 381
20.4 Inventory Control 382
Review Questions 384
 Elements Of Manufacturing Processes

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Author : B. S. Nagendra
Publisher : PHI Learning ISBN : 9788120319585
Parashar, R. K. Mittal

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