SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

UNIT – I – LOGIC – SMTB1212

 UNIT I: LOGIC
Statements - Truth tables - Connectives - Equivalent Propositions - Tautological Implications
- Normal forms -Predicate Calculus, Inference theory for Propositional Calculus and Predicate
Calculus.

Propositional Logic – Definition

A proposition is a collection of declarative statements that has either a truth value
"true” or a truth value "false". A propositional consists of propositional variables
and connectives. We denote the propositional variables by capital letters (A, B,…,
P,Q,…). The connectives connect the propositional variables.

Some examples of Propositions are given below −

• "Man is Mortal", it returns truth value “TRUE”

• "12 + 9 = 3 − 2", it returns truth value “FALSE”

The following is not a Proposition −

• "A is less than 2". It is because unless we give a specific value of A, we cannot say
whether the statement is true or false.

Connectives
In propositional logic generally we use five connectives which are − OR (˅), AND (˄),
Negation/ NOT (¬), If-then/Conditional (→), If and only if/ Biconditional (↔).

OR (˅) : The OR operation of two propositions A and B (written as A ˅ B) is true if at least any
of the propositional variable A or B is true.
The truth table is as follows −

A B A˅B

True True True

True False True

False True True

False False False

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AND (˄) : The AND operation of two propositions A and B (written as A ˄ B) is true if both
the propositional variable A and B is true.
The truth table is as follows −

A B A˄B
True True True

True False False

Fals True False

e False False

Fals

Negatione (¬) :The negation of a proposition A (written as ¬A) is false when A is true and is true
when A is false.

The truth table is as follows –

A ¬A
True False

False True

If-then /Conditional (→): An implication A→ B is False if A is true and B is false. The rest of the
cases are true.Here A is called Hypothesis or antecedent and q is called consequent or conclusion.
The truth table is as follows −

A B A→ B

True True True

True False False

False True True

False False True

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If and only if (↔) : A↔B is bi-conditional logical connective which is true when p and q are
both false or both are true.
The truth table is as follows −

A B A↔B
True True
True
True False
False
False True
False
False False
True

Tautologies
A Tautology is a formula which is always true for every value of its propositional variables.
Example − Prove [(A → B) ˄ A] → B is a tautology

The truth table is as follows −

A B A→B (A → B) ˄ A [(A → B) ˄ A] → B

True True True True True

True False False False True

False True True False True

False False True False True

As we can see every value of [(A → B) ˄ A] → B is “True”, it is a tautology.

Contradictions
A Contradiction is a formula which is always false for every value of its propositional variables.

Example − Prove (A ˅ B) ˄ [(¬A) ˄ (¬B)] is a contradiction

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The truth table is as follows −

A B A˅ ¬A ¬B (¬A) ˄ (A ˅ B) ˄ [(¬A) ˄
B (¬B) (¬B)]

True True True False False False False

True False True False True False False

False True True True False False False

False False False True True True False

As we can see every value of (A ˅ B)[∧¬A)

( ∧ (¬B)] is “False”, it is a

contradiction
Contingency
A Contingency is a formula which has both some true and some false values for every value of
its propositional variables.

Example − Prove (A ˅ B ˅) ˄ (¬A) a contingency

The truth table is as follows −

A B A˅B ¬A (A ˅ B) ∧ (¬A)

True True True False False

True False True False False

False True True True True

False False False True False

As we can see every value of (A ˅ B) ˄ (¬A) has both “True” and “False”, it
is a contingency.

Propositional Equivalences
Two statements X and Y are logically equivalent if any of the following two conditions −

• The truth tables of each statement have the same truth values.

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• The bi-conditional statement ↔X Y is a tautology.

Example − Prove ¬(A ˅ B) and [(¬A) (˄¬B)] are equivalent
Testing by 1st method (Matching truth table)
A B A ˅B ¬ (A ˅ B) ¬A ¬B [(¬A) ˄ (¬B)]

True True True False False False False

True False True False False True False

False True True False True False False

False False False True True True True

Here, we can see the truth values of ¬ (A ˅ B) and [(¬˄ A(¬) B)] are same, hence the statements
are equivalent.

Testing by 2nd method (Bi-conditionality)

A B ¬ (A ˅ [(¬A) ˄ [¬ (A ˅ B)] ⇔ [(¬A) ˄
B) (¬B)] (¬B)]

True True False False True

True False False False True

False True False False True

False False True True True

As [¬ (A ˅ B)] ⇔ [(¬A) ˄ (¬B)] is a tautology, the statements are equivalent.

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EQUIVALENT LAWS

Logical Equivalences involving Conditional Statements

Logical Equivalences involving Biconditional Statements

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A conditional statement has two parts − Hypothesis and Conclusion.

Example of Conditional Statement − “If you do your homework, you will not be punished.”
Here, "you do your homework" is the hypothesis and "you will not be punished" is the
conclusion.

Inverse, Converse, and Contra-positive

Inverse –An inverse of the conditional statement is the negation of both the hypothesis
and the conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the inverse will be “If not p, then
not q”. The inverse of “If you do your homework, you will not be punished” is “If you do
not do your homework, you will be punished.”

Converse −The converse of the conditional statement is computed by interchanging the

hypothesis and the conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the inverse will be “If q,
then p”. The converse of "If you do your homework, you will not be punished" is "If you will
not be punished, you do not do your homework”.

Contra-positive –The contra-positive of the conditional is computed by interchanging the

hypothesis and the conclusion of the inverse statement. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the
inverse will be “If not q, then not p”. The Contra-positive of "If you do your homework, you
will not be punished” is "If you will be punished, you do your homework”.
Example:

DUALITY PRINCIPLE
Duality principle set states that for any true statement, the dual statement obtained by
interchanging unions into intersections (and vice versa) and interchanging Universal
set into Null set (and vice versa) is also true. If dual of any statement is the statement
itself, it is said self-dual statement.

Examples : i) The dual of (A ∩ B) ∪ C is (A ∪ B) ∩ C

ii) The dual of P ˄ Q ˄ F is P ˅ Q ˅ T

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Elementary Product: A product of the variables and their negations in
called an elementary product. If P and Q are any two atomic variables, then p, ¬ p q ,
¬ q p ¬ p are some examples of elementary products.
Elementary Sum: A sum of the variables and their negations in a form
elementary sum. If P and Q are any two atomic variables, then p, ¬ p q, ¬ q p are some
examples of elementary sums.

Normal Forms
We can convert any proposition in two normal forms −

1. Conjunctive normal form 2.Disjunctive normal form

Conjunctive Normal Form
A compound statement is in conjunctive normal form if it is obtained by operating AND among
variables (negation of variables included) connected with ORs.
Examples

• (P ∪ Q) ∩ (Q ∪ R)

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 • (¬P ∪ Q ∪S ∪¬T)
Disjunctive Normal Form
A compound statement is in disjunctive normal form if it is obtained by operating OR among
variables (negation of variables included) connected with ANDs.

Examples

• (P ∩ Q) ∪ (Q ∩
• R) (¬P ∩ Q ∩ S

Predicate
∩¬T)Logic deals with predicates, which are propositions containing variables.

Functionally Complete set

A set of logical operators is called functionally complete if every compound proposition is

logically equivalent to a compound proposition involving only this set of logical operators.
, , and ¬form a functionally complete set of operators.

Minterms: For two variables p and q there are 4 possible formulas which consist of
conjunctions of p,q or its negation given by p q, p ¬q, ¬ p q and ¬ p ¬ ¬ q
Maxterms: For two variables p and q there are 4 possible formulas which consist of
disjunctions of p,q or its negation given by p q, p ¬ q, ¬ p q and ¬ p ¬ q
Principal Disjunctive Normal Form: For a given formula an equivalent formula
consisting of disjunctions of minterms only is known as principal disjunctive normal
form(PDNF)

Principal Conjunctive Normal Form: For a given formula an equivalent formula consisting of
conjunctions of maxterms only is known as principal conjunctive normal form(PCNF)

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Consistency and Inconsistency of Premises

A set of formular H,H,…,H is said to be inconsistentif their conjunction implies

1 2 m
Contradiction.
A set of formular H,H,…,H is said to be consistentif their conjunction implies
1 2 m
Tautology.
Rules of Inference
Rule P: A premise may be introduced at any point in the derivation
Rule T: A formula S may be introduced at any point in a derivation if S is tautologically
implied by any one or more of the preceeding formula.
Rule CP: If S can be derived from R and set of premises , then R S can be derived from the
set of premises alone.

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Rule of inference to build arguments

Example:

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Quantifiers
The variable of predicates is quantified by quantifiers. There are two types of quantifier in
predicate logic − Universal Quantifier and Existential Quantifier.

Universal Quantifier
Universal quantifier states that the statements within its scope are true for every value of the
specific variable. It is denoted by the symbol ∀.
∀x P(x) is read as for every value of x, P(x) is true.

Example − "Man is mortal" can be transformed into the propositional form ∀x P(x) where P(x)

is the predicate which denotes x is mortal and the universe of discourse is all men.

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Existential Quantifier
Existential quantifier states that the statements within its scope are true for some
values of the specific variable. It is denoted by the symbol ∃.∃x P(x) is read as for
some values of x, P(x) is true.

Example − "Some people are dishonest" can be transformed into the propositional form ∃x P(x)

where P(x) is the predicate which denotes x is dishonest and the universe of discourse is some
people.
Nested Quantifiers
If we use a quantifier that appears within the scope of another quantifier, it is called nested
quantifier.

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Inference theory for Predicate calculus

Problem : 2
Symbolize the following statements:
(a) All men are mortal
(b) All the world loves a lover
(c) X is the father of mother of Y
(d)No cats has a tail
(e) Some people who trust others are rewarded
Solution:

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Problem: 3

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Problem: 4

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