Unit 2

Optics, LASER & Fiber Optics

Syllabus:
Optics: Interference of light in thin film, wedge shaped film and its application, Newton’s rings experiment and its
application, polarization of light, Brewster’s Law and its application, Optical activity, specific rotation, Laurent’s half shade
polarimeter experiment.
LASER: Principle and characteristics of LASER, Types of LASER – Ruby and He-Ne LASER and applications of Laser.
Fiber Optics: Principle and structure of optical fibre, acceptance angle, acceptance cone, numerical aperture of optical fibre
and applications of optical fibre.

LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

1. Characteristics/Properties of Laser

a. High Directionality: Laser light has highly directional nature.

Directionality arises due to multiple reflections between the mirrors in the confines of the cavity.
b. High Intensity: Laser light is highly intense than the convectional light.
c. Monochromatic: Laser light is highly monochromatic (single colour) in nature.
d. Laser light is highly coherent (all radiations are in same phase).

Principle of a LASER
LASER is produced by the energy released by electrons (or ions or atoms) moving from high
energy level to low energy level followed by collision with excited atoms releasing two identical photons.
When an atom exposed to l photons(radiations) of energy E = h𝜐,following three distinct processes take
place: a) Absorption of radiation, b) Spontaneous emission, c) Stimulated emission

a) Absorption of radiation:
An atom/electron in the lower energy level E1 absorbs the
incident photon of energy E = h𝜐 and goes to the higher energy
level E2.
This process is called absorption.
the rate of absorption (R12) is given as
R12 ∝ N1 𝜌𝑣
R12 = B12 N1 𝜌𝑣 ………..(1)
Where, 𝜌𝑣 = Energy density of incident radiation,
N1 = no. of atoms in the ground stateand
B12 = is a constant which gives the probability of absorption
transition per unit time.
b) Spontaneous emission:
An atom/electron in the excited state return to the ground state by emitting
photons of energy E = (E2 – E1) spontaneously without any external triggering.
This process is known as Spontaneous emission.
If N1 and N2 are the numbers of atoms in the ground state (E 1 )
and excited state (E2) respectively, then
The rate of spontaneous emission is given as, R21 ∝ N2
∴ R21 = A21 N2 …………(2) Where A21- is a constant which
gives the probability of spontaneous emission transitions per
unit time

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 c. Stimulated Emission:
An atom/electron in the excited state can also return to the
ground state by emitting a photon of energy equal to the
energy of the incident photon, this process is known as
stimulated emission.
Thus results in two photons of same energy, phase
difference and of same directionality as shown in fig.
the rate of stimulated emission is given by,
R21 ∝ 𝜌𝑣 N2
∴ R21 = B21 𝜌𝑣 N2 ……………(3)
Where B21- is a constant which gives the probability of
stimulated emission transitions per unit time.

working of a LASER involves following systems:

a) Population Inversion
The number of atoms present in the excited (or higher) state is greater than the
number of atoms present in the ground state (or lower) state is called population
inversion.
Condition for Population inversion
There must be at least two energy levels E2 > E1.
There must be a source to supply the energy to the medium.
The atoms must be continuously raised to the excited state

b) Active Medium/material
A medium in which population inversion can be achieved is known as active medium. The active medium is a collection of atoms or
molecules, which can be excited into a population inversion situation. The active medium can be in any state of matter: solid, liquid, gas or
plasma.

c) Optical Resonator
An optical resonator consists of a pair of reflecting surfaces in which one
is fully reflecting (R1) and the other is partially reflecting (R2). The active
material is placed in between these two reflecting surfaces. The photons
generated due to transitions between the energy states of active material are
bounced back and forth between two reflecting surfaces. This will induce
more and more stimulated transition leading to laser action.

d) Pumping Action

The process to achieve the population inversion

in the medium is called Pumping action. It is
essential requirement for producing a laser
beam.
The methods commonly used for pumping
action are:
a. Optical pumping (Excitation by Photons),
b. Electrical discharge method (Excitation by
electrons)
c. Direct conversion
d. Inelastic atom – atom collision between
atoms

Fig. a two level Pumping. Fig. b Three level Pumping

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 2.0 Types of LASER: Based on their gain medium, LASERs are classified into five main types:
1. Solid-State Lasers. (e.g. Ruby Laser, Nd: YAG Laser) 2.Liquid Lasers (Dye LASER)
3. Gas Lasers (He-Ne Laser, CO2 Laser) 4. Semiconductor Lasers
5. Chemical LASER

2.1 Ruby LASER:

A ruby laser is a solid-state laser that uses the synthetic ruby crystal as its laser medium. Ruby laser is the
first successful laser developed by T.H. Maiman in 1960.Ruby laser is one of the few solid-state lasers that
produce visible light. It emits deep red light of wavelength 694.3 nm.

A. Construction of Ruby laser:

a) Ruby laser is a three level solid

state laser and was constructed by T.H.
Mainmann in 1960. Ruby is a crystal of
Aluminium oxide(Al2O3), in which
0.05% of Al+3 ions are replaced by the
Cr+3 ions.
The active medium in the ruby rod is
Cr+3 ions. The colour of the rod is pink.
Ruby laser produces visible light of
deep red color of wavelength 6943 A0.

i. Active material:
Ruby Laser is made up of synthetic Ruby Crystal in the form of Cylindrical rod(AB) of Length
2cm-30cm and 0.5cm to 2.0cm in diameter. One end (A) is fully silvered while other end (B) is partially
silvered so that they can act as fully reflecting and partially reflecting surfaces respectively. The ruby rod
is crystal of Al2O3 in which Chromium oxide Cr2O3 is added as an impurity so that some Al3+ ions are
replaced by Cr3+ ions act as active medium which gives rise LASER action.

ii. Resonant Cavity:

The space between two ends A and B of Ruby rod is known as resonance cavity. The fully silvered face(A) will
completely reflect the light whereas the partially silvered face(B) will reflect most part of the light but allows a
small portion of light through it to produce output laser light.

iii. Optical pumping:

Optical pumping is a technique in which light is used as energy source to raise electrons/ions/atoms from
lower energy level to the higher energy level. In the ruby laser, population inversion is done by optical
pumping. A helical Xenon flash tube surrounded the ruby rod act as pumping system with excitation source
in the form of power supply. Xenon flash lamps provide the most efficient operation of ruby lasers.

iv. Cooling System:

Water cooling system is made in glass tube as shown in above figure. The system is cooled with the
help of coolant (water) circulating around ruby rod. Xenon flash tube consume serval 1000 J energy but only
part of this energy is used in pumping chromium ions(Cr3+). Rest of energy heats the instruments hence proper
cooling system is required

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B. Working principle of Ruby laser:

a) The ruby laser is a three energy level solid-state

laser.
Consider energy levels E1, E2, E3 with N number
of electrons such that E1 < E2 < E3.
The energy level E1 is known as ground state,
the energy level E2 is known as metastable state
and the energy level E3 is known as excited
state/higher energy state.

b) In normal state most of chromium ion (Cr 3+) are in

ground state (E1 state). When a flash of light from
Xenon tube falls upon ruby rod chromium ions
(Cr3+) in E1 State absorbs the light of wave length
5500 Å and 4000 Å and excited to upper energy
levels E3 and E4 respectively as shown in figure.
c) The excited states E3 and E4 are highly unstable (having life time t = 10 - 8 sec.)
d) After some time, they transit from these energy states to a metastable states E2 (having life time t = 10 - 3 sec.)
e) These transitions of Cr3+ ions from E4 and E3 states to E2 state are non-radiative transitions and energy is
released in the form of heat energy to the rod/crystal.
f) Due to the metastability of the state E2, population inversion is achieved between this E2 state and ground
state of Cr3+ ions. (The lifetime of metastable state E2 is 10 - 3 sec which is much greater than the lifetime of E3
state. Therefore, the Cr3+ ions reach E2 state much faster than they leave E2 state. This results in an increase in the
number of electrons in the metastable state E2 and hence population inversion is achieved.)
g) When Cr3+ ions move form E2 state to ground state (E1) spontaneously, they emit photons of energy
(E = E2 - E1) in all directions. The photons travelling along axial direction (parallel to rod axis) are reflected
again and again and hence gets amplified and finally emerge out through face B of ruby rod in the form of
intense, coherent and unidirectional LASER beam of wavelength 6943 A0.
C. Ruby LASER works in pulsed mode:
Due to high pump energy Xenon flash lasts for a few millisecond thus E2 state depopulated rapidly and laser
becomes inactive till population inversion once again established.
Therefore, Ruby LASER works in pulsed mode.

Advantages of Ruby LASER:

a. Ruby laser is very easy to construct and operate.
b. A very strong and intense laser beam up to an output power of 104 to 106W
c. It has a degree of coherence.
d. Ruby crystal is hard, durable and it has good thermal conductivity and coherence length
Disadvantages of Ruby LASER:
a. It producers pulsed output.
b. Ruby laser is less directional and has very small efficiency.
c. High excitation energy is required.
d. It has a very small operation period.

Applications of Ruby LASER:

a) These lasers are used in the measurement of plasma properties such as electron density temperature etc.
b) These lasers are used where short pulses of red light are required.
c) Used in labs to create holograms of large objects such as aircraft tires to look for weaknesses in the lining

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2.2 He- Ne Laser

Helium-Neon (He-Ne) laser is a gas laser in which a mixture of helium and neon gas is used as an active
or gain medium and electrical pumping is used to achieve population inversion. It was invented by Ali Javan
and his co-workers at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the USA in 1961.

A. Construction of He-Ne Laser

Following figure shows schematic diagram of He-Ne laser.

The setup consists of a long and narrow discharge tube of length 80 cm and diameter of 1 cm.

a) Active material:
The active medium in this Laser is
mixture of Helium and Neon gas, filled
inside the discharge tube in a proportion
of 10:1
(90% He, 10% Ne, 10 torr gas).

The pressure inside the tube is about

1mm of Hg.
Helium at a pressure of 1mm of Hg and
Neon at 0.1mm of Hg). The Ne plays role
of active medium/active material.

b) Resonant Cavity:
He-Ne gas system is enclosed between a pair of plane mirrors (M1 and M2) so that resonant
cavity is formed. The resonating system of the He- Ne laser consists of two concave mirrors
(M1 and M2), one mirror(M1) is used as fully reflector and other mirror (M2) is used as partial
reflector. The fully silvered mirror will completely reflect the light whereas the partially silvered
mirror will reflect most part of the light but allows some part of the light to produce the laser
beam.

c) Electrical pumping:
For electrical pumping the electrodes are provided to produce a discharge in the gas and they
are connected to a high voltage dc power supply of about 2 to 4 KV which is used as pumping
source.
This high voltage source supplies dc current of 3 to 20 mA through the gas mixture of helium and
Neon.

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 B. Working of He-Ne LASER

Following figure shows Energy level diagram of He and Ne for lasing action. It is a four level laser.

a) When electric discharge is passed through the gas the electrons collides with He atoms and Ne
atoms. The He atoms get excited from its ground state(F1) to higher energy states F2(19.81eV) and
F3 (20.61 eV) which are metastable states (having life time 10-4 to 10-6 sec) as shown in above figure.
b) The excited He atoms (F2, F3 states) losses energy through collision with unexcited (ground state)
Ne atoms. Due to collision the Ne atoms are excited to the metastable states E4(18.7eV) &
E6(20.66eV) which have nearly the same energy as the levels of F2 & F3 of He. Also kinetic energy
with which He atoms collides with Ne atom provides additional energy of 0.05eV to Ne atoms. After
imparting energy to Ne atoms, the He atoms returns to ground states.
c) In this way Ne atoms are pumped to E4 and E6 states. (The role of Helium(He) atoms is to assist in
pumping Ne atoms to higher energy levels via inter atomic collisions.)
d) Since E4, E6 are metastable states, population inversion is achieved between upper energy levels (E6, E4 ) to
lower level (E5, E3) respectively.
e) After some period, the metastable states neon(Ne) atoms will spontaneously fall into the next lower
energy states by releasing photons. This is called spontaneous emission. Random photons emitted
spontaneously set stimulated emission and coherent radiation (laser) is produced.
f) Thus any spontaneously emitted photon can trigger LASER action as shown in above fig.:
E6 → E3 transition generates a laser beam of red color of wavelength 6328Å.
E4 → E3 transition produces laser beam of wavelength 1.15µm (not in visible region).
E6 → E5 transition results in a laser beam of 3.39µm (not in visible region).
E3 →E2 transition generates incoherent light due to spontaneous emission (~6000Å)
g) Ne atoms then drop down to lower energy level E2 (which is metastable state) through spontaneous
emission. Hence Ne atoms will be accumulated in E2 state once again.
h) By losing energy due to collision with tube Ne atoms comes down to E1 state from E2 state.
The process is repeated since excitation of He –Ne atoms due to electron take place continuously.
Hence He-Ne laser works in continuous wave mode which gives continuous LASER light.

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Advantages of He-Ne LASER:
a) He-Ne laser works in continuous mode.
b) Helium-neon laser emits laser light in the visible portion of the spectrum.
c) Low cost, Operates without damage at higher temperatures.

Disadvantages of He-Ne LASER:

a) It has Low efficiency and low gain
b) Helium-neon lasers are limited to low power tasks, c) High voltage requirement.

Applications of He-Ne LASER:

a) The Narrow red beam of He-Ne laser is used in supermarkets to read bar codes.
b) The He- Ne Laser is used in Holography in producing the 3D images of objects.
c) He-Ne lasers have many industrial and scientific uses and are often used in laboratory demonstrations of optics.

3 Applications of LASER:

1. Lasers in Medicine:
a) Lasers are used for bloodless surgery.
b) Lasers are used to create plasma.
c) Lasers are used to destroy kidney stones.
d) Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy.
e) Lasers are used for eye lens curvature corrections.
2. Lasers in Industries:
a) Lasers are used to cut, drill, weld, remove metal from surfaces and perform these operations even at surfaces
inaccessible by mechanical methods.
b) Lasers are used in electronic industries for trimming the components of Integrated Circuits (ICs).
c) Lasers are used for heat treatment in the automotive industry.
d) Laser light is used to collect the information about the prefixed prices of various products in shops and business
establishments from the bar code printed on the product.
3. Lasers in Science and Technology:
a) Lasers are used in computers to retrieve stored information from a Compact Disc (CD).
b) Lasers are used to store large amount of information or data in CD-ROM.
c) Lasers are used to measure the pollutant gases and other contaminants of the atmosphere.
d) Lasers helps in determining the rate of rotation of the earth accurately.
e) Lasers are used in computer printers.
f) Lasers are used for producing three-dimensional pictures in space without the use of lens.
4. Lasers in Military:
a) The ring laser gyroscope is used for sensing and measuring very small angle of rotation of the moving objects.
b) High energy lasers are being employed to destroy enemy air crafts and missiles.
c) Laser light is used in LIDAR’s (Light detection and Ranging) to accurately measure the distance of an object.

5. Lasers in communication
Lasers with optical fiber are used in communication, data transmission, networking etc. due to large
bandwidth. As it has large bandwidth, more amount of data can be sent and More channels can be simultaneously
transmitted

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Optics:

Interference is a phenomenon in which two or more waves superimpose to form a resultant wave of greater
(Maximum) or smaller (minimum) amplitude. So when two or more light waves coherent interfere, we get
alternate dark and bright bands of equal width.These bands are called interference fringes.
Condition for constructive interference: Path difference  = (2n)/2 … where n = 0, 1,2, 3,……
Condition for destructive interference: Path difference  = (2n+1) / 2 ….. where n = 0, 1,2, 3,……

4. Interference in thin film due to reflected rays/waves

Consider a light ray from a monochromatic source incident on the surface of thin film and undergoes
Multiple Reflections, refractions and transmissions as shown in above figure.

Let,
t = thickness of thin film
𝜇 = refractive index of medium
OA = incident ray
AB = refracted ray
R1, R2 = Reflected ray
BC = reflected ray
T1, T2 = transmitted rays
Draw CP perpendicular to AR1,
BE perpendicular to AC,
CG perpendicular to BD,
DF perpendicular to BT1

The optical path difference between successively reflected rays (R1 and R2) can be given as,
Path difference (𝛿) = (AB + BC) 𝜇 - AP
Path difference (𝛿) = 2𝐴𝐵𝜇 - AP ……(1) {since AB =BC
BE t
Now from ∆ ABE, cos r = = ----------{ since t = BE from fig.
AB AB
t
∴ AB = -------------------(2)
cos 𝑟
AE AE
and tan r = =
BE t
∴ AE = t tan r ---------------(3)
AP
From ∆ 𝑨𝑷𝑪, sin i =
AC
∴ AP = AC sin i = (2AE) sin i -----------------{since AC =2AE
∴ AP = 2(t tan r) sin i ------------------------(4) { since AE = t tan r
By Snell’s law of refraction, we have
sin i
=μ
sin r
∴ sin i = 𝜇 sin 𝑟
Therefore, equation (4) becomes as
AP = 2(t tan r) 𝜇 sin 𝑟
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
= 2t ( ) 𝜇 sin 𝑟
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓

𝟏
AP = 2t 𝜇 sin2r -------------(5)
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓
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 Using equation (2) and (5) . equation (1) becomes as,
t 1
Optical Path difference (𝛿) = 2𝜇 − 2t 𝜇 sin2r
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟
t
= 2𝜇 (1 − sin2r)
cos 𝑟
t
= 2𝜇 cos2r
cos 𝑟
∴ Optical Path difference (𝛿) = 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 ……………This is known as Cosine’s law.
We know that when light is reflected from the surface of an optically denser medium, then the
𝝀
reflected rays undergoes a path change of .(This is in the case of reflection only.)
𝟐
𝝀
∴ actual Path difference (𝜹) = 𝟐𝝁𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒓 + ----------------(6)
𝟐

a) Condition for constructive interference(maxima): b). Condition for destructive interference (minima):
𝜆
Optical Path difference (𝛿) = (2n) Optical Path difference (𝛿) = (2n+1)
𝜆
2
2
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 - = (2n) =n𝜆 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 +
𝜆
=n𝜆+
𝜆
2 2
2 2
𝜆 1
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 = n 𝜆 + = (n + )𝜆 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 =n𝜆 ------------(8)
2 2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 =(2n + 1) 2 --------------(7)

a. Interference in thin films due to transmitted waves/rays:

From above figure the refracted ray AB reflected twice from point B and point C and get transmitted
twice from point B and D. the path difference between two transmitted rays(T1 and T2) can be shown equal
to 𝟐𝝁𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒓 as earlier case.
∴ the path difference between transmitted waves/rays(𝛿) = 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 ----------------(9)
Since both BT1 and DT2 are transmitted from thin film (denser medium) to air (rarer medium) there is no
additional path difference at point B and D inside thin film.
a) Condition for constructive interference(maxima):
𝜆
Optical Path difference (𝛿) = (2n) ----------{ where n = 1,2,3…….
2
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 = n 𝜆 --------------(10)
∴ film will appear bright.
b) Condition for destructive interference(minima):
𝜆
Optical Path difference (𝛿) = (2n+1) -------(11) { where n = 1,2,3…….
2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 = (2n+1) ---------------(11)
2
∴ film will appear dark
Conclusion:
From equation 7,8 and 10, 11 it is observed that condition of maxima and minima are reversed for reflected
rays/waves and transmitted rays/waves.

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 5. Interference of light in wedge shaped films:
Air wedge/wedge shaped film: A shape having zero thickness at one end and gradually increasing thickness
at other end is called wedge shaped film.
Interference produced by wedge shaped films:
Consider a wedge shaped film formed by two glass plates (G1 and G2) as shown in fig a. when a beam of
monochromatic light (OA) incident at point A it gets reflected along AM1, refracted along AB, reflects along
BC, transmitted along CM2 as shown in fig. b
When the film is illuminated normally by monochromatic light, interference occurs between the rays
reflected r ays ( M1 ray a nd M2 ray). As a result, a large number of equidistant parallel dark and bright
bands are observed as shown in following fig. c.

Fig. a) wedge shape c) Intereference fringes

fig. b) interference in wedge shape film

Since the rays AM1 and CM2 both are derived from same incident ray OA, they are coherent and hence
produces interference. The path difference between AM1 and CM2 can be given as,
𝜆
Optical Path difference (𝛿) = 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 ± ---------------(1)
2

For normal incident of light, we have ∠ r = 0 therefore cos r = 1

𝜆
∴ Optical Path difference (𝛿) = 2𝜇𝑡 ± 2

a) Condition for constructive interference (maxima)

𝜆
Optical Path difference (𝛿) = (2n) ----------{ where n = 1,2,3…….
2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 − =n𝜆 --------------{ from eqn. 1
2

𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 = n 𝜆 + ∴ 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 = (2n+1) ---------------(2)
2 2
This is the required Condition for constructive interference (maxima).
𝜆
Now if ∠ r = 0 then cos r = 1 ∴ eqn. 2 gives, 2𝜇𝑡 = (2n+1) 2
𝜆
tn = (2n+1) -------------- (3)
4𝜇
𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆
∴ 𝑛𝑜𝑤 for n = 0 , t0 = for n = 1 , t1 = for n = 2 , t2 =
4𝜇 4𝜇 4𝜇
7𝜆 9𝜆
for n = 3 , t 3 = for n = 4 , t4 = ….. and so on.
4𝜇 4𝜇
2𝜆 𝜆
From above equations it is observed that, t1-t0= t2 – t1 = t3-t2 =t4-t3 = = ----------(4)
4𝜇 2𝜇
𝝀
i.e. every bright fringe will occur at thickness interval of .
𝟐𝝁
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b) Condition for destructive interference(minima):
𝜆
Path difference (𝛿) = (2n ± 1) ------ { where n = 1,2,3…….
2
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 ± = (2n ± 1) =n𝜆 ±
2 2 2
∴ 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 = n 𝜆 ----------------(5)
This is the required Condition for destructive interference(minima).
Now if ∠ r = 0 then cos r = 1 ∴ eqn. 2 gives, 2𝜇𝑡 = n 𝜆
𝒏𝝀
t= -------------- (5)
𝟐𝝁
1𝜆 2𝜆
∴ for n = 0 , t =0 for n = 1 , t1 = for n = 2 , t 2 =
2𝜇 2𝜇
3𝜆 4𝜆
for n = 3 , t3 = for n = 4 , t4 = ….. and so on.
2𝜇 2𝜇
𝜆
From above equations it is observed that, t1-t0= t2 – t1 = t3-t2 =t4-t3 = ----------(6)
2𝜇
𝝀
i.e. every dark fringe will occur at thickness interval of .
𝟐𝝁
Conclusions:
𝜆
a) both dark and bright fringes are equally spaced (of width )
2𝜇
b) for n = 0 ,thickness(t) = 0 i.e. zero order fringe will be at wedge angle where thickness t = 0.

Equation for fringe width:

fringe width(𝜷): The spacing
between two consecutive dark or
bright fringes is called band fringe
width(𝜷).

Consider nth bright fringe occurs at

point A at distance Xn and (n+1)th
bright fringe occurs at point D at
distance Xn+1
as shown in fig. d.

∴ fringe width (𝜷) = Xn+1 − Xn

Applying condition of bright fringe at point A, we get
𝝀
𝟐𝝁𝒕𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒓 + =n𝝀
𝟐

for normal incident of light, we have angle of refraction (r) = 0 ∴ cos r = cos 0 = 1
𝝀
𝟐𝝁𝒕𝒏 + = n 𝝀 -------------(7)
𝟐

Similarly applying condition of bright fringe at point D, we get

𝜆
2𝜇𝑡𝑛+1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 + = (n+1) 𝜆 = n 𝜆 + 𝜆
2

for normal incident of light, we have , ∠ r = 0 therefore cos r = 1

𝝀
𝟐𝝁𝒕𝒏+𝟏 + = n𝝀+ 𝝀 ----------(8)
𝟐

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From ∆OBA , we have
𝑡𝑛
tan𝜃 = ∴ 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑋𝑛 tan𝜃 ----------(9)
𝑋𝑛

similarly from ∆𝑂𝐶𝐷 , we have,

𝑡𝑛+1
tan𝜃 = ∴ 𝑡𝑛+1 = 𝑋𝑛+1 tan𝜃 -----------(10)
𝑋𝑛+1
Using values of 𝒕𝒏 and 𝒕𝒏+𝟏 in equation (7 ) and (8) , we get
𝜆
2𝜇𝑿𝒏 tan𝜃 + =n𝜆 -----------(11)
2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑿𝒏+𝟏 tan𝜃 + = n𝜆+ 𝜆 -----------(12)
2
Subtracting equation (11) from equation (12)
2𝜇 tan𝜃 (𝑿𝒏+𝟏 − 𝑿𝒏 ) = 𝜆
∴ 2𝜇 𝜃 𝜷 = 𝜆 ……. {since (𝑿𝒏+𝟏 − 𝑿𝒏) = 𝜷 and for small value of 𝜃 , tan𝜃 = 𝜃
𝝀 𝝀
∴ 𝜷= -----------(13) or for air medium 𝜇 = 1 ∴ 𝜷 = ------------(13)
𝟐𝝁 𝜽 𝟐𝜽
This is the required equation for fringe width.

Applications of Wedge shaped film:

1) To measure Diameter of a thin wire or thickness of paper sheet:
Consider a wedge shape is formed using glass plates and a thin wire whose diameter is to be
determined as shown in following figure.
When a parallel beam of monochromatic light is made to fall normally, we can observe a large
number of straight parallel alternate bright and dark fringes using a microscope.
Let ‘d’ be the diameter of the wire and
‘L’ be the length of the wedge
From figure, we can write,
𝑑
tan𝜃 =
𝐿
If 𝜃 is small 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 tan𝜃 = 𝜃
𝑑
𝜃= ----------(14)
𝐿
𝜆
Since 𝜷 =
2𝜇 𝜃
𝜆
∴ 𝜃=
2𝜇 𝜷
𝑑 𝜆 𝑑
∴ = ---------{ 𝜃 = eqn. 14
𝐿 2𝜇 𝜷 𝐿
𝜆L 𝜆L
∴ 𝑑= ------- (15) or 𝑑 = ------- (15){ since for air medium 𝜇 = 1
2𝜇 𝜷 2𝜷
Thus knowing the values of wavelength, fringe width and Length of air wedge we can calculate the
diameter of given wire (and similarly we can measure thickness of paper sheet).

12 | P a g e
 2.) To test plainness of glass surface:
Consider a wedge shape formed using two glass plates
G1 and G2.
Let, G1 = optically flat glass plate, G2 = specimen glass
plate
Using optically flat glass plate and specimen glass plate
interference pattern is obtained.
 If fringes are of equal width, then glass plates are
said to be optically plain.
 If fringes are irregular, then glass plates surfaces are not plain.
In this way we can test plainness of glass plates using wedge shaped film.
6. Newton’s Ring experiments:
Newton’s Rings
When a Plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate, an air film of
gradually increasing thickness is formed between the lens and the glass plate. The thickness of the air
film is almost zero at the point of contact O and gradually increases away from center as shown in fig c.
If monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on the lens, and the film is viewed in reflected
light, alternate bright and dark concentric rings are seen around the point of contact as shown in
following fig. c. These rings were first discovered by Sir Isaac Newton, hence named as Newton's
Rings.
The experimental arrangement of the Newton’s Ring apparatus is shown in figure b.

fig. c )
Fig. a) Experimental set up fig. b ) interference of light Newton’s Rings

in above fig. a ) L = Plano convex lens, P = plane glass plate, S = monochromatic light source.
G = transparent glass plate which is inclined at 450, M = microscope
Consider a ray incident obliquely on Plano convex lens, it will reflect along BR1, refracts along
BC and again reflects along CDR2 as shown in fig. b.
These reflected rays (BR1, DR2) produces interference and gives alternate, concentric, circular
dark and bright rings as shown in fig. c
The path difference between the two successive reflected rays can be obtained as,
Path difference (𝛿) = 2t cosr   / 2

At point of contact, t = 0 , Path difference (𝛿) =   / 2 .

This is the condition for minimum intensity. Hence, the center of Newton rings generally appears dark.

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 d) Condition for constructive interference (bright ring):
For constructive interference, Path difference (𝛿) = (2n)  / 2 ----------{ where n=0,1,2,3………

∴ 2 t cosr   / 2 = n

∴ 2 t cosr = n / 2

∴ 2  t cosr = (2n+1) / 2 Or 2 t = (2n+1) / 2 ------------(1) { for normal incident, r = 0 , cos0=1

This is the condition for constructive interference.

e) Condition for destructive interference (dark ring):
For destructive interference, Path difference (𝛿) = (2n+1)  / 2--------------{ where n=0,1,2,3,-------

∴ 2 t cosr   / 2 = n / 2

∴ 2  t cosr = n Or 2 t = n  { for normal incident, r = 0 , cos0=1

This is the condition for destructive interference.

f) Expression for radius /diameter of dark and bright ring:

Consider a ring of radius r due to thickness t of air film as
shown in the following figure
Let, R = radius of circle, r = radius or ring
t = AB = thickness, refractive index ( for air. 
D = BE = r, OC = OA =R
AC = 2R , BC = (AC-AB) = (2R – t)
According to the geometrical theorem (i.e. property of
the circle), the product of intercepts of theintersecting
chord is equal to the product of sections of the diameter.
i.e. DB  BE  AB BC = AB x (AC- AB)
∴ r  r  t 2R  t 
∴ r 2  2Rt  t 2 Since t is very small hence t2 can be neglected, thus, r 2  2Rt
𝑟2 𝑟𝑛 2
∴ t = or tn = -----------(3)
2𝑅 2𝑅
a) Condition for a nth bright ring (constructive interference):

from equation (1), we have condition for constructive interference,

2tn = (2n+1) / 2
(2𝑛+1)𝜆
∴ tn = ----------------(4)
4µ
1 (2𝑛+1)𝜆
using equation (3) and (4), we can write, 𝑟𝑛2 =
2𝑅 4µ
(2𝑛+1)𝜆𝑅
∴ 𝑟𝑛2 =
2µ
(2𝑛+1)𝜆𝑅 (2𝑛+1)𝜆𝑅
∴ rn = √ -----------(5) or Dn = 2 rn = 2 √ -----------(6)
2µ 2µ
these are the required expression for radius and diameter of nth bright ring.
∴ rn ∝ √(2𝑛 + 1) Or Dn ∝ √(2𝑛 + 1) -----------------{ if 𝜆, 𝑅, μ are constant
Thus radius or diameter of nth bright rings is proportional to square root of natural
number(n)

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b) Condition for nth dark ring (destructive interference):
from equation (2), we have condition for destructive interference,
𝑛𝜆 𝒏𝝀
2t = n∴ t = or for nth ring we can write, tn = --------(7)
2µ 𝟐µ
1 𝑛𝜆 𝑛𝜆𝑅
Using eqn (4) and (7), we can write, 𝑟𝑛2 = ∴ 𝑟𝑛2 = for air medium , μ = 1
2𝑅 2µ µ
∴ 𝑟𝑛2 = 𝑛𝜆𝑅 ∴ rn= √𝒏𝝀𝑹 -----------(8) or Dn = 2rn = 2√𝑛𝜆𝑅 ------------- (8)
This is the required expression for radius/diameter nth dark ring.
if 𝜆 , 𝑅 are constant we can write , rn ∝ √𝑛 or Dn ∝ √𝑛
Thus radius or diameter of n th dark rings is proportional to square root of natural number(n)

c) Spacing between consecutive dark or bright rings:

we have equation for radius of nth dark ring, rn= √𝑛𝜆𝑅

∴ diameter of nth dark ring, Dn = 2 rn = 2 √𝑛𝜆𝑅
For n = 1 , D1 = 2 √1𝜆𝑅For n = 2, D2 = 2 √2𝜆𝑅 For n = 3, D3=2 √3𝜆𝑅 For n=4, D4= 2 √4𝜆𝑅
∴ D2 - D1 = 0.41 √𝝀𝑹 , D3 – D2 = 0.32 √𝝀𝑹 and D4 – D3 = 0.268 √𝝀𝑹
Thus from above equations we conclude as that spacing between consecutive bright or dark ring goes on
decreasing as order of rings increases.

Applications of Newton’s rings experiments:

A). Determination of Wavelength of Monochromatic Light or radius of curvature:
we have diameter of nth dark ring, Dn = 2 √𝑛𝜆𝑅 ∴ 𝐷2𝑛 = 4n𝜆𝑅
Similarly, diameter of mth dark ring, D m = 2 √𝑚𝜆𝑅 ∴ 𝐷2𝑚 = 4m𝜆𝑅
∴ 𝐷2𝑚 − 𝐷2𝑛 = 4m𝜆𝑅 − 4n𝜆𝑅
2 −𝐷 2
𝐷𝑚 2 −𝐷 2
𝐷𝑚
2
∴ 𝐷𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛2 = (n – m) 𝜆𝑅 ∴ 𝜆= 𝑛
or 𝑅= 𝑛
………….(9)
(n – m) 𝑅 (n – m)𝑅
By making experimental setup, obtain the Newton’s rings.Then measure diameter of nth and mth dark
dark rings using travelling microscope.Knowing the values of Dn, Dm and R we can calculate
wavelength of monochromatic light using above equation (9). Or Knowing the values of Dn, Dm and 𝜆
we can calculate radius of curvature(R) of Planoconvex lens using above equation (9).
B). Determination of Refractive Index of the Liquid (:
By making experimental setup, obtain the Newton’s rings.
Then measure diameter of nth and mth dark rings using travelling microscope (for air medium,  = 1.)
We have , [𝐷2𝑚 − 𝐷2𝑛 ] air = (n – m) 𝜆𝑅 ---------------(10)
Now insert a drop of liquid (whose refractive index to be determine) between Planoconvex lens and glass
plate and again measure diameter of nth and mth dark rings using travelling microscope

(for liquid medium of R.I.  )

we have, [𝐷2𝑚 − 𝐷2𝑛 ] liquid = (n – m) 𝜆𝑅 /  ---------------(11)

𝑚 −𝐷𝑛 ] air
2 2
∴ = [𝐷[𝐷
2 −𝐷 2 ] liquid -------------(12)
𝑚 𝑛

Thus knowing the values of diameter of nth and mth rings with air medium and liquid medium, we
can calculate refractive index of given liquid.

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 POLARISATION

Light:
 Light is an electromagnetic wave.
 It consists of vibrations of electric field and
magnetic field.
 Electromagnetic radiation has the dual nature: its
exhibits wave properties and particle (photon)
properties
 The electric field and magnetic field are
perpendicular to each other and in phase.
 EM wave is a transverse wave.
 The speed of EM wave is 3 x 108 m/s
 Polarization: The phenomenon due to which vibrations of light waves are restricted in a particular plane
is called polarization.
 Unpolarized light: In an ordinary beam of light, the vibrations occur normal to the direction of
propagation in all possible planes. Such beam of light called unpolarized light.
 Polarised light: The light in which vibrations are restricted to only one plane is called as plane
polarised light.
Hence, polarization is the phenomenon of producing plane polarised light from unpolarized light.

Fig. c) plane of vibration and plane of

Fig. a unpolarized of polarization
Fig.b polarized of light
light

 Plane of Vibration: In plane polarized light, the plane containing the direction of vibration and
propagation of light is called plane of vibration.
 Plane of Polarization: Plane which is perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called plane of
polarization.
 In above fig.(c) plane ABCD represents the plane of vibration and EFGH represents the plane of
polarization.

7. Brewster’s law:
In 1892, Brewster performed number of experiments to study the polarization of light by
reflection at the surfaces of different media. He found that ordinary light is completely polarized in the
plane of incidence when it gets reflected from a transparent medium at a particular angle known as the
'angle of polarization.'
Brewster’s Law states that, ‘the tangent of the angle of polarization is numerically equal to the
refractive index of the medium'. Also the reflected and retracted rays are perpendicular to each other.
i.e. tan ip = µ where ip is the angle of polarization and μ is the refractive index of the medium.
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊
∴ tan ip = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒑 = µ -----------(1)
𝒑
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒑
But by Snell’s law, we have =µ --------------------(2)
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓

16 | P a g e
From eqn. 1 and 2 , we can write,
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒑 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒑
=
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
𝟏 𝟏
∴ =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒑
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑝 = sin 𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑝 = cos (90 – r )
∠𝑖𝑝 = 900 – ∠r
∠𝑖𝑝 + ∠r = 900 ----------(3)
From figure we have

∠ip +∠ CBD + ∠ r = 1800

90 + ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 = 1800
∠ 𝑪𝑩𝑫 =900
i.e. reflected ray (BC) and refracted ray (BD) are perpendicular to each other.
For air - glass reflection value for the polarizing angle is 57 0
For air - water reflection value for the polarizing angle is 530

8.1 Optical Activity:

The ability of a substance to rotate the plane of polarization of a beam of light that is
passed through it(substance) is called optical activity and the substance is known as optical
active substance. e.g. sugar solution, quartz crystal etc.
When a beam of plane polarized
light is passed through certain
substance, then the plane of
polarization of beam is rotated
about the directions of
propagation of beam through a
certain angle as shown in
following figure.
Optically active substances are classified into two types:
a. Dextrorotatory substances: Substances that rotate the plane of polarization of the light
towards the right are known as right-handed or dextrorotatory.
b. Laevo rotatory substances: Substances which rotate the plane of polarization of the light
toward the left are known as left-handed or Laevo rotatory

8.2 Specific Rotation(S):

For given wavelength(λ) and temperature(t) the angle of rotation of plane of polarization is
directly proportional to length (L) and concentration(c) of substance/solutions
i.e. θ ∝ L C
θ = S L C ……{where S is specific rotation, L= length in decimeter, c= concentration in gm/cc
𝛉
s=( ) ------------{if length in decimeter
𝑳𝑪
𝟏𝟎 𝛉
or S = ( ) ………….{if length in centimeter , 1 decimeter = 10 centimeter
𝑳 𝑪
if L = 1 decimeter and C = 1 gm/cc then S = θ
thus specific rotation (s) is defined as the rotation produced by a decimeter long length of solution
having concentration 1 gm/cc.
17 | P a g e
 8.3 Laurent’s Half Shade Polarimeter:
Polarimeter: It is an optical Instrument used to measures the angle of rotation of polarized light
produced by optical active substance. When it is used for determining the optical rotation of sugar, then it is
called a saccharimeter.
Construction of Laurent’s Half Shade Polarimeter:

It consists of:
 glass tube for holding the solution. It is kept between Nicol prisms (between P and A)
 A monochromatic light incident on the polarizer P , light transmitted through P is plane
polarized
 polarized beam passes through the half shade plate(H) and glass tube (G) containing the
solution
 Light emerging from the solution incidents on the analyzer A
 Analyzer A can be rotated about the axis of the tube and the rotation (θ) can be measured.
DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC ROTATION OF SOLUTION
 The analyzer is first kept in the position for equal darkness without the solution in the glass tube .
• Reading on the circular scale is noted (say θ1)
• Tube is filled with optically active solution
• we will see , Field of view is partially illuminated.
• now Analyzer is rotated till the field of view becomes
equally dark and Reading on the scale is noted again
(say θ2)
• Difference between the two scale readings gives the
angle of rotation of the plane of polarization caused by
the solution. i.e. θ = (θ1 – θ2)
 measure the angle of rotation for different values of
concentration and plot a graph of θ vs
concentration(c). Fig. plot a graph of θ vs concentration(c)
 The graph is a straight line as shown in above fig
. • knowing the value of L and slope, we can calculate specific rotation by using formula,
𝟏𝟎 𝛉 𝟏𝟎
S= (𝑪 ) = (𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞) ----------(1)
𝑳 𝑳
Applications of polarization:
c. To calculate specific rotation of optically active solution.
d. Polarizing sheets are used in window of Luxurious trains and aero planes.
e. In production of 3 D movies.
f. Polarized light is used in sunglasses to control intensity of light.
g. In photography. And In photo elasticity to calculate stress distribution.
h. To examine nature of rocks and composition of minerals with the help of polariscope
18 | P a g e
 9 . Fiber Optics
Fiber optics: Fiber optics is a branch of optics which deals with the study of propagation of information in the form of light
(rays or modes) through transparent dielectric optical fibers
Optical fiber: Optical fiber is a thin and transparent guiding dielectric
medium or material which guides or transmits the information as light
waves, using principle of total internal refection.
Optical fiber cable A bundle of optical fibers consists of thousands of
individual fiber wires as thin as human hair known as optical fiber cable

Structure of optical fiber:

An optical fiber is a cylindrical wave guide made of transparent dielectric, (glass or clear plastic), which
guides light waves along its length by total internal reflection. An optical fiber is cylindrical in shape and It has
three coaxial regions as shown in fig.b

Fig.a) cross sectional view Fig.b) side view

Core: The innermost, light guiding region known as the core. In general, the diameter of the core is of the order of 8
µm to 50µm. Core has greater refractive index than cladding.
Cladding: The core is surrounded by a coaxial middle region known as the cladding. The diameter of the cladding
is of the order of 125 µm. The refractive index of cladding (n 2) is always lower than that of refractive index of core
(n1).
Buffer: The outermost region is called the sheath or a protective buffer coating. It is a plastic coating given to the
cladding for extra protection. This coating is applied during the manufacturing process to provide physical and
environmental protection for the fiber. The buffer is elastic in nature and prevents abrasions. The coating varies in
size from 250 µm or 900 µm.
9.0 Principle of propagation of light in optical fiber:

Principle: Optical fiber works on the

principle of total internal reflection

Conditions for total internal reflection:

i) light must travel from a denser medium to a
rarer medium and
ii) angle of incidence must be greater than
the critical angle

Fig. a fig. b fig. c

 .When light travels from a denser medium, e.g. water, to a less rarer medium, e.g. air, the light refracts away from
the normal. The angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence. As shown in above Fig. a
 As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases. At a certain angle of
incidence, the light will refract through 900 and travel along the boundary between the two media. This
angle of incidence is called the critical angle (Θc ) and it is given by sinΘc = n2/n1. As shown in above
fig. b
 If the angle of incidence is increased further, so that it is greater than the critical angle, the light will be
totally internally reflected. As shown in above fig. c

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 9.2 Derivation for Acceptance angle, Numerical aperture and Acceptance cone

a) Acceptance angle:
The maximum value of incident angle for which light can propagate in optical fiber is called acceptance
angle (θ0).

Consider the light ray propagating in an optical fiber. The incident ray enters into core at an angle θi to fiber
axis.
Let n1, n2 and no be the refractive indices of the core, cladding and launching medium(air).
θi = θ0= angle of incidence/ acceptance angle
θr = angle of refraction
θc = angle of incidence at core-cladding interface

Applying Snell’s law of refraction at the point A, we get,

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐢 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝐢 𝒏𝟏
= =
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝐫 𝒏𝟎
𝒏𝟏
∴ sinθi = 𝒏 sinθ𝒓 - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
𝟎

Now Applying Snell’s law of refraction at the point B, we have,

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐢 sinθc 𝒏𝟐
= =
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐫 sin90 𝒏𝟏
where θc is angle of incidence (critical angle)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 900
∴ sinθc =
𝒏𝟐
𝐧𝟏
--------------{ since sin90 = 1
𝑛2
∴ sinθc = - - - - - - -- - - - (2)
𝑛1
From fig. we can write,
θc = (90 - θr)
i.e. 𝑠𝑖𝑛θc = sin (90- θr)
𝑠𝑖𝑛θc = cosθr -- -- -- - - - - - { since cosθr = sin (90- θr)
∴ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠,
𝒏𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝐜 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉𝐫 = − − − − − − − − − (3)
𝒏𝟏
Now consider , sin2θr + cos2 θr = 1
∴ sin2 θr = 1 - cos2 θr
∴ sinθ𝑟 = √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θr

𝑛2 𝑛2
∴ sinθ𝑟 = √1 − ( )2 ------------------------------- { since ( )2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θr
𝑛1 𝑛1

20 | P a g e
 𝑛 −𝑛 2 2
∴ sinθ𝑟 = √ 1𝑛 2 2
1

1
∴ sinθr = 𝑛 √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
1

∴ eqn. 1 becomes as,

𝑛1 𝑛1 1
sinθi = (sinθr) = ( √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 )
n0 n0 𝑛1

√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
∴ sinθi =
𝑛0

If launching medium is air, then 𝑛0 = 1

∴ sinθi = sinθ0 = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2

θ0 = sin– 1(√𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 ) ---------------------(4)

this is required equation for acceptance angle (θ0).

b) Numerical aperture (𝑁𝐴):

Sine of the acceptance angle of the fiber is known as numerical aperture. It determines the light gathering
capability of the optical fiber. It is given by,
𝑁𝐴 = sin 𝜃0
∴ 𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2

c) Acceptance cone:
When incident ray in launching medium is rotated by
3600about axis of fiber, it makes a cone which is
called acceptance cone.

The light ray contained within this cone having full

angle 2α are accepted and transmitted along fiber
therefore this cone is called as acceptance cone.

Applications of optical fiber:

a) Communication system:
Optical fibers are used in telecommunication field to transfer information from one place to other
b) Medical application:
Optical fiber are used in medical field such as in endoscopy and in angioplasty.
c) Military application:
High-level data security sectors of military and aerospace applications use fiber optics for data
transfer. Hydrophones for SONAR and seismic applications, as well as aviation wiring, make use of
this material.
d) Broadcasting:
Such cables deliver high-speed, high-bandwidth HDTV signals. Broadcasters employ optical fibers to
connect HDTV, CATV, VOD and other services.
e) Sensor: optical fibers are used in making different types of sensors.
f) Space: It is also used in space application.

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 Question Bank
Unit 5: Optics, LASER & Fiber Optics
Class: B.Tech.-I Course: Engineering Physics and Material science(UFYBS0102/202)

Q.no. Questions COs BT Levels

Explain interference of light in thin film for reflected ray and
1. CO5 Understanding
transmitted Ray.

Explain interference of light of light in wedge shaped film and

2. obtain expression of fringe width. Give anyone its CO5 Apply

application.
Explain Newton's rings experiment. Find spacing between
consecutive dark rings and Show that diameter of dark ring is
3. CO5 Apply
proportional to square root of natural number.
Give any one application of Newton’s ring experiment.
State LASER Principle and Explain absorption, spontaneous
4. CO5 Remembering
emission and stimulated emission of radiations.
Explain principle, construction and working of Ruby LASER. CO5 Understanding
5.

6. Explain Principle, Construction and working of He-Ne LASER. CO5 Understanding

State characteristics of LASER and Explain applications of

7. CO5 Remembering
LASER (any five applications)
What is polarization? State and explain Brewster’s law.
Remember,
8. Show that reflected ray and refracted ray are perpendicular CO5
Understanding
to each other.
What is optical activity and specific rotation? Explain
9. CO5 Understanding
principle and Working of Laurent Half Shade Polarimeter.
Explain principle of fiber optics and State applications of
10. CO5 Remembering
fibre optics .
What is acceptance angle and acceptance cone for an optical
fibre? Obtain expression for acceptance angle and numerical CO5 Apply
11.
aperture.

Problems CO5
12.

Subject I/C: Prof. I.N. Birajdar

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