Piaget’s Theory and Stages of

Cognitive Development
simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

Key Features

Developmental Stages: Piaget proposed four sequential stages of cognitive

development, each marked by distinct thinking patterns, progressing from infancy to
adolescence.
Constructivist Approach to Learning: Children actively build understanding by
exploring their environment as “little scientists,” rather than passively absorbing
information.
Schemas: Mental frameworks for organizing information, growing in number and
complexity as children develop, enabling deeper world understanding.
Assimilation: Integration of new information into existing schemas.
Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to fit new
information.
Equilibration: Process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to progress
through cognitive stages, resolving conflicts and shifting to new thought patterns.

Stages of Development

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through
four different stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing
sophistication of children’s thought.

Each child goes through the stages in the same order (but not all at the same rate), and child
development is determined by biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

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At each stage of development, the child’s thinking is qualitatively different from the other
stages, that is, each stage involves a different type of intelligence.

Stage Age Goal

Sensorimotor Birth to 18-24 months Object permanence

Preoperational 2 to 7 years Symbolic thought

Concrete operational 7 to 11 years Logical thought

Formal operational Adolescence to adulthood Scientific reasoning

Although no stage can be missed out, there are individual differences in the rate at which
children progress through stages, and some individuals may never attain the later stages.

Piaget did not claim that a particular stage was reached at a certain age – although
descriptions of the stages often include an indication of the age at which the average child
would reach each stage.

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

During the sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2) infants develop basic motor skills and learn to
perceive and interact with their environment through physical sensations and body
coordination.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

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 The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions
(moving around and exploring their environment).
During the sensorimotor stage, a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include:
object permanence; self-recognition (the child realizes that other people are separate
from them); deferred imitation; and representational play.
Cognitive abilities relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is
the capacity to represent the world mentally.
At about 8 months, the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they
will still exist even if they can’t see them, and the infant will search for them when they
disappear.

At the beginning of this stage, the infant lives in the present. It does not yet have a mental
picture of the world stored in its memory, so it does not have a sense of object permanence.

If the child cannot see something, then it does not exist. This is why you can hide a toy from
an infant, while it watches, but it will not search for the object once it has gone out of sight.

The main achievement during this stage is object permanence – knowing that an object still
exists, even if it is hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a
schema) of the object.

Towards the end of this stage the general symbolic function begins to appear where
children show in their play that they can use one object to stand for another.
Language starts to appear because they realise that words can be used to represent
objects and feelings.

The child begins to be able to store information about the world, recall it, and label it.

Individual Differences

Cultural Practices: In some cultures, babies are carried on their mothers’ backs
throughout the day. This constant physical contact and varied stimuli can influence
how a child perceives their environment and their sense of object permanence.
Gender Norms: Toys assigned to babies can differ based on gender expectations. A
boy might be given more cars or action figures, while a girl might receive dolls or
kitchen sets. This can influence early interactions and sensory explorations.

Learn More: The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

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The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 – 7 Years

Piaget’s second stage of intellectual development is the preoperational stage, which occurs
between 2 and 7 years. At the beginning of this stage, the child does not use operations (a
set of logical rules), so thinking is influenced by how things look or appear to them rather
than logical reasoning.

For example, a child might think a tall, thin glass contains more liquid than a short, wide
glass, even if both hold the same amount, because the child focuses on the height rather
than considering both dimensions.

Furthermore, the child is egocentric; he assumes that other people see the world as he
does, as shown in the Three Mountains study.

As the preoperational stage develops, egocentrism declines, and children begin to enjoy the
participation of another child in their games, and let’s pretend play becomes more
important.

Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policemen), and may
play these roles with props that symbolize real-life objects. Children may also invent an
imaginary playmate.

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Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world
through language and mental imagery.
During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability
to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself.
A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not
yet capable of logical (problem-solving) type of thought.
Moreover, the child has difficulties with class inclusion; he can classify objects but
cannot include objects in sub-sets, which involves classifying objects as belonging to
two or more categories simultaneously.
Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to
think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s.

By 2 years, children have made some progress toward detaching their thoughts from the
physical world. However, have not yet developed logical (or “operational”) thought
characteristics of later stages.

Thinking is still intuitive (based on subjective judgments about situations) and egocentric
(centered on the child’s own view of the world).

Individual Differences

Cultural Storytelling: Different cultures have unique stories, myths, and folklore.
Children from diverse backgrounds might understand and interpret symbolic elements
differently based on their cultural narratives.
Race & Representation: A child’s racial identity can influence how they engage in
pretend play. For instance, a lack of diverse representation in media and toys might
lead children of color to recreate scenarios that don’t reflect their experiences or
background.

Learn More: The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 – 11 Years

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By the beginning of the concrete operational stage, the child can use operations (a set of
logical rules) so they can conserve quantities, realize that people see the world in a different
way (decentring), and demonstrate improvement in inclusion tasks.

Children still have difficulties with abstract thinking.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that,
although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g., picture a ball of plasticine
returning to its original shape).
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel.

The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much more successfully if
they can manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of them.

Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child’s cognitive
development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means
the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in
the real world).

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Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is
the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance
changes.

But operational thought is only effective here if the child is asked to reason about materials
that are physically present. Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be
overwhelmed when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems.

Individual Differences

Cultural Context in Conservation Tasks: In a society where resources are scarce,

children might demonstrate conservation skills earlier due to the cultural emphasis on
preserving and reusing materials.
Gender & Learning: Stereotypes about gender abilities, like “boys are better at
math,” can influence how children approach logical problems or classify objects based
on perceived gender norms.

Learn More: The Concrete Operational Stage of Development

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Over

The formal operational period begins at about age 11. As adolescents enter this stage, they
gain the ability to think abstractly, the ability to combine and classify items in a more
sophisticated way, and the capacity for higher-order reasoning.

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Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is
(not everyone achieves this stage). This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and
science fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning.

Adolescents can deal with abstract ideas; for example, they can understand division and
fractions without having to actually divide things up, and solve hypothetical (imaginary)
problems.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

Concrete operations are carried out on physical objects, whereas formal operations
are carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical
and perceptual constraints.
During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g., they no longer need
to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).
They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific
examples.
Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. For
example, if asked, ‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour?’ they
could speculate about many possible consequences.
Piaget described reflective abstraction as the process by which individuals become
aware of and reflect upon their own cognitive actions or operations (metacognition).

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From about 12 years, children can follow the form of a logical argument without reference to
its content. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and
logically test hypotheses.

This stage sees the emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and
hypotheses when faced with a problem.

Individual Differences

Culture & Abstract Thinking: Cultures emphasize different kinds of logical or

abstract thinking. For example, in societies with a strong oral tradition, the ability to
hold complex narratives might develop prominently.
Gender & Ethics: Discussions about morality and ethics can be influenced by gender
norms. For instance, in some cultures, girls might be encouraged to prioritize
community harmony, while boys might be encouraged to prioritize individual rights.

Learn More: The Formal Operational Stage of Development

Piaget’s Theory
Piaget’s theory places a strong emphasis on the active role that children play in their
own cognitive development.
According to Piaget, children are not passive recipients of information; instead, they
actively explore and interact with their surroundings.
This active engagement with the environment is crucial because it allows them to
gradually build their understanding of the world.

1. History of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop
French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the
reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required logical
thinking.

He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the
thinking of adults and children.

Piaget branched out on his own with a new set of assumptions about children’s
intelligence:

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 Children’s intelligence differs from an adult’s in quality rather than in quantity. This
means that children reason (think) differently from adults and see the world in different
ways.
Children actively build up their knowledge about the world. They are not passive
creatures waiting for someone to fill their heads with knowledge.
The best way to understand children’s reasoning is to see things from their point of
view.

Piaget did not want to measure how well children could count, spell, or solve problems as a
way of grading their I.Q.

He was more interested in how fundamental concepts emerged, such as the very ideas of
number, time, quantity, causality, and justice.

Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence using naturalistic observation of his
own three babies and sometimes controlled observation too. From these, he wrote diary
descriptions charting their development.

He also used clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to
understand questions and hold conversations.

2. Piaget’s Clinical Method

Piaget’s clinical method is a research technique used to investigate children’s cognitive

development.

It is a research approach for understanding children’s thinking that Piaget adapted from the
diagnostic clinical interview used in psychopathology.

Unlike standardized tests, the clinical method uses flexible, open-ended questions to explore
the child’s thinking in depth.

The interviewer adapts their questions based on the child’s initial responses, prompting
further explanation and clarification.

Key characteristics of the clinical method:

Piaget’s method emphasizes the importance of understanding the child’s perspective,

rather than imposing adult ways of thinking on them.

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 One key aspect of this approach is the use of open-ended and non-judgmental
questions that allow the child to express their thoughts freely. The questions should be
based on the spontaneous questions asked by children of the same age or younger.
The interviewer must carefully observe the child’s responses and follow up with
additional questions to clarify their reasoning.
The interviewer must also be able to distinguish between truly spontaneous
responses and those that are influenced by suggestion or other external factors.

Piaget’s clinical method has been influential in the field of developmental psychology and
has helped to shape the way researchers and educators understand children’s thinking.

What is the “critical method” and how does it differ from the clinical method?

It’s important to note that the clinical method evolved throughout Piaget’s career.

As he continued to refine his approach, he began incorporating physical objects and

manipulations into his interviews, leading to what he termed the critical method.

While the clinical method primarily relies on verbal dialogue, the critical method involves
children actively manipulating objects, allowing researchers to observe their actions and
reasoning in relation to physical phenomena.

For example, a researcher might ask a child to predict whether a ball of clay will weigh more
or less after being rolled into a snake (conservation of mass).

By observing the child’s actions and explanations, researchers can gain insight into their
understanding of the concept.

Piaget believed that engaging children with a concrete challenge helped to put them at ease,
minimized the amount of verbal instruction required, and allowed the interviewer to use the
child’s language when discussing the phenomenon.

By incorporating physical objects into his research, he could observe how children’s actions
and manipulations influenced their thinking.

For example, to understand how children transition from animistic to mechanistic thinking,
Piaget explored children’s conceptions of material force through a series of experiments
involving physical demonstrations

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However, the core principles of the clinical examination, such as open-ended inquiry, a focus
on underlying reasoning, and sensitive interviewing, remained essential elements of his
research, even as his methods became more complex

3. Piaget’s Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:

Piaget’s (1936, 1950) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a
mental model of the world.

He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive
development as a process that occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the
environment.

Children’s ability to understand, think about, and solve problems in the world develops in a
stop-start, discontinuous manner (rather than gradual changes over time).

Piaget’s theory:

Is concerned with children, rather than learners of all ages.

Focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address the
learning of information or specific behaviors.
Proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather
than a gradual increase in the number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas,
etc.

The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and
then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.

To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a

result of biological maturation and environmental experience.

Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience

discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.

4. Schemas

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A schema is a mental framework or concept that helps us organize and interpret
information. It’s like a mental file folder where we store knowledge about a particular object,
event, or concept.

According to Piaget (1952), schemas are fundamental building blocks of cognitive

development. They are constantly being created, modified, and reorganized as we interact
with the world.

Wadsworth (2004) suggests that schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of as “index
cards” filed in the brain, each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or
information.

According to Piaget, we are born with a few primitive schemas, such as sucking, which give
us the means to interact with the world. These initial schemas are physical, but as the child
develops, they become mental schemas.

Examples of Innate Schemas:

Babies have a sucking reflex, triggered by something touching their lips. This
corresponds to a “sucking schema.”
The grasping reflex, elicited when something touches the palm of a baby’s hand,
represents another innate schema.
The rooting reflex, where a baby turns its head towards something that touches its
cheek, is also considered an innate schema.

When Piaget discussed the development of a person’s mental processes, he referred to

increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that the person had learned.

Operations are more sophisticated mental structures that allow us to combine schemas in
a logical (reasonable) way. For example, picking up a rattle would combine three schemas,
gazing, reaching and grasping.

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As children grow, they can carry out more complex operations and begin to imagine
hypothetical (imaginary) situations.

Operations are learned through interaction with other people and the environment, and they
represent a key advancement in cognitive development beyond simple schemas.

As children grow and interact with their environment, these basic schemas become more
complex and numerous, and new schemas are developed through the processes of
assimilation and accommodation.

5. The Process of Adaptation

Jean Piaget (1952) viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to

the world.

This happens through assimilation, accommodation, equilibration, and disequilibrium.

Assimilation is fitting new information into existing schemas without changing one’s
understanding. For example, a child who has only seen small dogs might call a cat a
“dog” due to similar features like fur, four legs, and a tail.

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 Accommodation occurs when existing schemas must be revised to incorporate new
information. For instance, a child who believes all animals have four legs would need
to accommodate their schema upon seeing a snake.
A baby tries to use the same grasping schema to pick up a very small object. It
doesn’t work. The baby then changes (accommodates) the schema using the
forefinger and thumb to pick up the object.

When a child’s existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive
around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of cognitive (i.e.,
mental) balance.

Disequilibrium occurs when new information conflicts with existing schemas, creating
cognitive discomfort. This cognitive conflict drives cognitive development and learning.

These processes are continuous and interactive, allowing schemas to evolve and become more
sophisticated.

Example

When encountering new information, a child first attempts to assimilate it into existing
schemas.

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If assimilation fails, disequilibrium occurs, prompting the need for accommodation.

Through accommodation, the child adjusts their schemas to restore equilibrium.

This cycle continues, driving cognitive development in a non-linear fashion – progressing

through “leaps and bounds” rather than at a steady rate.

Importance of Equilibration:

Equilibration acts as a regulatory mechanism, balancing assimilation and accommodation.

This balance is crucial because:

Constant assimilation without accommodation would prevent the learning of new

concepts.

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 Constant accommodation without assimilation would make every experience seem
novel, leading to cognitive exhaustion.

By maintaining this balance, equilibration facilitates cognitive growth, allowing children to

build increasingly complex and accurate mental representations of the world.

Applications to Education
Think of old black-and-white films you’ve seen where children sat in rows at desks with
inkwells. They learned by rote, all chanting in unison in response to questions set by an
authoritarian figure like Miss Trunchbull in Matilda.

Children who were unable to keep up were seen as slacking and would be punished by
variations on the theme of corporal punishment. Yes, it really did happen and in some parts
of the world still does today.

Piaget is partly responsible for the change that occurred during the 1960s to early children’s
education.

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 “Children should be able to do their own experimenting and their own research.
Teachers, of course, can guide them by providing appropriate materials, but the
essential thing is that in order for a child to understand something, he must construct
it himself, he must re-invent it. Every time we teach a child something, we keep him
from inventing it himself. On the other hand that which we allow him to discover by
himself will remain with him visibly”.

Piaget (1972, p. 27)

Plowden Report

In the 1960s, the Plowden Committee investigated deficiencies in United Kingdom

education and incorporated many of Piaget’s ideas into its final report, published in 1967.

This was notable because Piaget’s (1952) work was not originally designed for educational
applications.

The report made three key recommendations based on Piaget’s theories:

1. Age-appropriate learning: The report recommended that educational activities and

content should be tailored to match children’s cognitive developmental stages as
outlined by Piaget. This meant ensuring that learning tasks were appropriate for the
child’s current level of thinking and understanding.
2. Concrete experiences: Following Piaget’s emphasis on the importance of concrete
experiences in learning, especially for younger children, the report advocated for
hands-on, experiential learning opportunities. This included recommendations for
more practical activities and the use of manipulatives in the classroom.
3. Active learning: The report emphasized the importance of children being active
participants in their own learning, rather than passive recipients of information. This
aligns with Piaget’s view that children construct their own understanding through
interaction with their environment

The Plowden Report emphasized several recurring themes aligned with Piaget’s
work:

Individual learning
Curriculum flexibility
The central role of play in children’s learning

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 Utilizing the environment for learning
Discovery-based learning
Assessment of children’s progress

Importantly, the report cautioned that teachers should “not assume that only what is
measurable is valuable,” encouraging a holistic approach to assessing children’s
development.

Educational Strategies Based on Piaget’s Theory

Teachers should encourage students to take an active role in discovering and constructing
knowledge. The teacher’s role is to facilitate learning rather than direct tuition.

Because Piaget’s theory is based upon biological maturation and stages, the notion of
“readiness” is important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should
be taught.

According to Piaget’s theory, children should not be taught certain concepts until they have
reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development.

Consequently, education should be stage-specific, with curricula developed to match the

age and stage of thinking of the child. For example, abstract concepts like algebra or atomic
structure are not suitable for primary school children.

Assimilation and accommodation require an active learner, not a passive one, because
problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered (Piaget, 1958).

Therefore, teachers should encourage the following within the

classroom:

1. Consider the stages of cognitive development: Educational programs should be

designed to correspond to Piaget’s stages of development. For example, a child in the
concrete operational stage should not be taught abstract concepts and should be
given concrete aid such as tokens to count with.
2. Provide concrete experiences before abstract concepts: Especially for younger
children, ensure they have hands-on experiences with concepts before introducing
more abstract representations.

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 3. Provide challenges that promote growth without causing frustration: Devising
situations that present useful problems and create disequilibrium in the child.
4. Focus on the process of learning rather than the end product: Instead of
checking if children have the right answer, the teacher should focus on the students’
understanding and the processes they used to arrive at the answer.
5. Encourage active learning: Learning must be active (discovery learning). Children
should be encouraged to discover for themselves and to interact with the material
instead of being given ready-made knowledge. Using active methods that require
rediscovering or reconstructing “truths.”
6. Foster social interaction: Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so
children can learn from each other). Implement cooperative learning activities, such as
group problem-solving tasks or role-playing scenarios.
7. Differentiated teaching: Adapt lessons to suit the needs of the individual child. For
example, observe a child’s ability to classify objects by color, shape, and size. If they
can easily sort by one attribute but struggle with multiple attributes, tailor future
activities to gradually increase complexity, such as sorting buttons first by color, then
by color and size together.
8. Providing support for the “spontaneous research” of the child: Provide
opportunities and resources for children to explore topics of their own interest,
encouraging their natural curiosity and self-directed learning. Create a “Wonder Wall”
in the classroom where children can post questions about topics that interest them.

Classroom Activities

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years):

Although most kids in this age range are not in a traditional classroom setting, they
can still benefit from games that stimulate their senses and motor skills.

Object Permanence Games: Play peek-a-boo or hide toys under a blanket to

help babies understand that objects still exist even when they can’t see them.
Sensory Play: Activities like water play, sand play, or playdough encourage
exploration through touch.
Imitation: Children at this age love to imitate adults. Use imitation as a way to
teach new skills.

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2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):

Role Playing: Set up pretend play areas where children can act out different
scenarios, such as a kitchen, hospital, or market.
Use of Symbols: Encourage drawing, building, and using props to represent
other things.
Hands-on Activities: Children should interact physically with their environment,
so provide plenty of opportunities for hands-on learning.
Egocentrism Activities: Use exercises that highlight different perspectives. For
instance, having two children sit across from each other with an object in
between and asking them what the other sees.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):

Classification Tasks: Provide objects or pictures to group, based on various

characteristics.
Hands-on Experiments: Introduce basic science experiments where they can
observe cause and effect, like a simple volcano with baking soda and vinegar.
Logical Games: Board games, puzzles, and logic problems help develop their
thinking skills.
Conservation Tasks: Use experiments to showcase that quantity doesn’t
change with alterations in shape, such as the classic liquid conservation task
using differently shaped glasses.

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 4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older):

Hypothesis Testing: Encourage students to make predictions and test them

out.
Abstract Thinking: Introduce topics that require abstract reasoning, such as
algebra or ethical dilemmas.
Problem Solving: Provide complex problems and have students work on
solutions, integrating various subjects and concepts.
Debate and Discussion: Encourage group discussions and debates on
abstract topics, highlighting the importance of logic and evidence.
Feedback and Questioning: Use open-ended questions to challenge students
and promote higher-order thinking. For instance, rather than asking, “Is this the
right answer?”, ask, “How did you arrive at this conclusion?”

Individual Differences In Learning

While Piaget’s stages offer a foundational framework, they are not universally experienced
in the same way by all children.

Social identities play a critical role in shaping cognitive development, necessitating a more
nuanced and culturally responsive approach to understanding child development.

Piaget’s stages may manifest differently based on social identities like race, gender,
and culture:

Race & Teacher Interactions: A child’s race can influence teacher expectations and
interactions. For example, racial biases can lead to children of color being perceived
as less capable or more disruptive, influencing their cognitive challenges and support.
Racial and Cultural Stereotypes: These can affect a child’s self-perception and self-
efficacy. For instance, stereotypes about which racial or cultural groups are “better” at
certain subjects can influence a child’s self-confidence and, subsequently, their
engagement in that subject.
Gender & Peer Interactions: Children learn gender roles from their peers. Boys
might be mocked for playing “girl games,” and girls might be excluded from certain
activities, influencing their cognitive engagements.

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 Language: Multilingual children might navigate the stages differently, especially if
their home language differs from their school language. The way concepts are framed
in different languages can influence cognitive processing. Cultural idioms and
metaphors can shape a child’s understanding of concepts and their ability to use
symbolic representation, especially in the pre-operational stage.

Overcoming Challenges and Barriers in Implementing Piagetian Strategies

Balancing play and curriculum

Purposeful Play: Ensuring that play is not just free time but a structured learning
experience requires careful planning. Educators must identify clear learning objectives
and create play environments that facilitate these goals.
Alignment with Standards: Striking a balance between child-initiated play and
curriculum expectations can be challenging. Educators need to find ways to integrate
play-based learning with broader educational goals and standards.
Pace of Learning: The curriculum’s focus on specific content by certain ages can
create pressure to accelerate student learning, potentially contradicting Piaget’s
notion of developmental stages. Teachers should regularly assess students’
understanding to identify areas where they need more support or challenge.
Assessment Focus: The emphasis on standardized testing can shift the focus from
process-oriented learning (as Piaget advocated) to outcome-based teaching.
Educators should use assessments that reflect real-world tasks and allow students to
demonstrate their understanding in multiple ways.

Parents

Parental Expectations: Some parents may have misconceptions about play-based

learning, believing it to be less rigorous than traditional instruction. Educators may
need to address these concerns and communicate the value of play.
Parental Involvement: Involving parents in understanding Piaget’s theory can foster
consistency between home and school environments. Providing resources and
information to parents about child development can empower them to support their
child’s learning at home.

Other challenges

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 Individual Differences: Piaget emphasized individual differences in cognitive
development, but classrooms often have diverse learners. Meeting the needs of all
students while maintaining a play-based approach can be demanding.
Time Constraints: In some educational settings, there may be pressure to cover
specific content or prepare students for standardized tests. Prioritizing play-based
learning within these constraints can be difficult.
Cultural Sensitivity: Recognizing and respecting cultural differences is essential.
Piaget’s theory may need to be adapted to fit the specific cultural context of the
children being taught.

Can Piaget’s Ideas Be Applied to Children with Special Educational Needs

and Disabilities?

Yes, Piaget’s ideas can be adapted to support children with special educational needs and
disabilities (SEND), though with important considerations:

1. Individualized Approach: Tailor learning experiences to each child’s unique

strengths, needs, and interests, recognizing that development may not follow typical
patterns or timelines (Daniels & Diack, 1977).
2. Concrete Learning Experiences: Provide hands-on, multisensory activities to
support concept exploration, particularly beneficial for children with learning difficulties
or sensory impairments (Lee & Zentall, 2012).
3. Gradual Scaffolding: Break down tasks into manageable steps and provide
appropriate support to help children progress through developmental stages at their
own pace (Morra & Borella, 2015).
4. Flexible Assessment: Modify Piagetian tasks to accommodate different abilities and
communication methods, using multiple assessment approaches.
5. Strengths-Based Focus: Emphasize children’s capabilities rather than deficits, using
Piaget’s concepts to identify and build upon existing cognitive strengths.
6. Interdisciplinary Approach: Combine Piagetian insights with specialized knowledge
from fields like occupational therapy and speech-language pathology.

While Piaget’s theory offers valuable insights, it should be part of a broader, evidence-
based approach that recognizes the diverse factors influencing development in children with
SEND.

Social Media (Digital Learning)

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Jean Piaget could not have anticipated the expansive digital age we now live in.

Today, knowledge dissemination and creation are democratized by the Internet, with
platforms like blogs, wikis, social media, and generative AI allowing for vast collaboration
and shared knowledge. This development has prompted a reimagining of the future of
education.

Classrooms, traditionally seen as primary sites of learning, are being overshadowed by the
rise of mobile technologies and platforms like MOOCs (Passey, 2013).

The millennial generation, the first to grow up with cable TV, the internet, and cell phones,
relies heavily on technology.

They view it as an integral part of their identity, with most using it extensively in their daily
lives, from keeping in touch with loved ones to consuming news and entertainment
(Nielsen, 2014).

Social media platforms offer a dynamic environment conducive to Piaget’s principles. These
platforms allow interactions that nurture knowledge evolution through cognitive processes
like assimilation and accommodation.

They emphasize communal interaction and shared activity, fostering both cognitive and
socio-cultural constructivism. This shared activity promotes understanding and exploration
beyond individual perspectives, enhancing social-emotional learning (Gehlbach, 2010).

A standout advantage of social media in an educational context is its capacity to extend

beyond traditional classroom confines. As the material indicates, these platforms can foster
more inclusive learning, bridging diverse learner groups.

This inclusivity can equalize learning opportunities, potentially diminishing biases based on
factors like race or socio-economic status, resonating with Kegan’s (1982) concept of
“recruitability.”

However, there are challenges. While social media’s potential in learning is vast, its
practical application necessitates intention and guidance. Cuban, Kirkpatrick, and Peck
(2001) note that certain educators and students are hesitant about integrating social media
into educational contexts.

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This hesitancy can stem from technological complexities or potential distractions. Yet, when
harnessed effectively, social media can provide a rich environment for collaborative learning
and interpersonal development, fostering a deeper understanding of content.

In essence, the rise of social media aligns seamlessly with constructivist philosophies.
Social media platforms act as tools for everyday cognition, merging daily social interactions
with the academic world, and providing avenues for diverse, interactive, and engaging
learning experiences.

Weaknesses of Piaget’s theory include:

Criticisms of Research Methods

Some critics argue that Piaget’s clinical method lacked standardization and objectivity,
making it difficult to replicate findings and generalize results.

The open-ended nature of questioning, while allowing for flexibility, also introduced potential
biases from the researcher’s interpretations.

Additionally, the focus on verbal explanations may have underestimated the cognitive
abilities of younger children or those with limited language skills.

1. Small sample size: Piaget often used small, non-representative samples, frequently
including only his own children or those from similar backgrounds (European children
from families of high socio-economic status). This limits the generalizability of his
findings (Lourenço & Machado, 1996).
2. Potential researcher bias: Piaget’s methods, including studying his own children and
conducting solo observations, risked subjective interpretation.
The lack of inter-rater reliability and potential issues with clinical interviews (e.g.,
children misunderstanding questions or trying to please the experimenter) may have
led to biased or inaccurate conclusions.

Using multiple researchers and more standardized methods could have improved
reliability (Donaldson, 1978).

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 3. Age-related issues: Some critics argue that Piaget underestimated the cognitive
abilities of younger children. This may be due to the complex language used in his
tasks, which could have masked children’s true understanding.
4. Cultural limitations: Piaget’s research was primarily conducted with Western,
educated children from relatively affluent backgrounds. This raises questions about the
universality of his developmental stages across different cultures (Rogoff, 2003).
5. Task design: Some of Piaget’s tasks may have been too abstract or removed from
children’s everyday experiences. This could have led to underestimating children’s
actual cognitive abilities in more familiar contexts.

As several studies have shown Piaget underestimated the abilities of children because
his tests were sometimes confusing or difficult to understand (e.g., Hughes, 1975).

Challenges to Key Concepts and Theories

Fixed developmental stages

Piaget’s concept of fixed developmental stages has been challenged by other theorists and
researchers.

Vygotsky and Bruner would rather not talk about stages at all, preferring to see development
as a continuous process.

Others have queried the age ranges of the stages. Some studies have shown that progress
to the formal operational stage is not guaranteed.

For example, Keating (1979) reported that 40-60% of college students fail at formal
operational tasks, and Dasen (1994) states that only one-third of adults ever reach the formal
operational stage.

Current developmental psychology has moved beyond seeing development as progressing

through discrete, universal stages (as Piaget proposed) to view it as a more gradual, variable
process influenced by social, genetic, and cultural factors.

Current perspectives acknowledge greater variability in the timing and sequence of

developmental milestones.

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There’s greater recognition of the brain’s plasticity and the potential for cognitive growth
throughout the lifespan.

This challenges the idea of fixed developmental endpoints proposed in stage theories.

Cultural and individual differences

Cultural differences in cognitive development challenge the universality of Piaget’s stages

The fact that the formal operational stage is not reached in all cultures and not all individuals
within cultures suggests that it might not be biologically based.

According to Piaget, the rate of cognitive development cannot be accelerated as it is

based on biological processes however, direct tuition can speed up the development
which suggests that it is not entirely based on biological factors.
Because Piaget concentrated on the universal stages of cognitive development and
biological maturation he failed to consider the effect that the social setting and culture
may have on cognitive development.

Cross-cultural studies show that the stages of development (except the formal operational
stage) occur in the same order in all cultures suggesting that cognitive development is a
product of a biological maturation process.

However, the age at which the stages are reached varies between cultures and individuals
which suggests that social and cultural factors and individual differences influence cognitive
development.

Dasen (1994) cites studies he conducted in remote parts of the central Australian desert with
8—to 14-year-old Indigenous Australians.

He gave them conservation of liquid tasks and spatial awareness tasks. He found that the
ability to conserve came later in the Aboriginal children, between the ages of 10 and 13 (as
opposed to between 5 and 7, with Piaget’s Swiss sample).

However, he found that spatial awareness abilities developed earlier among Aboriginal
children than among Swiss children.

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Such a study demonstrates that cognitive development is not purely dependent on
maturation but on cultural factors as well—spatial awareness is crucial for nomadic groups of
people.

Underemphasis on social and emotional factors

While Piaget’s theory focuses primarily on individual cognitive development, it arguably

underestimates the crucial role of social and emotional factors.

Lev Vygotsky, a contemporary of Piaget, emphasized the social nature of learning in his
sociocultural theory.

Vygotsky argued that cognitive development occurs through social interactions, particularly
with more knowledgeable others (MKOs) such as parents, teachers, or skilled peers.

He introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which represents
the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with
guidance.

Furthermore, Vygotsky viewed language as fundamental to thought development, asserting

that social dialogue becomes internalized as inner speech, driving cognitive processes. This
perspective highlights how cultural tools, especially language, shape thinking.

Emotional factors, including motivation, self-esteem, and relationships, also play significant
roles in learning and development – aspects not thoroughly addressed in Piaget’s cognitive-
focused theory.

This social-emotional dimension of development has gained increasing recognition in

modern educational and developmental psychology.

Underestimating children’s abilities

Critics argue that Piaget may have underestimated children’s cognitive abilities due to
methodological issues.

Piaget failed to distinguish between competence (what a child can do) and performance
(what a child can show when given a particular task).

When tasks were altered, performance (and therefore competence) was affected. Therefore,
Piaget might have underestimated children’s cognitive abilities.

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For example, a child might have object permanence (competence) but still be unable to
search for objects (performance). When Piaget hid objects from babies, he found that it
wasn’t until after nine months that they looked for them.

However, Piaget relied on manual search methods – whether the child was looking for the
object or not.

Later, researchers such as Baillargeon and Devos (1991) reported that infants as young as
four months looked longer at a moving carrot that didn’t do what it expected, suggesting they
had some sense of permanence, otherwise they wouldn’t have had any expectation of what
it should or shouldn’t do.

Jean Piaget’s Legacy and Ongoing Influence

Piaget’s ideas on developmental psychology have had an enormous influence. He changed
how people viewed the child’s world and their methods of studying children.

He inspired many who followed and took up his ideas. Piaget’s theories inspired extensive
research in the field of cognitive development.

Theoretical Contributions

Seminal Theory: Piaget (1936) was one of the first psychologists to study cognitive
development systematically. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive
development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of
simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
Neo-Piagetian theories: Researchers have built upon Piaget’s stage theory of
cognitive development, incorporating information processing and brain development to
explain cognitive growth, emphasizing individual differences and more gradual
developmental progressions (Case, 1985; Fischer, 1980; Pascual-Leone, 1970).

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 Clinical Methods: Piaget’s clinical and critical methods, revolutionized the study of
child psychology. They shifted the focus from simply measuring children’s performance
to understanding the underlying processes of their thinking.

His emphasis on qualitative, exploratory research, as opposed to strictly quantitative

measures, opened new avenues for studying children’s cognitive development and
challenged prevailing assumptions about their capabilities.

Piaget’s legacy continues to influence contemporary research methods, highlighting the

importance of considering children’s perspectives and the dynamic nature of their
reasoning.

Impact on Educational Practices

Early Childhood Education: Piaget’s theories underpin many early childhood

programs that emphasize play-based learning, sensory experiences, and exploration.

Constructivist Pedagogy: Piaget’s idea that children construct knowledge through

interaction with their environment led to a shift from teacher-centered to child-centered
approaches. This emphasizes exploration, discovery, and hands-on activities.

Tailored Curriculum: Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) ensures that

educational experiences match children’s developmental stages, promoting optimal
learning and growth.
By understanding Piaget’s stages, educators can create environments and activities
that challenge children appropriately.

The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) has
incorporated Piagetian principles into its DAP framework, influencing early childhood
education policies worldwide.

Parenting Practices

Piaget’s theory influenced parenting by emphasizing stimulating environments, play, and

supporting children’s curiosity.

Parents can use Piaget’s stages to have realistic developmental expectations of their
children’s behavior and cognitive capabilities.

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For instance, understanding that a toddler is in the pre-operational stage can help parents be
patient when the child is egocentric.

Play Activities

Recognizing the importance of play in cognitive development, many parents provide toys and
games suited for their child’s developmental stage.

Parents can offer activities that are slightly beyond their child’s current abilities, leveraging
Vygotsky’s concept of the “Zone of Proximal Development,” which complements Piaget’s
ideas.

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years):

Peek-a-boo: Helps with object permanence.

Texture Touch: Provide different textured materials (soft, rough, bumpy, smooth)
for babies to touch and feel.
Sound Bottles: Fill small bottles with different items like rice, beans, bells, and
have children shake and listen to the different sounds.

2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):

Memory Games: Using cards with pictures, place them face down, and ask
students to find matching pairs.
Role Playing and Pretend Play: Let children act out roles or stories that
enhance symbolic thinking. Encourage symbolic play with dress-up clothes,
playsets, or toy cash registers. Provide prompts or scenarios to extend their
imagination.
Story Sequencing: Give children cards with parts of a story and have them
arranged in the correct order.

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 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):

Number Line Jumps: Create a number line on the floor with tape. Ask students
to jump to the correct answer for math problems.
Classification Games: Provide a mix of objects and ask students to classify
them based on different criteria (e.g., color, size, shape).
Logical Puzzle Games: Games that involve problem-solving using logic, such as
simple Sudoku puzzles or logic grid puzzles.

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older):

Debate and Discussion: Provide a topic and let students debate the pros and
cons. This promotes abstract thinking and logical reasoning.
Hypothesis Testing Games: Present a scenario and have students come up
with hypotheses and ways to test them.
Strategy Board Games: Games like chess, checkers, or Settlers of Catan can
help in developing strategic and forward-thinking skills.

Comparing Jean Piaget’s Ideas with Other Theorists

Integrating diverse theories enables early years professionals to develop a comprehensive
view of child development.

This allows for creating holistic learning experiences that support cognitive, social, and
emotional growth.

By recognizing various developmental factors, professionals can tailor their practices to each
child’s unique needs and background.

Comparison with Lev Vygotsky

Differences:

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 Individual vs. Social Emphasis: Piaget maintains that cognitive development stems
largely from independent explorations in which children construct knowledge of their
own.

Vygotsky argues that children learn through social interactions, building knowledge by
learning from more knowledgeable others, such as peers and adults.
In other words, Vygotsky believed that culture affects cognitive development.

Stage-Based vs Continuous Development: Piaget proposed a stage-based model of

cognitive development, while Vygotsky viewed development as a continuous process
influenced by social and cultural factors.
Role of Language: For Piaget, language is considered secondary to action, i.e.,
thought precedes language.
Vygotsky argues that the development of language and thought go together and that
the origin of reasoning has more to do with our ability to communicate with others than
with our interaction with the material world.

Discovery Learning vs. Guided Scaffolding: Piaget argued that the teacher should
provide opportunities that challenge the children’s existing schemas and encourage
them to discover for themselves.
Alternatively, Vygotsky would recommend that teachers assist the child to progress
through the zone of proximal development by using scaffolding.

Similarities:

1. Both theories view children as actively constructing their own knowledge of the world;
they are not seen as just passively absorbing knowledge.
2. They also agree that cognitive development involves qualitative changes in thinking,
not only a matter of learning more things.

Piaget Vygotsky

Sociocultural Little emphasis Strong emphasis

Constructivism Cognitive constructivist Social constructivist

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 Piaget Vygotsky

Stages Cognitive development follows Cognitive development is

universal stages dependent on social context (no
stages)

Learning & The child is a “lone scientist”, Learning through social

Development develops knowledge through own interactions. Child builds
exploration knowledge by working with
others

Role of Thought drives language Language drives cognitive

Language development development

Role of the Provide opportunities for children to Assist the child to progress
Teacher learn about the world for themselves through the ZPD by using
(discovery learning) scaffolding

Comparison with Erik Erikson

Erikson’s (1958) psychosocial theory outlines 8 stages of psychosocial development from

infancy to late adulthood.

At each stage, individuals face a conflict between two opposing states that shapes
personality. Successfully resolving conflicts leads to virtues like hope, will, purpose, and
integrity. Failure leads to outcomes like mistrust, guilt, role confusion, and despair.

Differences:

Cognitive vs. Psychosocial Focus: Piaget focuses on cognitive development and

how children construct knowledge. Erikson emphasizes psychosocial development,
exploring how social interactions shape personality and identity.
Universal Stages vs. Cultural Influence: Piaget proposed universal cognitive stages
relatively independent of culture. Erikson’s psychosocial stages, while sequential,
acknowledge significant cultural influence on their expression and timing.
Role of Conflict: Piaget sees cognitive conflict (disequilibrium) as a driver for learning.
Erikson views psychosocial crises as essential for personal growth and identity
formation.
Scope of Development: Piaget’s theory primarily covers childhood to adolescence.
Erikson’s theory spans the entire lifespan, from infancy to late adulthood.

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 Learning Process vs. Identity Formation: Piaget emphasizes how children learn and
understand the world. Erikson focuses on how individuals develop their sense of self
and place in society through resolving psychosocial conflicts.

Similarities:

1. Stage-based theories: Both propose that development occurs in distinct stages

(Gilleard & Higgs, 2016).
2. Age-related progression: Stages are generally associated with specific age ranges.
3. Cumulative development: Each stage builds upon the previous ones.
4. Focus on childhood: Both emphasize the importance of early life experiences.
5. Active role of the individual: Both see children as active participants in their
development.

Comparison with Urie Bronfenbrenner

Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory posits that an individual’s development is

influenced by a series of interconnected environmental systems, ranging from the immediate
surroundings (e.g., family) to broad societal structures (e.g., culture).

Bronfenbrenner’s theory offers a more comprehensive view of the multiple influences on a

child’s development, complementing Piaget’s focus on cognitive processes with a broader
ecological perspective.

Differences:

Individual vs. Ecological Emphasis: Piaget focuses on individual cognitive

development through independent exploration. Bronfenbrenner emphasizes the
complex interplay between an individual and multiple environmental systems, from
immediate family to broader societal influences.
Stage-based vs. Systems Approach: Piaget proposed distinct stages of cognitive
development. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory views development as
ongoing interactions between the individual and various environmental contexts
throughout the lifespan.
Role of Environment: For Piaget, the environment provides opportunities for cognitive
conflict and schema development. Bronfenbrenner sees the environment as a nested
set of systems (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem)
that directly and indirectly influence development.

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 Cognitive Structures vs. Proximal Processes: Piaget focused on the development of
cognitive structures (schemas). Bronfenbrenner emphasized proximal processes –
regular, enduring interactions between the individual and their immediate environment
– as key drivers of development.
Discovery Learning vs. Contextual Learning: Piaget advocated for discovery
learning to challenge existing schemas. Bronfenbrenner would emphasize the
importance of understanding and leveraging the various ecological contexts in which
learning occurs, from family to cultural systems.

Similarities:

1. Both recognize the child as an active participant in development.

2. Both acknowledge the importance of the child’s environment in shaping development.

FAQs

What is cognitive development?

Cognitive development is how a person’s ability to think, learn, remember, problem-solve,

and make decisions changes over time.

This includes the growth and maturation of the brain, as well as the acquisition and
refinement of various mental skills and abilities.

Cognitive development is a major aspect of human development, and both genetic and
environmental factors heavily influence it. Key domains of cognitive development include
attention, memory, language skills, logical reasoning, and problem-solving.

Various theories, such as those proposed by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, provide different
perspectives on how this complex process unfolds from infancy through adulthood.

What are the 4 stages of Piaget’s theory?

Piaget divided children’s cognitive development into four stages; each of the stages
represents a new way of thinking and understanding the world.

He called them (1) sensorimotor intelligence, (2) preoperational thinking, (3) concrete
operational thinking, and (4) formal operational thinking. Each stage is correlated with an age
period of childhood, but only approximately.

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According to Piaget, intellectual development takes place through stages that occur in a fixed
order and which are universal (all children pass through these stages regardless of social or
cultural background).

Development can only occur when the brain has matured to a point of “readiness”.

What are some of the weaknesses of Piaget’s theory?

Cross-cultural studies show that the stages of development (except the formal operational
stage) occur in the same order in all cultures suggesting that cognitive development is a
product of a biological maturation process.

However, the age at which the stages are reached varies between cultures and individuals,
suggesting that social and cultural factors and individual differences influence cognitive
development.

What are Piaget’s concepts of schemas?

Schemas are mental structures that contain all of the information relating to one aspect of
the world around us.

According to Piaget, we are born with a few primitive schemas, such as sucking, which give
us the means to interact with the world.

These are physical, but as the child develops, they become mental schemas. These
schemas become more complex with experience.

According to Piaget, how does a child’s verbal thought relate to their active
and concrete thought?

Piaget acknowledged the complex relationship between a child’s verbal expressions and
their active engagement with the concrete world.

He recognized that children, like adults, possess a layer of “purely verbal thought” that can
be superimposed over their “active and concrete thought”.

This verbal layer can manifest in various ways, including:

Inventing Stories: Piaget observed that children frequently invent stories, both during
questioning and in their everyday lives.

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He argued that these stories offer insights into the child’s thought processes, as they often
reflect the child’s understanding of causality, relationships, and the workings of the world

Responding to Hypothetical Scenarios: In his studies on moral judgment, Piaget used

hypothetical dilemmas to explore children’s reasoning.

He recognized that these verbal scenarios, while not directly mirroring the child’s lived
experience, could still elicit valuable insights into their moral reasoning processes.

However, Piaget also expressed concerns about the limitations of relying solely on verbal
expressions to understand children’s thinking.

Verbal Thought as a Potential Distraction: Piaget cautioned that focusing too heavily on a
child’s verbalizations might lead researchers away from observing their active engagement
with the world, which he considered a crucial aspect of their cognitive development.

He emphasized the need to balance verbal inquiry with observations of the child’s actions
and manipulations of physical objects.

The Risk of Misinterpreting Verbal Responses: Piaget emphasized that children’s verbal
expressions could be influenced by various factors, such as a desire to please the
interviewer or a misunderstanding of the question.

He stressed the importance of careful interpretation and the need to distinguish between
“liberated” or “spontaneous” responses and those that are influenced by suggestion or other
external factors.

To address these challenges, Piaget advocated for integrating verbal inquiry with
observations of the child’s active and concrete engagement with the world:

Combining Verbal and Concrete Tasks: As his clinical method evolved, Piaget increasingly
incorporated concrete tasks and manipulations into his research protocols.

By engaging children in activities that involved interacting with physical objects, he believed
he could gain a more comprehensive understanding of their reasoning processes.

This shift is exemplified in his research on physical causality, where he presented children
with concrete demonstrations, such as dropping a pebble into a glass of water, and then
questioned them about their observations and explanations.

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Using Language Rooted in the Child’s Experience: Piaget emphasized the importance of
using language and concepts that were familiar to the child and connected to their concrete
experiences.

He believed that this approach helped to ensure that the child understood the question and
that their responses reflected their genuine thinking.

Ultimately, Piaget saw the relationship between verbal and concrete thought as a dynamic
interplay that evolves as the child develops.

He believed that by carefully attending to both aspects of a child’s thinking, researchers

could gain valuable insights into the complex processes of cognitive development.

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Further Reading
BBC Radio Broadcast about the Three Mountains Study
Piagetian stages: A critical review
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

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