Department of Mechanical Engineering

ENGINEERING MECHANICS
3rd Semester (Batch 2023-2027)

By
Dr. Atul
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering
ACED, Alliance University
Bengaluru, Karnataka
 INTRODUCTION
The force is an important factor in the field of Mechanics, which may be broadly defined
as an agent which produces or tends to produce, destroys or tends to destroy motion. e.g.,
a horse applies force to pull a cart and to set it in motion. Force is also required to work
on a bicycle pump. In this case, the force is supplied by the muscular power of our arms
and shoulders.

Sometimes, the applied force may not be sufficient to move a body, e.g., if we try to lift a
stone weighing 2 or 3 quintals, we fail to do so. In this case we exert a force, no doubt,
but no motion is produced. This shows that a force may not necessarily produce a motion
in a body ; but it may, simply, tend to do so. In a tug-of-war the two parties, when
balanced, neutralize each other’s force. But the moment one party gets weaker, the other
party pulls off, in spite of first party’s best effort to destroy motion
 EFFECTS OF A FORCE
A force may produce the following effects in a body, on which it acts :

1. It may change the motion of a body. i.e. if a body is at rest, the force may set it in
motion. And if the body is already in motion, the force may accelerate it.
2. It may retard the motion of a body.
3. It may retard the forces, already acting on a body, thus bringing it to rest or in
equilibrium.
4. It may give rise to the internal stresses in the body, on which it acts.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A FORCE
In order to determine the effects of a force, acting on a body, we must know the
following characteristics of a force :

1. Magnitude of the force (i.e., 100 N, 50 N, 20 kN, 5 kN, etc.)

2. The direction of the line, along which the force acts (i.e., along OX, OY, at 30°
North of East etc.). It is also known as line of action of the force.
3. Nature of the force (i.e., whether the force is push or pull). This is denoted by
placing an arrow head on the line of action of the force.
4. The point at which (or through which) the force acts on the body
PRINCIPLE OF PHYSICAL INDEPENDENCE OF FORCES

It states, “If a number of forces are simultaneously acting on a particle, then the
resultant of these forces will have the same effect as produced by all the forces. ”

PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY OF FORCES

It states, “If a force acts at any point on a rigid body, it may also be considered to act
at any other point on its line of action, provided this point is rigidly connected with the
body.”
 SYSTEM OF FORCES
When two or more forces act on a body, they are called to form a system of forces.
Following systems of forces are important from the subject point of view :
1. Coplanar forces. The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same plane, are known as
coplanar forces.
2. Collinear forces. The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same line, are known as
collinear forces.
3. Concurrent forces. The forces, which meet at one point, are known as concurrent forces.
The concurrent forces may or may not be collinear.
4. Coplanar concurrent forces. The forces, which meet at one point and their lines of action
also lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar concurrent forces.
5. Coplanar non-concurrent forces. The forces, which do not meet at one point, but their
lines of action lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar non-concurrent forces.
6. Non-coplanar concurrent forces. The forces, which meet at one point, but their lines of
action do not lie on the same plane, are known as non-coplanar concurrent forces.
7. Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces. The forces, which do not meet at one point and
their lines of action do not lie on the same plane, are called non-coplanar non-concurrent
forces.
RESULTANT FORCE
If a number of forces, P, Q, R ... etc. are acting simultaneously on a particle, then it is
possible to find out a single force which could replace them i.e., which would produce
the same effect as produced by all the given forces. This single force is called resultant
force and the given forces R ... etc. are called component forces.

COMPOSITION OF FORCES
The process of finding out the resultant force, of a number of given forces, is called
composition of forces or compounding of forces.

METHODS FOR THE RESULTANT FORCE

Though there are many methods for finding out the resultant force of a number of given
forces, yet the following are important from the subject point of view : 1. Analytical
method. 2. Method of resolution.

ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR RESULTANT FORCE

The resultant force, of a given system of forces, may be found out analytically by the
following methods : 1. Parallelogram law of forces. 2. Method of resolution.
 PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES
It states, “If two forces, acting simultaneously on a particle, be represented in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram ; their resultant
may be represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram,
which passes through their point of intersection.”
Mathematically, resultant force,
 EXERCISE 1
1. Two forces of 100 N and 150 N are acting simultaneously at a point. What is the
resultant of these two forces, if the angle between them is 45°?

2. Two forces act at an angle of 120°. The bigger force is of 40 N and the resultant is
perpendicular to the smaller one. Find the smaller force.

3. Find the magnitude of the two forces, such that if they act at right angles, their
resultant is 10 N . But if they act at 60°, their resultant is 13 N .
 RESOLUTION OF A FORCE
The process of splitting up the given force into a number of components, without
changing its effect on the body is called resolution of a force. A force is, generally,
resolved along two mutually perpendicular directions. In fact, the resolution of a force
is the reverse action of the addition of the component vectors.

PRINCIPLE OF RESOLUTION
It states, “The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of a no. of forces, in a given direction,
is equal to the resolved part of their resultant in the same direction.”
 EXERCISE 2
A machine component 1.5 m long and weight 1000 N is supported by two ropes AB and
CD as shown in Figure given below.

Calculate the tensions T1 and T2 in the ropes AB and CD.

 METHOD OF RESOLUTION FOR THE
RESULTANT FORCE
1. Resolve all the forces horizontally and find the algebraic sum of all the horizontal
components (i.e., ∑H).
2. Resolve all the forces vertically and find the algebraic sum of all the vertical
components (i.e., ∑V).
3. The resultant R of the given forces will be given by the equation :

4. The resultant force will be inclined at an angle θ, with the horizontal, such that tan
The value of the angle θ will vary depending upon the values of ∑V and ∑H as
discussed below :

1. When ∑V is +ve, the resultant makes an angle between 0° and 180°. But when ∑V
is –ve, the resultant makes an angle between 180° and 360°.

2. When ∑H is +ve, the resultant makes an angle between 0° to 90° or 270° to 360°.
But when ∑H is –ve, the resultant makes an angle between 90° to 270°.
 EXERCISE 3
1. A triangle ABC has its side AB = 40 mm along positive x-axis and side BC = 30
mm along positive y-axis. Three forces of 40 N, 50 N and 30 N act along the sides
AB, BC and CA respectively. Determine magnitude of the resultant of such a
system of forces.

2. A system of forces are acting at the corners of a rectangular block as shown in

Figure below. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
 EXERCISE 4
1. The forces 20 N, 30 N, 40 N, 50 N and 60 N are acting at one of the angular points
of a regular hexagon, towards the other five angular points, taken in order. Find the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

2. The following forces act at a point :

(i) 20 N inclined at 30° towards North of East,
(ii) 25 N towards North,
(iii) 30 N towards North West, and
(iv) 35 N inclined at 40° towards South of West.

Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

 EXERCISE 5
A horizontal line PQRS is 12 m long, where PQ = QR = RS = 4 m. Forces of 1000 N,
1500 N, 1000 N and 500 N act at P, Q, R and S respectively with downward
direction. The lines of action of these forces make angles of 90°, 60°, 45° and 30°
respectively with PS. Find the magnitude, direction and position of the resultant
force.
 MOMENT OF A FORCE
It is the turning effect produced by a force, on the body, on which it acts. The moment
of a force is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of the point,
about which the moment is required and the line of action of the force.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF MOMENT
Consider a force P represented, in magnitude and direction, by the line AB. Let O be a
point, about which the moment of this force is required to be found out, as shown in Fig.
below. From O, draw OC perpendicular to AB. Join OA and OB.

Now moment of the force P about O

= P × OC = AB × OC
But AB × OC is equal to twice the area of triangle ABO.
Thus, the moment of a force, about any point, is equal to twice the area of the triangle,
whose base is the line to some scale representing the force and whose vertex is the point
about which the moment is taken
 VARIGNON’S PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
It states, “If a number of coplanar forces are acting simultaneously on a particle, the
algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces about any point is equal to the moment of
their resultant force about the same point.”

EXERCISE
A force of 15 N is applied perpendicular to the edge of a door 0.8 m wide as shown in
Fig. (a). Find the moment of the force about the hinge
If this force is applied at an angle of 60° to the edge of the same door, as shown in Fig.
(b), find the moment of this force.
EXERCISE
A uniform plank ABC of weight 30 N and 2 m long is supported at one end A and at a
point B 1.4 m from A as shown in Fig. below. Find the maximum weight W, that can
be placed at C, so that the plank does not topple.
EXERCISE
A uniform wheel of 600 mm diameter, weighing 5 kN rests against a rigid rectangular
block of 150 mm height as shown in Fig. below. Find the least pull, through the centre
of the wheel, required just to turn the wheel over the corner A of the block. Also find
the reaction on the block. Take all the surfaces to be smooth.
INTRODUCTION

Previously, we have seen that forces acting at one point. But, sometimes, the given
forces have their lines of action parallel to each other. A little consideration will show,
that such forces do not meet at any point, though they do have some effect on the body
on which they act. The forces, whose lines of action are parallel to each other, are
known as parallel forces.
The parallel forces may be, broadly, classified into the following two categories,
depending upon their directions :
1. Like parallel forces.
2. Unlike parallel forces.
LIKE PARALLEL FORCES
The forces, whose lines of action are parallel to each other and all of them act in the
same direction as shown in Fig. (a) are known as like parallel forces.

UNLIKE PARALLEL FORCES

The forces, whose lines of action are parallel to each other and all of them do not act in
the same direction as shown in Fig. (b) are known as unlike parallel forces.
EXERCISE
Two like parallel forces of 50 N and 100 N act at the ends of a rod 360 mm long. Find the
magnitude of the resultant force and the point where it acts.
EXERCISE
1. A beam 3 m long weighing 400 N is suspended in a horizontal position by two
vertical strings, each of which can withstand a maximum tension of 350 N only.
How far a body of 200 N weight be placed on the beam, so that one of the strings
may just break ?
2. Two unlike parallel forces of magnitude 400 N and 100 N are acting in such away
that their lines of action are 150 mm apart. Determine the magnitude of the resultant
force and the point at which it acts.
PRINCIPLES OF EQUILIBRIUM
Though there are many principles of equilibrium, yet the following three are
important from the subject point of view :

1. Two force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by
two forces, then they must be equal, opposite and collinear.
2. Three force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon
by three forces, then the resultant of any two forces must be equal, opposite and
collinear with the third force.
3. Four force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon
by four forces, then the resultant of any two forces must be equal, opposite and
collinear with the resultant of the other two forces
LAMI’S THEOREM
It states, “If three coplanar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, then each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two.” Mathematically,

where, P, Q, and R are three forces and α, β, γ are the angles as shown in figure.
ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR THE EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR
FORCES

Consider three coplanar forces P, Q, and R acting at a point O. Let the opposite angles
to three forces be α , β and γ as shown in Figure.
Now let us complete the parallelogram OACB with OA and OB as adjacent sides as
shown in the figure. We know that the resultant of two forces P and Q will be given by
the diagonal OC both in magnitude and direction of the parallelogram OACB. Since
these forces are in equilibrium, therefore the resultant of the forces P and Q must be in
line with OD and equal to R, but in opposite direction.
EXERCISE
An electric light fixture weighting 15 N hangs from a point C, by two strings AC and
BC. The string AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the horizontal
as shown in Figure.
Using Lami’s theorem, or otherwise, determine the forces in the strings AC and BC.
The system of forces is shown in Figure. From the geometry of the figure, we
find that angle between TAC and 15 N is 150° and angle between
TBC and 15 N is 135°.
A string ABCD, attached to fixed points A and D has two equal weights of 1000 N
attached to it at B and C. The weights rest with the portions AB and CD inclined at
angles as shown in Figure. Find the tensions in the portions AB, BC and CD of the
string, if the inclination of the portion BC with the vertical is 120°.
Load at B = Load at C = 1000 N
For the sake of convenience, let us split up the string ABCD into two parts. The system
of forces at joints B and C is shown in Figure.
A light string ABCDE whose extremity A is fixed, has weights W1 and W2 attached to it
at B and C. It passes round a small smooth peg at D carrying a weight of 300 N at the
free end E as shown in Figure. If in the equilibrium position, BC is horizontal and AB
and CD make 150° and 120° with BC, find (i) Tensions in the portion AB, BC and CD of
the string and (ii) Magnitudes of W1 and W2.
Weight at E = 300 N
For the sake of convenience, let us split up the string ABCD into two parts. The system
of forces at joints B and C is shown in Figure.
CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
Consider a body acted upon by a number of coplaner non-concurrent forces.

A little consideration will show, that as a result of these forces, the body may have
any one of the following states:

1. The body may move in any one direction.

2. The body may rotate about itself without moving.
3. The body may move in any one direction and at the same time it may also rotate
about itself.
4. The body may be completely at rest.
TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM

Stable equilibrium
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium, if it returns back to its original position,
after it is slightly displaced from its position of rest. This happens when some
additional force sets up due to displacement and brings the body back to its original
position.

Unstable equilibrium
A body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium, if it does not return back to its
original position, and heels farther away, after slightly displaced from its position of
rest. This happens when the additional force moves the body away from its position
of rest.

Neutral equilibrium
A body is said to be in a neutral equilibrium, if it occupies a new position (and
remains at rest in this position) after slightly displaced from its position of rest. This
happens when no additional force sets up due to the displacement.
FRICTION
The opposing force, which acts in the opposite direction of the movement of the block,
is called force of friction or simply friction.

It is of the following two types:

1. Static friction.
2. Dynamic friction.

STATIC FRICTION It is the friction experienced by a body when it is at rest. Or in

other words, it is the friction when the body tends to move.

DYNAMIC FRICTION It is the friction experienced by a body when it is in motion. It

is also called kinetic friction.
The dynamic friction is of the following two types :

1. Sliding friction. It is the friction, experienced by a body when it slides over

another body.
2. Rolling friction. It is the friction, experienced by a body when it rolls over another
body.

• LIMITING FRICTION

• NORMAL REACTION
ANGLE OF FRICTION
Consider a body of weight W resting on an inclined plane as shown in Figure. We
know that the body is in equilibrium under the action of the following forces :
1. Weight (W) of the body, acting vertically downwards,
2. Friction force (F) acting upwards along the plane, and
3. Normal reaction (R) acting at right angles to the plane.

Let the angle of inclination (α) be gradually increased, till the body just starts sliding
down the plane. This angle of inclined plane, at which a body just begins to slide
down the plane, is called the angle of friction. This is also equal to the angle, which
the normal reaction makes with the vertical
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
LAWS OF FRICTION

Prof. Coulomb, after extensive experiments, gave some laws of friction, which may be
grouped under the following heads :

1. Laws of static friction, and

2. Laws of kinetic or dynamic friction.
LAWS OF STATIC FRICTION
Following are the laws of static friction :

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body
tends to move, if the force of friction would have been absent.
2. The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the force, which tends to
move the body.
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction
between the two surfaces. Mathematically :

where F = Limiting friction, and R = Normal reaction.

4. The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the two surfaces.
5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces
LAWS OF KINETIC OR DYNAMIC
FRICTION
Following are the laws of kinetic or dynamic friction :

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body is
moving.
2. The magnitude of kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction
between the two surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than that in case of limiting
friction.
3. For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains constant. But it decreases slightly
with the increase of speed.
EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH
HORIZONTAL PLANE
We know that a body, lying on a rough horizontal plane will remain in equilibrium. But
whenever a force is applied on it, the body will tend to move in the direction of the
force. In such cases, equilibrium of the body is studied first by resolving the forces
horizontally and then vertically. Now the value of the force of friction is obtained from
the relation :
F = μR

where μ = Coefficient of friction, and R = Normal reaction.

EXERCISE
A body of weight 300 N is lying on a rough horizontal plane having a coefficient of
friction as 0.3. Find the magnitude of the force, which can move the body, while acting
at an angle of 25° with the horizontal.
Weight of the body (W) = 300 N; Coefficient of friction (μ) = 0.3 and angle made by the
force with the horizontal (α) = 25°
EXERCISE
A body, resting on a rough horizontal plane, required a pull of 180 N inclined at 30° to
the plane just to move it. It was found that a push of 220 N inclined at 30° to the plane
just moved the body. Determine the weight of the body and the coefficient of friction.
Pull = 180 N; Push = 220 N and angle at which force is inclined with horizontal plane
(α) = 30°
Let W = Weight of the body R = Normal reaction, and μ = Coefficient of friction.

First of all, consider a pull of 180 N acting on the body. We know that in this case, the
force of friction (F1) will act towards left as shown in Fig. (a)
Now consider a push of 220 N acting on the body. We know that in this case, the force of
friction (F2) will act towards right as shown in Fig. (b).