ABSTRACT

We recall commonly used existing integral transform,

from the Laplace transform to Hartley transform. Three
new integral transforms are introduced in order to fit
some existing integral transform into the scope of
beta-calculus. These integral transforms are namely
the beta-Laplace transform, the beta-Sumudu
transform, and the beta-Fourier transform. These took
their etymology from the three existing integral
transforms. Useful properties and possible application
of these new integral transforms are presented
together with their proofs; in particular, the theorem
of convolution is proposed and proved in connection of
the three new integral transform. For the beta-Fourier
transform, the well-known Plancherel and Parseval
theorem is proposed and proved.

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Table of Contents: Page No.

 Definition 3-4

 Formula 5

 Properties 6

 Table 7

 Laplace Transform of Derivative 8

 Step Function 9

 Bilateral Laplace Transform 9

 Inverse Laplace Transform 9-10

 Convolution Integral
 Laplace Transform in Probability Theory 10
 Applications 11

 Examples 11-12

 Laplace Equation 13

 Laplace transformer of a step function 14

 Common laplace transformer pair 15-16

 Circuit Analysis using Laplace

Transformer 17-20

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The Laplace transform
In this a method of solving such differential
equations is introduced which transforms a
differential equation into an algebraic equation.
This is termed the Laplace transform. It is widely
used in engineering, in particular in control
engineering and in electrical circuit analysis where
it is commonplace not even to write differential
equations to describe conditions but to write
directly in terms of the Laplace transform. We can
think of the Laplace transform as l)eing rather like
a function machine (Figure 6.1). As input to the
machine we have some function of time ^(0 and as
output a function we represent as F(s). The input is
referred to as being the time domain while the
output is said to be in the s-domain. Thus we take
information about a system in the time domain
and use our 'machine' to transform it into
information in the ^-domain. Differential
equations which describe the l)ehaviour of a
system in the time domain are converted into
algebraic equations in the 5-domain, so
considerably simplifying their solution. We can
thus transform a

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Summary
In order to consider the response of engineering
systems, e.g. electrical or control systems, to
inputs such as step, or perhaps an impulse, we
need to be able to solve the differential equation
for that system with that particular form of input.
As the previous chapter indicates, this can be
rather laborious. A simpler method of tackling the
solution is to transform a differential equation into
a simple algebraic equation which we can easily
solve. This is achieved by the use of the Laplace
transform, the subject of this chapter.
Objectives
By the end of this chapter, the reader should be able
to:

• understand what using the Laplace transform involves;

• use Laplace transform tables to conver first- and

second-order differential equations into algebraic
equation

• use Laplace transform tables, and where appropriate

partial fractions, to convert Laplace transform equations
into real world equations;

• determine the outputs of systems to standard input

signals such as step, impulse and ramp.

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Laplace Transform Formula
Laplace transform is the integral transform of the
given derivative function with real variable t to
convert into a complex function with variable s.
For t ≥ 0, let f(t) be given and assume the
function satisfies certain conditions to be stated
later on.
The Laplace transform of f(t), that is denoted
by L{f(t)} or F(s) is defined by the Laplace
transform formula:

whenever the improper integral converges.

Standard notation: Where the notation is clear,
we will use an uppercase letter to indicate the
Laplace transform, e.g, L(f; s) = F(s).
The Laplace transform we defined is sometimes
called the one-sided Laplace transform. There is a
two-sided version where the integral goes from
−∞ to ∞.

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Properties of Laplace Transform
Some of the Laplace transformation properties are:
If f1 (t) ⟷ F1 (s) and [note: ⟷ implies Laplace
Transform]
f2 (t) ⟷ F2 (s), then
A f1(t) + B f2(t) ⟷ A F1(s) + B
Linearity Property
F2(s)

Frequency Shifting es0 t f(t)) ⟷ F(s 0– s )

Property

Integration ∫0 f(λ) dλ ⟷ 1Ús F(s)

t

Multiplication by Time T f(t) ⟷ (−d F(s)Úds)

Complex Shift Property f(t) e−at ⟷ F(s + a)

Time Reversal Property f (-t) ⟷ F(-s)

Time Scaling Property f (tÚa) ⟷ a F(as)

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Laplace Transform Table
The following Laplace transform table helps to
solve the differential equations for different
functions:
Sl No. f(t) L(f(t)) = F(s) Sl No. f(t) L(f(t)) = F(s)

1 1 1/s 11 e(at) 1/(s − a)

2 tn at t = 1,2,3, n!/s(n+1) 12 tp, at p>-1 Γ(p+1)/s(p+1)

…
3 √(t) √π/2s(3/2) 13 t(n-1/2) at n = 1,2,.. (1.3.5…(2n-1)√π)/(2n
s(n+1/2)
4 sin(at) a/(s2+a2) 14 cos(at) s/(s2+a2)

5 t sin(at) 2as/(s2+a2)2 15 t cos(at) (s2-a2)/(s2+a2)2

6 sin(at+b) (s sin(b)+ a 16 cos(at+b) (s cos(b)-a sin(b)/(s2+a2)

cos(b)/(s2+a2)
7 sinh(at) a/(s2-a2) 17 cosh(at) s/(s2-a2)

8 e(at)sin(bt) b/((s-a)2+b2) 18 e(at)cos(bt) (s-a)/((s-a)2+b2)

9 e(ct)f(t) F(s-c) 19 tnf(t) at n = (-1)n Fn s

1,2,3..
10 f'(t) sF(s) – f(0) 20 f”(t) s2F(s) − sf(0) − f'(0)

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Laplace Transform of Differential Equation
The Laplace transform is a well established
mathematical technique for solving a differential
equation. Many mathematical problems are
solved using transformations. The idea is to
transform the problem into another problem that
is easier to solve. On the other side, the inverse
transform is helpful to calculate the solution to
the given problem.
For better understanding, let us solve a first-order
differential equation with the help of Laplace
transformation,
Consider y’- 2y = e3x and y(0) = -5. Find the
value of L(y).
First step of the equation can be solved with the
help of the linearity equation:
L(y’ – 2y] =
L(e3x) L(y’) – L(2y)
= 1/(s-3)
(because L(eax) = 1/(s-a))
L(y’) – 2s(y) = 1/(s-3)
sL(y) – y(0) – 2L(y) = 1/(s-3)
(Using Linearity property of the Laplace
transform) L(y)(s-2) + 5 = 1/(s-3) (Use value
of y(0) ie -5 (given)) L(y)(s-2) = 1/(s-3) – 5
L(y) = (-5s+16)/(s-2)(s-3) …..(1)
here (-5s+16)/(s-2)(s-3) can be written as -6/s-2 + 1/(s-
3) using partial fraction method
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(1) implies L(y) = -6/(s-2) + 1/(s-
3) L(y) = -6e2x + e3x

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Step Functions
The step function is often called the Heaviside
function, and it is defined as follows:
uc(t)={0if t<c1if t≥c
The step function can take the values of 0 or 1. It
is like an on and off switch. The notations that
represent the Heaviside functions are uc(t) or u(t-
c) or H(t-c)

Bilateral Laplace Transform

The Laplace transform can also be defined as
bilateral Laplace transform. This is also known as
two-sided Laplace transform, which can be
performed by extending the limits of integration
to be the entire real axis. Hence, the common
unilateral Laplace transform becomes a special
case of Bilateral Laplace transform, where the
function definition is transformed is multiplied by
the Heaviside step function.
The bilateral Laplace transform is
defined as: F(s)=∫−∞+∞e−stf(t)dt
The other way to represent the bilateral Laplace
transform is B{F}, instead of F.

Inverse Laplace Transform

In the inverse Laplace transform, we are
provided with the transform F(s) and asked to
find what function we have initially. The inverse
transform of the function F(s) is given by:
f(t) = L-1{F(s)}
1
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For example, for the two Laplace transform, say
F(s) and G(s), the inverse Laplace transform is
defined by:
L-1{aF(s)+bG(s)}= a L-1{F(s)}+bL-1 {G(s)}
Where a and b are constants.
In this case, we can take the inverse transform for
the individual transforms, and add their constant
values in their respective places, and perform the
operation to get the result.

Convolution Integrals
If the functions f(t) and g(t) are the piecewise
continuous functions on the interval [0, ∞), then
the convolution integral of f(t) and g(t) is given as:
(f * g) (t) =0∫t f(t-T) g(T)dT
As, the convolution integral obey the property,
(f*g)(t) = (g*) (t)
We can write, 0∫t f(t-T) g(T)dT = 0∫t f(T) g(t-T)dt
Thus, the above fact will help us to take the
inverse transform of the product of transforms.
(i.e.) L(f*g) = F(s) G(s)
L-1 {F(s)G(s)} = (f*g)(t).

Laplace Transform in Probability Theory

In pure and applied probability theory, the Laplace
transform is defined as the expected value. If X is the
random variable with probability density function, say f,
then the Laplace transform of f is given as the
expectation of:
L{f}(S) = E[e-sX], which is referred to as the Laplace
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transform of random variable X itself.

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Applications of Laplace Transform
 It is used to convert complex differential
equations to a simpler form having
polynomials.
 It is used to convert derivatives into multiple
domain variables and then convert the
polynomials back to the differential equation
using Inverse Laplace transform.
 It is used in the telecommunication field
to send signals to both the sides of the
medium. For example, when the signals
are sent through the phone then they are
first converted into a time- varying wave
and then superimposed on the medium.
 It is also used for many engineering tasks
such as Electrical Circuit Analysis, Digital
Signal Processing, System Modelling, etc.

Laplace Transform Examples

Below examples are based on some important
elementary functions of Laplace transform.

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12
Laplace Equation
Laplace’s equation, a second-order partial
differential equation, is widely helpful in physics
and maths. The Laplace equation states that the
sum of the second- order partial derivatives of f,
the unknown function, equals zero for the
Cartesian coordinates. The two- dimensional
Laplace equation for the function f can be
written as:

The Laplace equation for three-dimensional

coordinates can be represented as:

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 Laplace transform of a step function
I am trying to find the Laplace transform of the
function f(t)=(7−t)(u(t−1)−u(t−4))f(t)=(7−t)
(u(t−1)−u(t−4)) for s≠0s≠0. As far as I know this is a
function of the
form f(t−c)uc(t)f(t−c)uc(t) where uc(t)=(t−c)uc(t)=(t−c). As such
I tried to solve it by performing the laplace on each
term.
L[7−t]=7s−1s2=7s−1s2 ,L[7−t]=7s−1s2=7s−1s2 ,
L[u(t−1)]=e−ss ,L[u(t−1)]=e−ss ,
L[u(t−4)]=e−4ssL[u(t−4)]=e−4ss
With each of these Laplace functions found, I then put
it all together back in the original equation, and
simplified.
7s−1s2∗e−ss−7s−1s2∗e−4ss ,7s−1s2∗e−ss−7s−1s2∗e−4s
s , 7s−1s3(e−s−e−4s)7s−1s3(e−s−e−4s)
This became my final answer, but it seems like I am
incorrect. I reworked the problem a few times, so I am
fairly confident I didn't make an arithmetic mistake, but
I am unsure where else I went wrong. Did I approach
the problem in the wrong way or take a laplace
incorrectly? Any guidance on where the issue arises
would be appreciated.
f(t)=(7−t)(u(t−1)−u(t−4))f(t)=(7−t)(u(t−1)−u(t−4))
You need to have functions of the form
f(t−c)uc(t)f(t−c)uc(t). You can rewrite f(t)f(t) as: f(t)=−
(t−1)u(t−1)+6u(t−1)+(t−4)u(t−4))−3u(t−4)f(t)=−(t−1)u(t−1)+6u
(t−1)+(t−4)u(t−4))−3u(t−4)
Then apply Laplace Transform:
F(s)=−e−ss2+6e−ss+e−4ss2−3e−4ssF(s)=−e−ss2+6e−ss+e−4ss2−3e−
4ss

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Don't take Laplace Transform on (7−t)(7−t) alone. You
need to change it first since you have the step function
with it.
(7−t)u(t−1)=−(t−1)u(t−1)+6u(t−1)

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Common Laplace Transform Pairs
Following table provides a number of Laplace
transforms. The table also specifies the region of
convergence (ROC) −

Function
Laplace Transform Region of
{x(t)=L−1[x(t)]}{x(t)=L−1[x(t)]}{L[x(t)]=X(s)}{L[x(t)]=X(s)} Convergence (ROC)

δ(t)δ(t) 1 AllsAlls

δ(t−a)δ(t−a) e−ase−as AllsAlls

u(t)u(t) 1s1s Re(s)>0Re(s)>0

u(t−a)u(t−a) e−asse−ass Re(s)>0Re(s)>0

u(−t)u(−t) −1s−1s Re(s)<0Re(s)<0

tu(t)tu(t) 1s21s2 Re(s)>0Re(s)>0

t2u(t)t2u(t) 2!s32!s3 Re(s)>0Re(s)>0

tnu(t)tnu(t) n!s(n+1)n!s(n+1) Re(s)>0Re(s)>0

e−atu(t)e−atu(t) 1(s+a)1(s+a) Re(s)>−aRe(s)>−a

eatu(t)eatu(t) 1(s−a)1(s−a) Re(s)>aRe(s)>a

te−atu(t)te−atu(t) 1(s+a)21(s+a)2 Re(s)>−aRe(s)>−a

tne−atu(t)tne−atu(t) n!(s+a)n+1n!(s+a)n+1 Re(s)>−aRe(s)>−a

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Function
Laplace Transform Region of
{x(t)=L−1[x(t)]}{x(t)=L−1[x(t)]}{L[x(t)]=X(s)}{L[x(t)]=X(s)} Convergence (ROC)

sinωtu(t)sinωtu(t) ω(s2+ω2)ω(s2+ω2) Re(s)>0Re(s)>0

cosωtu(t)cosωtu(t) s(s2+ω2)s(s2+ω2) Re(s)>0Re(s)>0

e−atsinωtu(t)e−atsinωtu(t) ω(s+a)2+ω2ω(s+a)2+ω2 Re(s)>−aRe(s)>−a

e−atcosωtu(t)e−atcosωtu(t) (s+a)(s+a)2+ω2(s+a)(s+a)2+ω2 Re(s)>−aRe(s)>−a

sin(ωt+θ)sin(ωt+θ) ssinθ+ωcosθ(s2+ω2)ssinθ+ωcosθ(s2+ω2) Re(s)>0Re(s)>0

cos(ωt+θ)cos(ωt+θ) scosθ+ωsinθ(s2+ω2)scosθ+ωsinθ(s2+ω2) Re(s)>0Re(s)>0

tsinωtu(t)tsinωtu(t) 2ωs(s2+ω2)22ωs(s2+ω2)2 Re(s)>0Re(s)>0

tcosωtu(t)tcosωtu(t) s2−ω2(s2+ω2)2s2−ω2(s2+ω2)2 Re(s)>0Re(s)>0

sinhωtu(t)sinhωtu(t) ω(s2−ω2)ω(s2−ω2) Re(s)>ωRe(s)>ω

coshωtu(t)coshωtu(t) s(s2−ω2)s(s2−ω2) Re(s)>ωRe(s)>ω

e−atsinhωtu(t)e−atsinhωtu(t) ω(s+a)2−ω2ω(s+a)2−ω2 Re(s)>(ω−a)Re(s)>(ω−a)

e−atcoshωtu(t)e−atcoshωtu(t) s+a(s+a)2−ω2s+a(s+a)2−ω2 Re(s)>(ω−a)

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Circuit Analysis using Laplace Transform

Laplace Transform is a strong mathematical tool

to solve the complex circuit problems. It converts
the time domain circuit to the frequency domain
for easy analysis. To solve the circuit using
Laplace Transform, we follow the following steps:
An electrical circuit
may have three important components, i.e.,
Resistor (R), Conductor (L), Capacitor (C). We will
see the analysis of the circuit having these
components using Laplace Transform.

1. Pure Resistive Circuit

The below given image represents a pure resistive circuit.

Figure 1: Pure Resistive Circuit

Applying KVL in figure 1(a):

v(t) = i(t)R--------(1)
Taking the Laplace transform of equation 1:
V(s) = I(s)R--------(2)
The equation 2 represents the Laplace Transform of
equation 1.
Hence, the above analysis shows that the the
resistance R is same time and frequency domain. Also,
figure 1(b) shows the Laplace Transformed Circuit.
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2. Pure Inductive Circuit
The below given image represents a pure inductive circuit.

Figure 2: Pure Inductive Circuit

Applying KVL in figure 2(a):

v(t)=Ldi(t)dtv(t)=Ldtdi(t)--------(1)

Taking the Laplace transform of equation 1:

V(s)=[sI(s)−i(0−)]LV(s)=[sI(s)−i(0−)]L--------(2)

Here, i(0−)i(0−) is the initial current flowing

through the conductor. The equation 2
represents the Laplace Transform of equation 1
.
If the initial current flowing through the
conductor is 0 then equation 2 will be:

V(s) = LsI(s)LsI(s)--------(2)

Hence, the above analysis shows that the the

inductor L in time-domain is converted to 'sL' in
the frequency domain. Also, figure 2(b) shows
the Laplace Transformed Circuit.

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3. Pure Capacitive Circuit
The below given image represents a pure capacitive circuit.

Figure 3: Pure Capacitive circuit

Applying KVL in figure 3(a):

i(t)=Cdv(t)dti(t)=Cdtdv(t)--------(1)
Taking the Laplace transform of equation 1:

I(s)=C(sV(s)−v(0−))I(s)=C(sV(s)−v(0−))

I(s)=sCV(s)−Cv(0−)I(s)=sCV(s)−Cv(0−)

I(s)=sCV(s)−q(0−)I(s)=sCV(s)−q(0−)

V(s)=I(s)sC+v(0−)sV(s)=sCI(s)+sv(0−)------------(2)

Here, v(0−)v(0−) is the initial voltage across the

capacitor. The equation 2 represents the Laplace
Transform of equation 1.
If the voltage across the capacitor is 0, i.e., capacitor is
discharge then equation 2 will be:

V(s)=I(s)sCV(s)=sCI(s)

Hence, the above analysis shows that the capacitor C

in time- domain is converted to '1sCsC1' in the
frequency domain. Also, figure 3(b) shows the Laplace
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0
Transformed Circuit.

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1
Important Note for Laplace Transform in
Circuit Analysis

Reactive Reactive Element Laplace Transform (if initial

Element Name Symbol conditions are 0)

Resistor R R

Capacitor C 1sCsC1

Inductor L sL

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