Precalculus & Calculus

Compiled by: Charles Kakuli

Department of Mathematical Sciences & Computing

Faculty of Natural Sciences
Contents
Outline i

1 Function 1
1.1 What is a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Piecewise Dened Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.2 Absolute Value Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Domain and Range of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Composition of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Inverse Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Finding the Inverse of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.7 Increasing and Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 27

2.1 Linear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Power Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5 Algebraic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6.1 Solving Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

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 2.7 Exponential and logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.7.1 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.7.2 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.8 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3 Limits and Continuity 41

3.1 The Tangent problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 The Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Calculating Limits using the Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 Finding Limits Algebraically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.5 The Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.6 The Precise Denition of a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.7 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4 Derivatives 69
4.1 Instantaneous Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

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Outline
Here is a listing (and brief description) of the material in this set of notes.
Review - In this chapter we give a brief review of selected topics from Algebra and
Trig that are vital to surviving a Calculus course. Included are Functions, Trig Func-
tions, Solving Trig Equations, Exponential/Logarithm Functions and Solving Exponen-
tial/Logarithm Equations.
Functions - In this section we will cover function notation/evaluation, determining the
domain and range of a function and function composition.
Inverse Functions - In this section we will dene an inverse function and the notation
used for inverse functions. We will also discuss the process for nding an inverse func-
tion.
Trig Functions - In this section we will give a quick review of trig functions. We
will cover the basic notation, relationship between the trig functions, the right triangle
denition of the trig functions. We will also cover evaluation of trig functions as well as
the unit circle (one of the most important ideas from a trig class!) and how it can be
used to evaluate trig functions.
Solving Trig Equations - In this section we will discuss how to solve trig equations.
The answers to the equations in this section will all be one of the "standard" angles
that most students have memorized after a trig class. However, the process used here
can be used for any answer regardless of it being one of the standard angles or not.
Solving Trig Equations with Calculators, Part I - In this section we will discuss
solving trig equations when the answer will (generally) require the use of a calculator
(i.e. they aren't one of the standard angles). Note however, the process used here is
identical to that for when the answer is one of the standard angles. The only dierence
is that the answers in here can be a little messy due to the need of a calculator. Included

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is a brief discussion of inverse trig functions.
Solving Trig Equations with Calculators, Part II - In this section we will continue
our discussion of solving trig equations when a calculator is needed to get the answer.
The equations in this section tend to be a little trickier than the "normal" trig equation
and are not always covered in a trig class.
Exponential Functions - In this section we will discuss exponential functions. We will
cover the basic denition of an exponential function, the natural exponential function,
i.e. ex , as well as the properties and graphs of exponential functions
Logarithm Functions - In this section we will discuss logarithm functions, evaluation
of logarithms and their properties. We will discuss many of the basic manipulations of
logarithms that commonly occur in Calculus (and higher) classes. Included is a discus-
sion of the natural (ln(x)) and common logarithm (log(x)) as well as the change of base
formula.
Exponential and Logarithm Equations - In this section we will discuss various
methods for solving equations that involve exponential functions or logarithm func-
tions.
Common Graphs - In this section we will do a very quick review of many of the most
common functions and their graphs that typically show up in a Calculus class.
Limits - In this chapter we introduce the concept of limits. We will discuss the inter-
pretation/meaning of a limit, how to evaluate limits, the denition and evaluation of
one-sided limits, evaluation of innite limits, evaluation of limits at innity, continuity
and the Intermediate Value Theorem. We will also give a brief introduction to a precise
denition of the limit and how to use it to evaluate limits.
Tangent Lines and Rates of Change - In this section we will introduce two problems
that we will see time and again in this course: Rate of Change of a function and Tan-
gent Lines to functions. Both of these problems will be used to introduce the concept of
limits, although we won't formally give the denition or notation until the next section.
The Limit - In this section we will introduce the notation of the limit. We will also
take a conceptual look at limits and try to get a grasp on just what they are and what
they can tell us. We will be estimating the value of limits in this section to help us
understand what they tell us. We will actually start computing limits in a couple of

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sections.
One-Sided Limits - In this section we will introduce the concept of one-sided limits.
We will discuss the dierences between one-sided limits and limits as well as how they
are related to each other.
Limit Properties - In this section we will discuss the properties of limits that we'll
need to use in computing limits (as opposed to estimating them as we've done to this
point). We will also compute a couple of basic limits in this section.
Computing Limits - In this section we will looks at several types of limits that require
some work before we can use the limit properties to compute them. We will also look
at computing limits of piecewise functions and use of the Squeeze Theorem to compute
some limits.
Innite Limits - In this section we will look at limits that have a value of innity or
negative innity. We'll also take a brief look at vertical asymptotes.
Limits At Innity, Part I - In this section we will start looking at limits at innity,
i.e. limits in which the variable gets very large in either the positive or negative sense.
We will concentrate on polynomials and rational expressions in this section. We'll also
take a brief look at horizontal asymptotes.
Limits At Innity, Part II - In this section we will continue covering limits at innity.
We'll be looking at exponentials, logarithms and inverse tangents in this section.
Continuity - In this section we will introduce the concept of continuity and how it
relates to limits. We will also see the Intermediate Value Theorem in this section and
how it can be used to determine if functions have solutions in a given interval.
The Denition of the Limit - In this section we will give a precise denition of several
of the limits covered in this section. We will work several basic examples illustrating
how to use this precise denition to compute a limit. We'll also give a precise denition
of continuity.

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Chapter 1
Function
1.1 What is a Function
In this chapter we're going to make sure that you're familiar with functions and function
notation. Both will appear in almost every section in a Calculus class so you will need to
be able to deal with them. First, what exactly is a function? Functions arise whenever
one quantity depends on another. Consider the following four situations.

Illustation 1.1.1 The area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the circle. The rule
that connects r and A is given by the equation A = πr2 . With each positive number r
there is associated one value of A, and we say that A is a function of r.

If f represents the rule that connects A to r in the illustration (1.1.1), then we express
this in function notation as A = f (r).

A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly one element,
called f (x), in a set R called the range of f . We usually consider functions for which
the sets D and R are sets of real numbers. The set D is called the domain of the function.

The number f (x) is the value of f at x and is read " f of x." The range of f is the set of
all possible values of f (x) as x varies throughout the domain. A symbol that represents
an arbitrary number in the domain of a function f is called an independent variable.
Another way to picture a function is by an arrow diagram (see Figure 1.1).

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 Figure 1.1

Each arrow connects an element of D to an element of R. The arrow indicates that f (x)
is associated with x, f (a) is associated with a, and so on.

The most useful method for visualizing a function is its graph. If f is a function with
domain D, then its graph is the set of ordered pairs

{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ D}

In other words, the graph of f consists of all points (x, y) in the coordinate plane such
that y = f (x) and x is in the domain of f . The graph of a function f gives us a useful
picture of the behavior or "life history" of a function.

Since the y -coordinate of any point (x, y) on the graph is y = f (x), we can read the
value of f (x) from the graph as being the height of the graph above the point x. (See
Figure 1.2 below).

2
 Figure 1.2

The graph of f also allows us to picture the domain of f on the x-axis and its range on
the y -axis as in the gure 1.3 below:

Figure 1.3

Exercise 1.1.1 The graph of a function f is shown in Figure 1.4 .

(a) Find the values of f (1) and f (5).

(b) What are the domain and range of f ?

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 Figure 1.4

What about curves drawn in the xy -plane? Which curves are graphs of functions?

The following test gives an answer.

The Vertical Line Test A curve in the xy -plane is the graph of a function of x if and
only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
The reason for the truth of the Vertical Line Test can be seen in Figure 1.5 If each

(a) This curve represents a function. (b) This curve doesn't represent a function

Figure 1.5

vertical line x = a intersects a curve only once, at (a, b), then exactly one function value
is dened by f (a) = b.

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But if a line x = a intersects the curve twice, at (a, b) and (a, c), then the curve can't
represent a function because a function can't assign two dierent values to a.
Example 1.1.1 Determine if each of the following are functions.

(a) y = x2 + 1

(b) y2 = x + 1

Solution:

(a) y = x2 + 1 This rst one is a function. Given an x, there is only one way to
square it and then add 1 to the result. So, no matter what value of x you put
into the equation, there is only one possible value of y when we evaluate the
equation at that value of x.

(b) y2 = x + 1 The only dierence between this equation and the rst is that we
moved the exponent o the x and onto the y. This small change is all that
is required, in this case, to change the equation from a function to something
that isn't a function. To see that this isn't a function is fairly simple. Choose
a value of x, say x = 3 and plug this into the equation.

y2 = 3 + 1 = 4

Now, there are two possible values of y that we could use here. We could use
y = 2 or y = −2. Since there are two possible values of y that we get from a
single x this equation isn't a function.
Note that this only needs to be the case for a single value of x to make an
equation not be a function. For instance, we could have used x = −1 and in
this case, we would get a single y(y = 0). However, because of what happens
at x = 3 this equation will not be a function.

Next, we need to take a quick look at function notation. Function notation is nothing
more than a fancy way of writing the y in a function that will allow us to simplify
notation and some of our work a little.

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Let's take a look at the following function.

y = 2x2 − 5x + 3

Using function notation, we can write this as any of the following.

f (x) = 2x2 − 5x + 3 g(x) = 2x2 − 5x + 3
h(x) = 2x2 − 5x + 3 R(x) = 2x2 − 5x + 3
w(x) = 2x2 − 5x + 3 y(x) = 2x2 − 5x + 3

Recall that this is NOT a letter times x, this is just a fancy way of writing y . So, why
is this useful? Well let's take the function above and let's get the value of the function
at x = −3. Using function notation we represent the value of the function at x = −3 as
f (−3). Function notation gives us a nice compact way of representing function values.
Now, how do we actually evaluate the function? That's really simple. Everywhere we
see an x on the right side we will substitute whatever is in the parenthesis on the left
side. For our function this gives,
f (−3) = 2(−3)2 − 5(−3) + 3
= 2(9) + 15 + 3
= 36

Let's take a look at some more function evaluation.

Example 1.1.2 Given f (x) = −x2 + 6x − 11 nd each of the following.

(a) f (2) (b) f (−10) (c) f (t)

(d) f (t − 3) (e) f (x − 3) (f ) f (4x − 1)

Solution:

(a) f (2)
f (2) = −(2)2 + 6(2) − 11 = −3

(b) f (−10)

f (−10) = −(−10)2 + 6(−10) − 11 = −100 − 60 − 11 = −171

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 Be careful when squaring negative numbers!

(c) f (t)
f (t) = −t2 + 6t − 11

Remember that we substitute for the x's WHATEVER is in the parenthesis on

the left. Often this will be something other than a number. So, in this case we
put t 's in for all the x 's on the left.

(d) f (t − 3)

f (t − 3) = −(t − 3)2 + 6(t − 3) − 11 = −t2 + 12t − 38

Often instead of evaluating functions at numbers or single letters we will have

some fairly complex evaluations so make sure that you can do these kinds of
evaluations.

(e) f (x − 3)

f (x − 3) = −(x − 3)2 + 6(x − 3) − 11 = −x2 + 12x − 38

The only dierence between this one and the previous one is that we changed
the t to an x. Other than that, there is absolutely no dierence between the
two! Don't get excited if an x appears inside the parenthesis on the left.

(f) f (4x − 1)

f (4x − 1) = −(4x − 1)2 + 6(4x − 1) − 11 = −16x2 + 32x − 18

This one is not much dierent from the previous part. All we did was change
the equation that we were plugging into the function.

All throughout a calculus course we will be nding roots of functions. A root of a

function is nothing more than a number for which the function is zero. In other words,
nding the roots of a function, g(x), is equivalent to solving

g(x) = 0

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Example 1.1.3 Determine all the roots of f (t) = 9t3 − 18t2 + 6t
Solution:
So, we will need to solve,
9t3 − 18t2 + 6t = 0

First, we should factor the equation as much as possible. Doing this gives,

3t 3t2 − 6t + 2 = 0

Next recall that if a product of two things are zero then one (or both) of them had
to be zero. This means that,

3t = 0 OR 3t2 − 6t + 2 = 0

From the rst it's clear that one of the roots must then be t = 0. To get the remaining
roots we will need to use the quadratic formula on the second equation. Doing this
gives, p
−(−6) ± (−6)2 − 4(3)(2)
t=
2(3)
√
6± 12
=
6p
6± (4)(3)
=
√6
6±2 3
=
6√
3± 3
=
3
1√ 1
=1± 3=1± √
3 3
In order to remind you how to simplify radicals we gave several forms of the answer.
To complete the problem, here is a complete list of all the roots of this function.
√ √
3+ 3 3− 3
t = 0, t = ,t =
3 3

Note we didn't use the nal form for the roots from the quadratic. This is usually
where we'll stop with the simplication for these kinds of roots. Also note that,

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 for the sake of the practice, we broke up the compact form for the two roots of the
quadratic. You will need to be able to do this so make sure that you can.

1.1.1 Piecewise Dened Functions

The functions in the following three examples are dened by dierent formulas in dif-
ferent parts of their domains. Such functions are called piecewise dened functions.

Example 1.1.4 A function f is dened by

if x ≤ −1
(
1−x
f (x) =
x 2
if x > −1

Evaluate f (−2), f (−1), and f (0) and sketch the graph. Solution: Remember that a
function is a rule. For this particular function the rule is the following: x ≤ −1, First
look at the value of the input x. If it happens that x ≤ −1 then the value of f (x) is
1 − x.
On the other hand, if x > −1, then the value of f (x) is x2 . Note that even though two
dierent formulas are used, f is one function, not two.

ˆ Since −2 ≤ −1, we have f (−2) = 1 − (−2) = 3.

ˆ Since −1 ≤ −1, we have f (−1) = 1 − (−1) = 2.

ˆ Since 0 > −1, we have f (0) = 02 = 0.

1.1.2 Absolute Value Function

The absolute value function can be dened as
if
(
x x≥0
f (x) = |x| =
−x if x<0

The absolute value function is commonly used to determine the distance between two
numbers on the number line. Given two values a and b, then |a−b| will give the distance,
a positive quantity, between these values, regardless of which value is larger.

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Solving Absolute Value Equations

To solve an equation like 8 = |2x − 6|, we can notice that the absolute value will be
equal to eight if the quantity inside the absolute value were 8 or -8 . This leads to two
dierent equations we can solve independently:

2x − 6 = 8 or 2x − 6 = −8
2x = 14 2x = −2
x=7 x = −1

1.2 Domain and Range of a function

One of the more important ideas about functions is that of the domain and range of a
function. In simplest terms the domain of a function is the set of all values that can be
plugged into a function and have the function exist and have a real number for a value.
So, for the domain we need to avoid division by zero, square roots of negative numbers,
logarithms of zero and logarithms of negative numbers (if not familiar with logarithms
we'll take a look at them a little later), etc. The range of a function is simply the set of
all possible values that a function can take.
Let's nd the domain and range of a few functions.
Example 1.2.1 Find the domain and range of each of the following functions.

√
(a) f (x) = 5x − 3 (b) g(t) = 4 − 7t (c) h(x) = −2x2 + 12x + 5
(d) f (z) = |z − 6| − 3 (e) g(x) = 8

Solution:

(a) f (x) = 5x − 3 We know that this is a line and that it's not a horizontal line
(because the slope is 5 and not zero...). This means that this function can
take on any value and so the range is all real numbers. Using "mathematical"
notation this is, Range : (−∞, ∞) This is more generally a polynomial and
we know that we can plug any value into a polynomial and so the domain in

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 this case is also all real numbers or, Domain : −∞ < x < ∞ or (−∞, ∞)
√
(b) g(t) = 4 − 7t This is a square root and we know that square roots are always
positive or zero. We know then that the range will be, Range : [0, ∞) For the
domain we have a little bit of work to do, but not much. We need to make sure
that we don't take square roots of any negative numbers, so we need to require
that,
4 − 7t ≥ 0
4 ≥ 7t
4 4
≥t ⇒ t≤
7 7
The domain is then, Domain : t ≤ 4
or −∞, 47

7

(c) h(x) = −2x2 + 12x + 5 Here we have a quadratic, which is a polynomial, so we

again know that the domain is all real numbers or, Domain : −∞ < x < ∞ or
(−∞, ∞) In this case the range requires a little bit of work. From an Algebra
class we know that the graph of this will be a parabola that opens down (because
the coecient of the x2 is negative) and so the vertex will be the highest point
on the graph. If we know the vertex we can then get the range. The vertex is
then,
12
x=− = 3 y = h(3) = −2(3)2 + 12(3) + 5 = 23 ⇒ (3, 23)
2(−2)

So, as discussed, we know that this will be the highest point on the graph or
the largest value of the function and the parabola will take all values less than
this, so the range is then, Range: (−∞, 23]

(d) f (z) = |z − 6| − 3 This function contains an absolute value and we know that
absolute value will be either positive or zero. In this case the absolute value
will be zero if z = 6 and so the absolute value portion of this function will
always be greater than or equal to zero. We are subtracting 3 from the absolute
value portion and so we then know that the range will be, Range : [−3, ∞) We
can plug any value into an absolute value and so the domain is once again all
real numbers or, Domain : −∞ < z < ∞ or (−∞, ∞)

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 (e) g(x) = 8 This function may seem a little tricky at rst but is actually the
easiest one in this set of examples. This is a constant function and so any
value of x that we plug into the function will yield a value of 8 . This means
that the range is a single value or, Range : 8 The domain is all real numbers,
Domain : −∞ < x < ∞ or (−∞, ∞)

In general, determining the range of a function can be somewhat dicult. As long as

we restrict ourselves down to "simple" functions, some of which we looked at in the
previous example, nding the range is not too bad, but for most functions it can be a
dicult process.
Because of the diculty in nding the range for a lot of functions we had to keep those
in the previous set somewhat simple, which also meant that we couldn't really look at
some of the more complicated domain examples that are liable to be important in a
Calculus course. So, let's take a look at another set of functions only this time we'll just
look for the domain.
Exercise 1.2.1 Find the domain of each of the following functions.
x−4
(a) f (x) =
x2 − 2x − 15
√
(b) g(t) = 6 + t − t2
x
(c) h(x) = √
x2 −9

The next topic that we need to discuss here is that of function composition.

1.3 Composition of Functions

The composition of f (x) and g(x) is

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))

In other words, compositions are evaluated by plugging the second function listed into
the rst function listed. Note as well that order is important here. Interchanging the
order will more often than not result in a dierent answer.

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Example 1.3.1 Given f (x) = 3x2 − x + 10 and g(x) = 1 − 20x nd each of the
following.

(a) (f ◦ g)(5)

(b) (f ◦ g)(x)

(c) (g ◦ f )(x)

(d) (g ◦ g)(x)

Solution:

(a) (f ◦ g)(5) In this case we've got a number instead of an x but it works in
exactly the same way.
(f ◦ g)(5) = f (g(5))
= f (−99) = 29512

(b) (f ◦ g)(x)
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
= f (1 − 20x)
= 3(1 − 20x)2 − (1 − 20x) + 10
= 3 1 − 40x + 400x2 − 1 + 20x + 10

= 1200x2 − 100x + 12

Compare this answer to the next part and notice that answers are NOT the
same. The order in which the functions are listed is important!

(c) (g ◦ f )(x)
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))
= g 3x2 − x + 10

= 1 − 20 3x2 − x + 10

= −60x2 + 20x − 199

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 And just to make the point one more time. This answer is dierent from the
previous part. Order is important in composition. (d) (g ◦ g)(x) In this case
do not get excited about the fact that it's the same function. Composition still
works the same way.
(g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x))
= g(1 − 20x)
= 1 − 20(1 − 20x)
= 400x − 19

(d) (g ◦ g)(x) In this case do not get excited about the fact that it's the same
function. Composition still works the same way.
(g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x))
= g(1 − 20x)
= 1 − 20(1 − 20x)
= 400x − 19

Let's work one more example that will lead us into the next section.

Example 1.3.2 Given f (x) = 3x − 2 and g(x) = 13 x + 32 nd each of the following.

(a) (f ◦ g)(x)

(b) (g ◦ f )(x)

Solution

(a) (f ◦ g)(x)
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
 
1 2
=f x+
3 3
 
1 2
=3 x+ −2
3 3
=x+2−2
=x

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 (b) (g ◦ f )(x)
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))
= g(3x − 2)
1 2
= (3x − 2) +
3 3
2 2
=x− +
3 3
=x

In this case the two compositions were the same and in fact the answer was very simple.
(f ◦ g)(x) = (g ◦ f )(x) = x

This will usually not happen. However, when the two compositions are both x there is a
very nice relationship between the two functions. We will take a look at that relationship
in the next section.

1.4 Inverse Function

In the last example from the previous section we looked at the two functions f (x) =
3x − 2 and g(x) = x3 + 32 and saw that

(f ◦ g)(x) = (g ◦ f )(x) = x

and as noted in that section this means that there is a nice relationship between these two
functions. Let's see just what that relationship is. Consider the following evaluations.
−5 2 −3
f (−1) = 3(−1) − 2 = −5 ⇒ g(−5) = + = = −1
3 3 3

   
2 2 4 4 4
g(2) = + = ⇒ f =3 −2=4−2=2
3 3 3 3 3

In the rst case we plugged x = −1 into f (x) and got a value of -5 . We then turned
around and plugged x = −5 into g(x) and got a value of -1 , the number that we started
o with.
In the second case we did something similar. Here we plugged x = 2 into g(x) and got
4
a value of , we turned around and plugged this into f (x) and got a value of 2 , which
3
is again the number that we started with.

15
Note that we really are doing some function composition here. The rst case is really,

(g ◦ f )(−1) = g[f (−1)] = g[−5] = −1

and the second case is really,

 
4
(f ◦ g)(2) = f [g(2)] = f =2
3

Remark 1.4.1 Function pairs that exhibit this behavior are called inverse functions.
Before formally dening inverse functions and the notation that we're going to use for
them we need to get a denition out of the way.

Denition 1.4.1 A function is called one-to-one if no two values of x produce the same
y . Mathematically this is the same as saying,

f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) whenever x1 ̸= x2

Remark 1.4.2 Sometimes it is easier to understand this denition if we see a function

that isn't one-to-one. Let's take a look at a function that isn't one-to-one. The function
f (x) = x2 is not one-to-one because both f (−2) = 4 and f (2) = 4. In other words, there
are two dierent values of x that produce the same value of y. Note that we can turn
f (x) = x2 into a one-to-one function if we restrict ourselves to 0 ≤ x < ∞. This can
sometimes be done with functions.

Now, let's formally dene just what inverse functions are. Given two one-to-one func-
tions f (x) and g(x) if

(f ◦ g)(x) = x AND (g ◦ f )(x) = x

then we say that f (x) and g(x) are inverses of each other. More specically we will say
that g(x) is the inverse of f (x) and denote it by

g(x) = f −1 (x)

Likewise, we could also say that f (x) is the inverse of g(x) and denote it by

f (x) = g −1 (x)

16
The notation that we use really depends upon the problem. In most cases either is
acceptable.
For the two functions that we started o this section with we could write either of the
following two sets of notation.

x 2
f (x) = 3x − 2 ⇒ f −1 (x) = +
3 3

x 2
g(x) = + ⇒ g −1 (x) = 3x − 2
3 3
Now, be careful with the notation for inverses. The " -1 " is NOT an exponent despite
the fact that it sure does look like one! When dealing with inverse functions we've got
to remember that
1
f −1 (x) ̸=
f (x)
This is one of the more common mistakes that students make when rst studying inverse
functions.
The process for nding the inverse of a function is a fairly simple one although there
are a couple of steps that can on occasion be somewhat messy. Here is the process:

1.5 Finding the Inverse of a Function

Given the function f (x) we want to nd the inverse function, f −1 (x).

1. First, replace f (x) with y . This is done to make the rest of the process easier.

2. Replace every x with a y and replace every y with an x.

3. Solve the equation from Step 2 for y . This is the step where mistakes are most
often made so be careful with this step.

4. Replace y with f −1 (x). In other words, we've managed to nd the inverse at this
point!

5. Verify your work by checking that (f ◦ f −1 ) (x) = x and (f −1 ◦ f ) (x) = x are

both true. This work can sometimes be messy making it easy to make mistakes
so again be careful.

17
That's the process. Most of the steps are not all that bad but as mentioned in the
process there are a couple of steps that we really need to be careful with since it is easy
to make mistakes in those steps.

Example 1.5.1 Given f (x) = 3x − 2 nd f −1 (x).

Solution Now, we already know what the inverse to this function is as we've already
done some work with it. However, it would be nice to actually start with this since
we know what we should get. This will work as a nice verication of the process.
So, let's get started. We'll rst replace f (x) with y.

y = 3x − 2

Next, replace all x 's with y and all y 's with x.

x = 3y − 2

Now, solve for y.

x + 2 = 3y
1
(x + 2) = y
3
x 2
+ =y
3 3
Finally replace y with f −1 (x).
x 2
f −1 (x) = +
3 3

Now, we need to verify the results. We already took care of this in the previous
section, however, we really should follow the process so we'll do that here. It doesn't
matter which of the two that we check we just need to check one of them. This time

18
 we'll check that (f ◦ f −1 ) (x) = x is true.

f ◦ f −1 (x) = f f −1 (x)

 
 
x 2
=f +
3 3
 
x 2
=3 + −2
3 3
=x+2−2
=x

Let us try another example.

√
Example 1.5.2 Given g(x) = x − 3 nd g−1 (x).
Solution The fact that we're using g(x) instead of f (x) doesn't change how the process
works. Here are the rst few steps.
√ p
y= x−3 ⇒ x= y−3

Now, to solve for y we will need to rst square both sides and then proceed as normal.
p
x= y−3
x2 = y − 3
x2 + 3 = y

This inverse is then,

g −1 (x) = x2 + 3

Finally let's verify and this time we'll use the other one just so we can say that
we've gotten both down somewhere in an example.
g −1 ◦ g (x) = g −1 [g(x)]


√
= g −1 ( x − 3)
√
= ( x − 3)2 + 3
=x−3+3
=x

19
 So, we did the work correctly and we do indeed have the inverse.

The next example can be a little messy so be careful with the work here.
x+4
Example 1.5.3 Given h(x) = nd h−1 (x).
2x − 5
Solution The rst couple of steps are pretty much the same as the previous examples
so here they are,
x+4 y+4
y= ⇒ x=
2x − 5 2y − 5
Now, be careful with the solution step. With this kind of problem it is very easy to
make a mistake here.
x(2y − 5) = y + 4
2xy − 5x = y + 4
2xy − y = 4 + 5x
(2x − 1)y = 4 + 5x
4 + 5x
y=
2x − 1
So, if we've done all of our work correctly the inverse should be,
4 + 5x
h−1 (x) =
2x − 1
Finally, we'll need to do the verication. This is also a fairly messy process and it
doesn't really matter which one we work with.
h ◦ h−1 (x) = h h−1 (x)

 

 
4 + 5x
=h
2x − 1

4 + 5x
+4
= 2x − 1 
4 + 5x
2 −5
2x − 1

Okay, this is a mess. Let's simplify things up a little bit by multiplying the numerator

20
 and denominator by 2x − 1.
4 + 5x
−1

2x − 1 2x − 1 + 4
h◦h (x) =  
2x − 1 4 + 5x
2 −5
2x − 1

 
4 + 5x
(2x − 1) +4
2x − 1
=    
4 + 5x
(2x − 1) 2 −5
2x − 1

4 + 5x + 4(2x − 1)
=
2(4 + 5x) − 5(2x − 1)

4 + 5x + 8x − 4
=
8 + 10x − 10x + 5

13x
= =x
13

Wow. That was a lot of work, but it all worked out in the end. We did all of our
work correctly and we do in fact have the inverse.

There is one nal topic that we need to address quickly before we leave this section.
There is an interesting relationship between the graph of a function and the graph of
its inverse. Here is the graph of the function and inverse from the rst two examples
In both cases we can see that the graph of the inverse is a reection of the actual function
about the line y = x. This will always be the case with the graphs of a function and its
inverse.

1.6 Even and Odd Functions

If a function f satises
f (−x) = f (x)

21
 (a) Example 1 (b) Example 2

Figure 1.6: Graphs of functions and their inverses

for every number x in its domain, then f is called an even function. For instance, the
function
f (x) = x2

is even because
f (−x) = (−x)2
= x2
= f (x)
The geometric signicance of an even function is that its graph is symmetric with respect
to the y -axis. See gure below:
This means that if we have plotted the graph of f for x ≥ 0, we obtain the entire graph
simply by reecting this portion about the y -axis.

If f satises
f (−x) = −f (x)

22
 Figure 1.7: An even function.

for every number x in its domain, then f is called an odd function. For example, the
function
f (x) = x3

is odd because
f (−x) = (−x)3
= −x3
= −f (x)
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. See gure below:

Figure 1.8: An odd function.

23
If we already have the graph of f for x ≥ 0, we can obtain the entire graph by rotating
this portion through 180◦ about the origin.
Example 1.6.1 Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or
neither even nor odd.

(a) f (x) = x5 + x

(b) g(x) = 1 − x4

(c) h(x) = 2x − x2

Solution:

(a)
f (−x) = (−x)5 + (−x) = (−1)5 x5 + (−x)
= −x5 − x = − x5 + x

= −f (x)

Therefore f is an odd function.

(b)
g(−x) = 1 − (−x)4
= 1 − x4
= g(x)

So g is even.

(c)
h(−x) = 2(−x) − (−x)2
= −2x − x2
Since h(−x) ̸= h(x) and h(−x) ̸= −h(x), we conclude that h is neither even
nor odd.

The graphs of the functions in example 1.6.1 are shown in gures below. Notice that
the graph of h is symmetric neither about the y-axis nor about the origin.

24
 Figure 1.9

1.7 Increasing and Decreasing Functions

The graph shown in the gure below rises from A to B , falls from B to C , and rises again
from C to D. The function f is said to be increasing on the interval [a, b], decreasing
on [b, c], and increasing again on [c, d].

Figure 1.10

Notice that if x1 and x2 are any two numbers between a and b with

x1 < x2

then
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) .

25
We use this as the dening property of an increasing function. A function f is called
increasing on an interval I if
f (x1 ) < f (x2 )

whenever
x1 < x2

in I It is called decreasing on I if

f (x1 ) > f (x2 )

whenever
x1 < x2

in the interval I .
You can see from the graph of the function f (x) = x2 below that is decreasing on the
interval (−∞, 0] and increasing on the interval [0, ∞).

Figure 1.11

26
Chapter 2
A Catalog of Essential Functions
2.1 Linear Models
When we say that y is a linear function of x, we mean that the graph of the function is
a line, so we can use the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line to write a formula
for the function as
y = f (x) = mx + b

where m is the slope of the line and b is the y -intercept.

A characteristic feature of linear functions is that they change at a constant rate. For
instance, Figure 2.1 shows a graph of the linear function f (x) = 3x − 2 and a table of
sample values.

Figure 2.1

27
Notice that whenever x increases by 0.1 , the value of f (x) increases by 0.3 . So f (x)
increases three times as fast as x. This means that the slope of the graph of y = 3x − 2,
namely 3 , can be interpreted as the rate of change of y with respect to x.

2.2 Polynomials
A function F is called a polynomial if

F (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an are constants called

the coecients of the polynomial.
The domain of any polynomial is DF = (−∞, ∞) or DF = {x|x ∈ R}. If the leading
coecient an ̸= 0, then the degree of the polynomial is n. For example, the function
2 √
P (x) = 2x6 − x4 + x3 + 2
5
is a polynomial of degree 6 .

A polynomial of degree 1 is of the form P (x) = mx + b and so it is a linear function.

A polynomial of degree 2 is of the form P (x) = ax2 + bx + c and is called a quadratic
function.

Solving a polynomials f (x) means nding the roots. For polynomials of degree n ≥ 3,
the Factor Theorem and the Remainder Theorem plays and important role.

2.3 Power Functions

A function of the form f (x) = xa , where a is a constant, is called a power function. We
consider several cases.
(i) a = n, where n is a positive integer
The graphs of f (x) = xn for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are shown in Figure 2.2. (These are
polynomials with only one term.)

28
 Figure 2.2: Graphs of f (x) = xn for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

(ii) a = 1/n, where n is a positive integer

√
The function f (x) = x1/n = n x is a root function. For n = 2 it is the square root
√
function f (x) = x, whose domain is [0, ∞) and whose graph is the upper half of the
parabola x = y 2 . [See Figure 2.3.]

√
Figure 2.3: f (x) = 2

√ √
For other even values of n, the graph of y = n x is similar to that of y = x. For n = 3
√
we have the cube root function f (x) = 3 x whose domain is (−∞, ∞) (recall that every
real number has a cube root) and whose graph is shown in Figure 2.4. The graph of
√ √
y = n x for n odd (n > 3) is similar to that of y = 3 x.

√
Figure 2.4: f (x) = 3 x

29
(iii) a = −1
The graph of the reciprocal function f (x) = x−1 = 1/x is shown in Figure 2.5. Its graph
has the equation y = x1 , or xy = 1, and is a hyperbola with the coordinate axes as its
asymptotes.

Figure 2.5: y = 1
x

2.4 Rational Functions

A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials:
P (x)
f (x) =
Q(x)

where P and Q are polynomials. The domain consists of all values of x such that
Q(x) ̸= 0.

The function
2x4 − x2 + 1
f (x) =
x2 − 4
is a rational function with domain {x | x ̸= ±2}.

2.5 Algebraic Functions

A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed using algebraic
operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots)
starting with polynomials. Any rational function is automatically an algebraic function.

30
Here are two more examples:
√ x4 − 16x2 √
f (x) = x2 + 1 g(x) = √ + (x − 2) 3 x + 1
x+ x

2.6 Trigonometric Functions

In calculus the convention is that radian measure is always used (except when otherwise
indicated). For example, when we use the function f (x) = sin x, it is understood that
sin x means the sine of the angle whose radian measure is x.
Thus the graphs of the sine and cosine functions are as shown in Figure 2.6

Figure 2.6

Notice that for both the sine and cosine functions the domain is (−∞, ∞) and the range
is the closed interval [−1, 1].
Thus, for all values of x, we have
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 − 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1

or, in terms of absolute values,

| sin x| ≤ 1 | cos x| ≤ 1

An important property of the sine and cosine functions is that they are periodic functions
and have period 2π . This means that, for all values of x,
sin(x + 2π) = sin x cos(x + 2π) = cos x

The tangent function is related to the sine and cosine functions by the equation
sin x
tan x =
cos x
31
and its graph is shown in Figure 2.7. It is undened whenever cos x = 0, that is, when
x = ±π/2, ±3π/2, . . . Its range is (−∞, ∞)

Figure 2.7: y = tan x

Notice that the tangent function has period π :

tan(x + π) = tan x for all x

The remaining three trigonometric functions (cosecant, secant, and cotangent) are the
reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions.

2.6.1 Solving Trigonometric Equations

In this section we will take a look at solving trig equations. This is something that you
will be asked to do on a fairly regular basis in many classes.

Most trig equations have more than one solution

1. If the variable is not restricted, an equation will have an innite number of solu-
tions. When all values of θ are required, the solution should be represented as the
following where n is any integer.

ˆ for sin θ and cos θ, θ + 2πn

32
 ˆ for tan θ, θ + πn

2. If an interval is given, solve for all of the values within that interval.

Let's just jump into the examples and see how to solve trig equations.
√
Example 2.6.1 Find the solution set of the equation 7 tan θ = 2 3 + tan θ in the
interval 0◦ ≤ θ < 360◦ .
Solution: How to Proceed
(1) Solve the equation for tan θ :
√
7 tan θ = 2 3 + tan θ
√
6 tan θ = 2 3
√
3
tan θ =
3
We are looking for the values of θ in the interval 0◦ ≤ θ < 360◦ such that
√
3
tan θ = .
3

(2) Since tan θ is positive, we have the solution in the rst and third quadrants. We
must rst nd the reference angle α so that in the rst quadrant

θ1 = α

and in the third quadrant

θ2 = α + 180◦ .
√ !
3
(3) Reference angle: α = arctan = 30◦ .
3
(4) In the interval 0◦ ≤ θ < 360◦ , the simplied equation
√
3
tan θ =
3

33
 has the following two solutions I and III quadrants
θ1 = 30◦
θ2 = 180◦ + 30◦ = 210◦

Let's try another example

Example 2.6.2 Find the solution set of the equation 3(sin θ + 2) = 3 − sin θ in the
interval 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 2π. Note the interval is in radian measure.
Solution: How to Proceed
(1) Solve the equation for sin θ :

3(sin θ + 2) = 3 − sin θ
3 sin θ + 6 = 3 − sin θ
4 sin θ = −3
3
sin θ = −
4
We are looking for the values of θ in the interval 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 2π such that
3
sin θ = − .
4

(2) Since sin θ is negative, we have the solution in the third and fourth quadrants.
We must rst nd the reference angle α so that in the third quadrant

θ1 = π + α

and in the fourth quadrant

θ2 = 2π − α.
 
3
(3) Reference angle: α = arcsin = 0.848. We ignore the negative sign when
4
solving for α and use the calculator in radian mode.
(4) In the interval 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 2π, the simplied equation
3
sin θ = −
4

34
 has the following two solutions in the III and IV quadrants:
θ1 = π + 0.848
.
θ2 = 2π − 0.848

Example 2.6.3 Find all the solution set of the equation sin(2x) = 21 in the interval
[− π2 , π2 ].

Solution:
To solve the equation sin(2x) = 12 in the interval [− π2 , π2 ], we rst nd the reference
angle α such that sin(α) = 21 . This reference angle is π6 .
Now, since 2x corresponds to an angle whose sine is 21 , the possible solutions for 2x
within the interval [− π2 , π2 ] are:

1. 2x = π6 , (for the rst quadrant).

2. 2x = π − π6 , (for the second quadrant).

Dividing both sides by 2 to nd the solutions for x, we get:

1. x = 12π .

2. x = 5π
12
.

We need to consider the solutions within the interval [− π2 , π2 ].

So, the solutions within the interval [− π2 , π2 ] are x = π
12
and x = 5π
12
.

Exercise 2.6.1 Find all solutions of each equation on the interval [0, 2π)
√
(a) 3 2 cos θ + 2 = −1

(b) 3 csc x = 2 csc x + 2

35
2.7 Exponential and logarithmic Functions
2.7.1 Exponential Functions
The exponential functions are the functions of the form f (x) = bx , where the base b is
a positive constant. The graphs of y = 2x and y = (0.5)x are shown in Figure 2.8. In
both cases the domain is (−∞, ∞) and the range is (0, ∞).

Figure 2.8

Exponential functions are useful for modeling many natural phenomena, such as popu-
lation growth (if b > 1 ) and radioactive decay (if b < 1 ).

2.7.2 Logarithmic Functions

The logarithmic functions f (x) = logb x, where the base b is a positive constant, are
the inverse functions of the exponential functions. Figure 2.9 shows the graphs of four
logarithmic functions with various bases.

36
 Figure 2.9

In each case the domain is (0, ∞), the range is (−∞, ∞), and the function increases
slowly when x > 1.

2.8 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Before we look into Exponential and Logarithmic Equations, note the following deni-
tions and properties:
y = loga x
if and only if
x = ay ,
where a > 0. In other words, logarithms are exponents.

Basic Laws of Exponents

 a n an
a1 = a (ab)n = an bn =
b bn
am
am an = am+n = am−n (an )m = amn
an

37
 Example 2.8.1 Consider the equation
3−w
34x−7 = .
3
To solve for x, we use the division property of exponents to rewrite the right side so
that both sides have the common base, 3 . Then we apply the one-to-one property
of exponents by setting the exponents equal to one another and solving for x :
32x
34x−7 =
3
32x
34x−7 = 1 Rewrite 3 as 31
3
34x−7 = 32x−1 Use the division property of exponents
4x − 7 = 2x − 1 Apply the one-to-one property of exponents
2x = 6 Subtract 2x and add 7 to both sides
x=3 Divide by 3

Example 2.8.2 Solve 8x+2 = 16x+1

Solution:
8x+2 = 16x+1

x+2
x+1
23 = 24
23x+6 = 24x+4
3x + 6 = 4x + 4
x=2

Let us look at equation containing powers of dierent bases

Example 2.8.3 Solve 5x+2 = 4x .

Solution:
There is no easy way to get the powers to have the same base.
(1) Take ln of both sides.
ln 5x+2 = ln 4x

(2) Use laws of logarithms.

(x + 2) ln 5 = x ln 4

38
 (3) Use the distributive law.

x ln 5 + 2 ln 5 = x ln 4

(4) Get terms containing x on one side, terms without x on the other.

x ln 5 − x ln 4 = −2 ln 5

(5) Solve for x

1


ln 25

x= 5
ln 4

Remarks for noting

ˆ log x always refers to log base 10 , i.e., log x = log10 x.

ˆ ln x is called the natural logarithm and is used to represent loge x, where the
irrational number e ≈ 2.71828. Therefore, ln x = y if and only if ey = x.

ˆ Most calculators can directly compute logs base 10 and the natural log. For any
other base it is necessary to use the change of base formula:
ln a log10 a
logb a = or
ln b log10 b
.

Properties of Logarithms

Recall that logs are only dened for positive values of x.

For the natural logarithm For logarithms base a

1. ln xy = ln x + ln y 1. loga xy = loga x + loga y
x x
2. ln = ln x − ln y 2. loga = loga x − loga y
y y
3. ln xy = y · ln x 3. loga xy = y · loga x
4. ln ex = x 4. loga ax = x
5. eln x = x 5. aloga x = x

39
Useful Identities for Logarithms

For the natural logarithm For logarithms base a

1. ln e = 1 1. loga a = 1, for all a > 0
2. ln 1 = 0 2. loga 1 = 0, for all a > 0

Using the Denition of a Logarithm to Solve Logarithmic Equations

We have already seen that every logarithmic equation logb (x) = y is equivalent to the
exponential equation by = x. We can use this fact, along with the rules of logarithms,
to solve logarithmic equations where the argument is an algebraic expression.
Example 2.8.4 Consider the equation

log2 (2) + log2 (3x − 5) = 3.

To solve this equation, we can use rules of logarithms to rewrite the left side in
compact form and then apply the denition of logs to solve for x :
log2 (2) + log2 (3x − 5) = 3
log2 (2(3x − 5)) = 3 Apply the product rule of logarithms
log2 (6x − 10) = 3 Distribute
23 = 6x − 10 Apply the denition of a logarithm
8 = 6x − 10 Calculate 23
18 = 6x Add 10 to both sides
x = 3 Divide by 6

40