○​ Discovered that some

microorganisms can live

Microbiology without oxygen (anaerobes).
○​ Proposed the Germ Theory
Microbiology is the study of
of Disease (microorganisms
microorganisms, which are microscopic
cause disease).
organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi,
4.​ Ignaz Semmelweis​
protozoa, and algae.
○​ Father of Handwashing –
Branches of Microbiology: Promoted hand hygiene to
prevent infection.
●​ Bacteriology – Study of bacteria.
5.​ Edward Jenner​
●​ Virology – Study of viruses.
●​ Protozoology – Study of protozoa.
○​ Coined the term vaccine and
●​ Phycology (Algology) – Study of
developed the first smallpox
algae.
vaccine.
●​ Mycology – Study of fungi.
6.​ Robert Koch​

Brief History of ○​ Developed Koch’s

Postulates, which
Microbiology established the relationship
between microorganisms and
1.​ Robert Hooke​ disease.
7.​ Julius Petri​
○​ Proposed that all living things
are made up of cells (Cell ○​ Invented the Petri dish, used
Theory). for growing bacteria.
2.​ Anton van Leeuwenhoek​ 8.​ Fanny Hesse​

○​ Father of Microscopy – ○​ Introduced agar as a

Invented the first single-lens solidifying agent for bacterial
microscope. culture media.
○​ Father of Microbiology – First 9.​ John Tyndall​
to observe microorganisms,
which he called ○​ Developed Tyndallization, a
"animalcules." method of sterilization to kill
○​ Father of Protozoology – bacterial spores.
Discovered Giardia lamblia in
his own stool.
3.​ Louis Pasteur​ Fields of Microbiology
○​ Father of Immunology. 1.​ Medical Microbiology – Study of
microorganisms that cause diseases
in humans.
 2.​ Diagnostic Microbiology – ●​ Smallest free-living bacteria:
Identification and diagnosis of Mycoplasma spp.
medically significant ●​ Largest bacteria overall:
microorganisms. Thiomargarita magnifica
3.​ Pharmaceutical Microbiology –
Study of microbes used in drug
development.
4.​ Food Microbiology – Study of
microorganisms involved in food
Bacterial Cell Structure
production and preservation.
5.​ Industrial Microbiology – Use of Cell Wall
microorganisms to produce industrial
●​ Also called Peptidoglycan Layer /
products like antibiotics, enzymes,
Murein Layer / Mucopeptide
and alcohol.
Layer.
●​ Functions:
○​ Provides protection.
○​ Maintains cell shape.

Bacteriology ○​ Basis for bacterial

identification (Gram staining).

Gram Staining Differences:

General Characteristics of
●​ Gram-Positive Bacteria​
Bacteria
○​ Thick peptidoglycan layer.
●​ Prokaryotic – Lacks a true nucleus
○​ Stains purple/violet.
and membrane-bound organelles.
●​ Gram-Negative Bacteria​
●​ Contains both DNA and RNA.
●​ Chromosomal DNA – Circular,
○​ Thin peptidoglycan layer
contains essential genetic material.
with an outer
●​ Non-Chromosomal DNA – Includes
lipopolysaccharide
plasmids, which carry extra genes
membrane.
like antibiotic resistance.
○​ Stains red/pink.
●​ Measured in micrometers (µm):
○​ Width: 0.25 – 1 µm
○​ Length: 1.0 – 3.0 µm
Bacterial Shapes:
Notable Bacteria Based on Size:
●​ Cocci – Round.
●​ Smallest pathogenic bacteria: ●​ Bacilli – Rod-shaped.
Haemophilus influenzae ●​ Coccobacilli – Ovoid.
●​ Largest pathogenic bacteria: ●​ Spirochetes – Spiral.
Bacillus anthracis ●​ Pleomorphic – No definite shape.
Bacterial Arrangements: ○​ Plasmids – Carry
antibiotic-resistance
●​ Diplo- – Pairs. genes.
●​ Tetrads – Groups of 4.
●​ Sarcina – Groups of 8.
●​ Staphylococci – Clusters.
●​ Streptococci – Chains.
Extracellular Structures
Capsule
Internal Structures ●​ Firmly attached to the cell wall.
●​ Functions:
Plasma Membrane ○​ Protects bacteria from
phagocytosis by WBCs.
●​ Functions: ○​ Acts as an antigenic
○​ Site of energy synthesis determinant.
(respiration). ●​ Examples of capsule-forming
○​ Regulates nutrient bacteria:
transport in and out of the ○​ Haemophilus influenzae
cell. ○​ Streptococcus pneumoniae
○​ Acts as an ○​ Klebsiella pneumoniae
osmotic/permeability ○​ Neisseria meningitidis
barrier. ○​ Bacillus anthracis
○​ Lacks sterols, except in ○​ Pasteurella multocida
Mycoplasma spp. ○​ Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Cytoplasm Slime Layer

Contains two distinct areas: ●​ Loosely attached to the cell wall.

●​ Functions:
1.​ Inner Nucleoid Region​ ○​ Protects bacteria from
phagocytosis.
○​ Contains chromosomal ○​ Helps bacteria attach to
DNA (circular shape). synthetic implants (e.g.,
○​ Essential for reproduction heart valves).
and vitality. ●​ Example: Staphylococcus
2.​ Amorphous Matrix​ epidermidis (causes prosthetic heart
valve endocarditis).
○​ Ribosomes – Site of protein
synthesis. Pili (Fimbriae)
○​ Inclusion bodies – Stores
food reserves. ●​ Made of protein called pilin.
●​ Types of Pili:
 ○​ Common/Somatic/Ordinary
pili – Helps in bacterial Bacterial Growth
adherence.
○​ Sex/Fertility/F pili – Requirements
Facilitates gene transfer
between bacteria.
Gas Requirements
Endospores
1.​ Obligate Aerobes​
●​ Dormant, highly resistant bacterial
structures. ○​ Requires oxygen for growth
●​ Functions: (21% O₂ gas).
○​ Survive extreme conditions 2.​ Obligate Anaerobes​
(heat, chemicals, radiation).
○​ Target of sterilization ○​ Cannot survive in the
methods. presence of oxygen.
●​ Medically important 3.​ Facultative Anaerobes​
spore-forming bacteria:
○​ Clostridium tetani ○​ Can grow with or without
○​ Clostridium botulinum oxygen.
○​ Bacillus spp. 4.​ Aerotolerant Anaerobes​

Flagella ○​ Do not require oxygen but

can tolerate limited
●​ Whip-like structure used for exposure.
locomotion. 5.​ Microaerophilic Bacteria​
●​ Made of protein called flagellin.
●​ Associated with H antigen. ○​ Prefer a low concentration
of oxygen (5-10% O₂).
6.​ Capnophilic Bacteria​

○​ Require carbon dioxide for

growth (5-10% CO₂).

pH Requirements
1.​ Acidophiles​

○​ Thrive in acidic
environments (low pH).
○​ Examples: Yeasts,
Lactobacillus spp.
 2.​ Neutrophiles (Neutralophiles)​ ●​ Humidophilic – Require moisture
for growth.
○​ Prefer neutral to slightly
alkaline pH.
○​ Most pathogenic bacteria
fall into this category.
3.​ Basophiles (Alkalophiles)​
Review Questions
1.​ Bacteria requiring carbon dioxide
○​ Thrive in basic (alkaline)
for growth are classified as:​
environments (high pH).
○​ Example: Vibrio cholerae
○​ Capnophilic
2.​ Bacteria that can live in the
presence or absence of oxygen is
termed as:​
Temperature
○​ Facultative anaerobe
Requirements 3.​ Bacteria that favor temperatures
of 20-45°C are known as:​
1.​ Mesophiles​
○​ Mesophilic
○​ Grow best at 20°C to 45°C.
4.​ Bacteria preferring acidic
○​ Most pathogenic bacteria
environments are known as:​
belong to this group.
2.​ Psychrophiles​
○​ Acidophiles
5.​ Bacteria that die in the presence
○​ Thrive at -5°C to 15°C.
of oxygen are known as:​
○​ Example: Listeria
monocytogenes
○​ Obligate/Strict Anaerobes
3.​ Thermophiles​

○​ Grow at 50°C to 60°C.

○​ Example: Thermus
aquaticus
Normal Flora
Definition
Other Growth ●​ Normal flora refers to various
Requirements bacteria and fungi that are
permanent residents of specific
●​ Halophilic – Require high salt body sites.
concentration to grow.
●​ Osmophiles – Require high Types of Normal Flora
osmotic pressure to survive.
 1.​ Resident Flora​ ■​ Streptomyces spp. →
Erythromycin
○​ Permanently resides in 3.​ Nutritional Function​
certain parts of the human
body. ○​ Intestinal flora produces
2.​ Transient Flora​ essential B-vitamins and
Vitamin K.
○​ Temporarily found in certain
body parts but can become
infectious if retained for long
periods.
Microbial Control

Beneficial Roles of Normal Methods of Microbial

Flora Control
1.​ Microbial Antagonism ("Microbes Sterilization
vs. Microbes")​
●​ Definition: Complete destruction
○​ Normal flora competes with and removal of all bacterial life,
pathogenic bacteria, including endospores.
preventing harmful microbes ●​ Examples:
from establishing ○​ Autoclave
themselves. ○​ Dry Air Oven
○​ Example: In the colon, ○​ Glutaraldehyde (e.g.,
normal flora occupies space Cidex)
and consumes nutrients,
making it difficult for Disinfection
newcomers to survive.
2.​ Biotherapeutic Agents​ ●​ Definition: Destruction and removal
of pathogenic bacteria (but not all
○​ Probiotics & Prebiotics microbial life).
(e.g., Lactobacillus spp., ●​ Uses: Disinfectants (inanimate
Bacillus clausii) help restore objects) and Antiseptics (skin
and maintain microbial application).
balance. ●​ Examples:
○​ Some bacteria and fungi ○​ 10% Bleach
produce antibiotics: ○​ 70% Alcohol
■​ Penicillium spp. → ○​ Iodine Solution
Penicillin
■​ Bacillus subtilis →
Bacitracin
 ●​ Mucous Membranes – Trap
Immunology bacteria in:
○​ Respiratory tract
○​ Gastrointestinal tract
Important Terms ○​ Urinary tract

●​ Antibody​
Second Line of Defense (Cellular
○​ Protein produced in response
Response)
to infection.
●​ White Blood Cells (WBCs) –
○​ Specific – targets only a
destroy pathogens.
particular antigen.
●​ Phagocytes ("Cell Eaters"):
○​ Only produced in the
○​ Neutrophils
presence of the specific
○​ Basophils
antigen.
○​ Eosinophils
○​ Produced by lymphocytes.
○​ Macrophages
●​ Antigen​

○​ Any substance that

stimulates antibody
production.
○​ "ANTIbody GENerator".

Components of the
Immune System
Natural Immunity (Innate
Immunity)
Components of the
●​ First and second line of defense.
Immune System
●​ Non-specific response – same
reaction for all pathogens.
●​ No memory – cannot recognize
Adaptive (Acquired)
past infections. Immunity
First Line of Defense (Physical & ●​ Third line of defense in the immune
Chemical Barriers) system.
●​ Highly specific response to a
●​ Skin – Acts as a barrier to particular antigen.​
pathogens.
 ●​ Memory response – immune (e.g., COVID-19 vaccine,
reaction is stronger and faster upon Hepatitis B vaccine).
repeated exposure. 2.​ Passive Immunity – The body
●​ Involves antibodies, which help receives antibodies from an
neutralize or eliminate pathogens. external source.​
●​ Key Features:
○​ Specificity – Targets a ○​ Naturally Acquired –
particular pathogen. Antibodies are transferred
○​ Memory – Provides from mother to fetus
long-term immunity after through the placenta or
initial exposure. breast milk.
○​ Artificially Acquired –
Antibodies are given
through vaccines (e.g.,
Tetanus immunoglobulin,
Hepatitis B immunoglobulin).

Factors Affecting Immune

Response
Classes of Antibodies
(Immunoglobulins)

●​ IgG – The most abundant antibody

Immunity in the blood (80%). It appears after
re-exposure to an infection and is
the only antibody that crosses the
Types of Acquired placenta.
●​ IgA – Makes up 10-15% of
Immunity antibodies. It is present in
colostrum (breast milk) and
1.​ Active Immunity – The body provides mucosal immunity.
produces its own antibodies in ●​ IgM – Makes up 10% of antibodies.
response to an antigen.​ It is the first antibody to appear in
response to an initial infection.
○​ Naturally Acquired – ●​ IgD – Makes up only 0.2% of
Occurs after an infection antibodies. It functions as an
with a pathogen. antigen receptor on B-cells.
○​ Artificially Acquired – ●​ IgE – The least abundant antibody
Occurs after vaccination (0.002%). It is involved in allergic
 reactions and helps fight parasitic Gram-Positive Bacilli
infections.
●​ Bacillus
●​ Clostridium
●​ Corynebacterium
●​ Listeria
Vaccination Types
●​ Live Attenuated Vaccine –
Contains a weakened but live
pathogen (e.g., MMR vaccine). Staphylococci
●​ Inactivated Killed Vaccine –
Contains a killed pathogen (e.g., ●​ Gram-positive cocci that appear in
Polio vaccine). clusters.
●​ Subunit Vaccine – Contains only ●​ Medically Important Species:
specific antigen fragments of a ○​ Staphylococcus aureus
pathogen (e.g., Hepatitis B vaccine). ○​ Staphylococcus epidermidis
●​ Conjugated Vaccine – The antigen ○​ Staphylococcus
is bound to a protein carrier to saprophyticus
improve immune response (e.g., Hib
vaccine).
●​ Nucleic Acid (DNA) Vaccine –
Contains the genetic material of the
pathogen to induce immunity (e.g.,
Staphylococcus aureus
COVID-19 mRNA vaccine).
●​ The most virulent species of
●​ Recombinant Vector Vaccine –
Staphylococci.
Uses genetically modified bacteria
●​ Normal Flora: Found in the nose,
to carry the antigen (e.g., Ebola
skin, and vagina.
vaccine).

Virulence Factors (Factors that

help it cause disease)

Medical ●​ Coagulase – Clots plasma to

protect bacteria from the immune
system.
Bacteriology ●​ Fibrinolysin – Breaks down clots,
allowing the bacteria to spread.
●​ Lipase – Breaks down lipids in the
Gram-Positive Bacteria skin, such as the oils in sebaceous
glands.
Gram-Positive Cocci ●​ Hyaluronidase – Breaks down
connective tissues, making it
●​ Staphylococcus easier for bacteria to invade deeper
●​ Streptococcus tissues.
 ●​ Leukocidin – Destroys white blood Non-Toxin Mediated Diseases
cells (WBCs), helping the bacteria
evade the immune system. 1.​ Skin, Soft-Tissue, and Wound
●​ Beta-Lactamase – Provides Infections​
resistance to penicillin by breaking
it down. ○​ Folliculitis – Pus-filled
inflammation of hair follicles.
○​ Furuncle – Deeper infection
extending from folliculitis.
○​ Carbuncle – Multiple
Staphylococcus interconnected furuncles.
○​ Bullous Impetigo – Large,
aureus fluid-filled blisters.
○​ Stye – Infection of oil glands
at the eyelid edge.
Toxin-Mediated Diseases ○​ Stitch Abscess –
Post-surgical infection.
1.​ Food Poisoning​
2.​ Meningitis and Osteomyelitis​

○​ Caused by Enterotoxins A,
3.​ Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs)​
B, and D.
○​ Enterotoxin B is specifically
linked to Staphylococcal
pseudomembranous
colitis. Treatment
2.​ Toxic Shock Syndrome (TSS)​
●​ Penicillin G
○​ Caused by TSST-1 (Toxic ●​ Mupirocin (for skin infections)
Shock Syndrome Toxin-1) /
Pyrogenic exotoxin C.
○​ Symptoms: Fever,
scarlatiniform rash, and Antibiotic Resistance
hypotension.
○​ Often associated with the 1.​ MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant
use of high-absorbency Staphylococcus aureus)​
tampons.
3.​ Scalded Skin Syndrome​ ○​ Resistant to methicillin,
oxacillin, and nafcillin due
○​ Caused by Epidermolytic to the beta-lactamase
toxin (Exfoliative enzyme.
toxin/Exfoliatin). ○​ Encoded by the mecA gene.
○​ Symptoms: Erythema and ○​ Drug of Choice (DOC):
exfoliative dermatitis. Vancomycin.
 2.​ VRSA (Vancomycin-Resistant ●​ Gram-positive cocci in chains.
Staphylococcus aureus)​ ●​ Catalase-negative.
●​ Capnophilic (thrives in increased
○​ Resistant to vancomycin. CO₂ conditions).
○​ Encoded by the erm gene.
○​ DOC: Macrolides (e.g.,
Azithromycin,
Clindamycin,
Erythromycin).
3.​ Macrolide Resistance​
Streptococcus
○​ Resistant to Azithromycin,
pyogenes
Clindamycin, and
●​ Major throat pathogen.
Erythromycin.
●​ Known as "Flesh-eating bacteria".
●​ Transmission: Direct contact and
respiratory droplets.

Virulence Factors
Other
●​ M Protein – Prevents phagocytosis.
Staphylococci ●​ DNAse – Destroys DNA.
●​ Hyaluronidase – Breaks down
Staphylococcus epidermidis hyaluronic acid, allowing deeper
tissue invasion.
●​ Normal skin flora.
●​ Commonly infects IV catheters and
prosthetic implants.
●​ Major cause of prosthetic heart Pathogenesis
valve endocarditis.
1.​ Pharyngitis (Strep Throat)​
Staphylococcus saprophyticus
○​ Common in children.
●​ Normal flora of the female ○​ May lead to:
genitalia and perineum. ■​ Rheumatic Heart
●​ Common cause of UTIs in Disease.
sexually active females. ■​ Acute
●​ 2nd leading cause of cystitis in Glomerulonephritis
women. (due to immune
complex deposition in
the kidneys).
○​ Diagnosed using the
Anti-Streptolysin O (ASO)

Streptococci Test.
 2.​ Impetigo​ ○​ Rheumatic Heart Disease:
Monthly injections for
○​ Localized skin disease several years.
causing crusting lesions. ●​ Alternative Treatment: Macrolides
○​ Lesions have a (for penicillin-allergic patients).
"honey-colored" crust.
3.​ Erysipelas​

○​ Painful, intensely red

spreading skin infection.
4.​ Necrotizing Fasciitis​
Other Streptococci
○​ Also known as Streptococcus pneumoniae
"Flesh-Eating Disease".
●​ Gram-positive cocci in pairs.
○​ Severe soft tissue infection
●​ Normal flora of the respiratory tract.
leading to rapid tissue
●​ #1 cause of adult bacterial
destruction.
meningitis and bacterial/lobar
○​ Other names: Suppurative
pneumonia.
Fasciitis, Hospital
●​ Also causes otitis media (middle
Gangrene, Necrotizing
ear infection).
Erysipelas.
●​ Treatment: Penicillin G,
5.​ Scarlet Fever​
Vancomycin.
○​ Caused by Erythrogenic
toxin.
○​ Symptoms: High fever,
diffuse red rash on the
chest and upper Bacillus
extremities.
○​ Strawberry tongue is a ●​ Gram-positive, large,
characteristic sign. spore-forming bacilli.
6.​ Other Infections​ ●​ Obligate aerobe.
●​ Spores are centrally located and
○​ UTI, pneumonia, unstained.
meningitis. ●​ Commonly found in animals.

Bacillus anthracis ("Anthrax

Bacillus")
Treatment
●​ Normally found in sheep, goats,
●​ Drug of Choice (DOC): Penicillin and cattle.
G ●​ Has a capsule.
○​ Strep Throat: 10-day ●​ Bamboo fishing rod appearance
course. (under a microscope).
 ●​ Centrally located spores. Bacillus cereus ("Fried Rice
Bacillus")
Pathogenesis – Anthrax Forms
●​ Normal flora of the human
1.​ Cutaneous Anthrax​
intestine.
●​ Commonly found in grains,
○​ Most common form.
especially rice.
○​ Causes a small black
necrotic lesion called Pathogenesis – Food Poisoning
"black eschar" or
"malignant pustule". ●​ Emetic Type – Causes nausea and
○​ Mode of Transmission vomiting.
(MOT): Exposure of open ●​ Diarrheal Type – Causes watery
wounds to anthrax spores. diarrhea.
2.​ Pulmonary Anthrax​ ●​ Best Specimen for Testing:
Suspected food (not stool).
○​ Also called "Woolsorter’s
Disease" or "Ragpicker’s
Anthrax".
○​ Most severe form of
anthrax.
○​ MOT: Inhalation of spores.
Clostridium
3.​ Gastrointestinal Anthrax​
●​ Gram-positive, spore-forming
bacilli.
○​ Also known as "Ingestion
●​ Obligate anaerobe.
Anthrax".
●​ Terminally located swollen
○​ Least common form.
spores.
○​ MOT: Ingesting improperly
●​ Found in soil, animals, and
cooked infected meat.
decomposing matter.
4.​ Injectional Anthrax​

○​ Observed among drug Clostridium tetani

users who share needles.
●​ Found in soil.
○​ MOT: Injection of
●​ Produces tetanospasmin toxin.
contaminated drugs (e.g.,
●​ Transmission: Exposure of wounds
heroin).
to contaminated soil or sharp
Treatment & Prevention objects.

●​ Treatment: Penicillin G. Symptoms of Tetanus

●​ Prevention: Ciprofloxacin,
●​ Trismus ("Lockjaw") – Difficulty
Doxycycline, and Biothrax
opening the mouth.
Vaccine.
●​ Risus Sardonicus – "Devil’s smile"
or "Sardonic smile".
 ●​ Opisthotonos – Severe back 1.​ Gas Gangrene (Myonecrosis)​
arching due to muscle spasms.
●​ Spastic Paralysis – Uncontrolled ○​ Caused by alpha toxin.
muscle contractions. ○​ "Flesh-eating bacteria" that
destroy muscle tissue.
Treatment 2.​ Food Poisoning​

●​ Tetanus toxoid (vaccine). ○​ Caused by beta toxin.

●​ Anti-tetanus serum.
Clostridium difficile
Clostridium botulinum ("Canned
Food Bacillus") ●​ Normal flora of the colon.
●​ #1 cause of nosocomial
●​ Found in soil, contaminated (hospital-acquired) diarrhea.
vegetables, canned meats, and
honey. Pathology
●​ Produces botulinum toxin, which
causes paralysis. ●​ Causes Antibiotic-Associated
Pseudomembranous
Symptoms of Botulism Enterocolitis.

●​ Diplopia (double vision). Treatment

●​ Slurred speech.
●​ Difficulty swallowing. ●​ Metronidazole.
●​ Diaphragmatic paralysis leading to ●​ Vancomycin.
respiratory failure.
●​ Flaccid paralysis (weak, limp
muscles).

Types of Botulism Corynebacterium

1.​ Wound Botulism – Causes flaccid
●​ Gram-positive, non-spore forming
paralysis.
bacilli.
2.​ Infant Botulism – Occurs when
●​ Contain metachromatic granules.
babies ingest spores (e.g.,
honey).
Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Treatment ("Kleb Loeffler’s Bacillus")

●​ Trivalent Antitoxin. ●​ Produces diphtheria toxin.

Clostridium perfringens ("Gas Symptoms of Diphtheria

Gangrene Bacillus") ●​ Thick, gray pseudomembrane
covering the tonsils and throat.
Pathogenesis
Treatment Here’s your Gram-Negative Bacteria
notes, fully organized and formatted for
●​ Antitoxin (IV or IM). easier studying:
●​ Penicillin or Erythromycin.
●​ Prevention: DPT Vaccine.

Gram-Negative
Listeria Cocci
monocytogenes
Neisseria
●​ Found in the environment.
●​ Exhibits tumbling motility at room ●​ Gram-negative, kidney-shaped
temperature. diplococci.
●​ Can survive in cold temperatures ●​ Intracellular bacteria.
(cold enrichment tolerance).
●​ Acquired from contaminated Neisseria meningitidis
cheese, coleslaw, and chicken. ("Meningococcus")
Pathogenesis ●​ Normal flora of the nasopharynx
and oropharynx.
●​ Meningitis.
●​ Capsulated bacteria.
●​ Listeriosis – Gastroenteritis caused
by Listeriolysin O toxin. Pathogenesis

1.​ Meningitis – Abrupt onset of frontal

headache, stiff neck, confusion,
and photophobia.
Other Bacteria 2.​ Meningococcemia – Presence of
bacteria in the blood, with or without
meningitis.
Propionibacterium acnes
3.​ Waterhouse-Friderichsen
Syndrome – Hemorrhage of the
●​ Causes acne.
adrenal glands.

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Treatment

●​ Found in swine. ●​ Penicillin G

●​ Causes Erysipeloid (Butcher’s Cut ●​ Chloramphenicol
Disease).
Prophylaxis (Prevention)

●​ Rifampicin
 ●​ Ciprofloxacin
Gram-Negative
Rods
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
("Gonococcus")
Haemophilus Influenzae
●​ Never a normal flora.
●​ Sexually transmitted. ●​ Virulent strain: H. influenzae
●​ Has somatic pili (helps in serotype b.
attachment to host cells). ●​ Coccobacillus with a
●​ Intracellular bacteria. polysaccharide capsule.
●​ #1 cause of meningitis among
Pathology children.
●​ 2nd most common cause of otitis
1.​ Gonorrhea ("Clap") – Acute media (ear infection).
pyogenic infection.
○​ Males: Urethritis, dysuria, Treatment & Prevention
and purulent discharge.
○​ Females: Often ●​ Treatment: Ceftriaxone.
asymptomatic but may lead ●​ Prevention: Hib vaccine.
to pelvic inflammatory
disease (PID). Other Haemophilus Species
2.​ Ophthalmia Neonatorum –
Gonorrheal conjunctivitis in ●​ Haemophilus aegyptius – Causes
newborns infected during birth. Pink Eye (purulent conjunctivitis)
3.​ Gonococcal Arthritis – Joint and Brazilian Purpuric Fever.
infection caused by gonorrhea. ●​ Haemophilus ducreyi – Causes
chancroid (genital ulcer disease).
Treatment ○​ Males are often
symptomatic.
●​ Ceftriaxone or Cefixime. ○​ Females are usually
●​ Additional Therapy: Azithromycin asymptomatic.
or Doxycycline (for possible ○​ Ulcers are soft and painful
chlamydial co-infection). ("Soft Chancre").
●​ For Ophthalmia Neonatorum:
○​ 2% Silver Nitrate solution.
○​ 1% Erythromycin or
Tetracycline ointment.
Bordetella pertussis
●​ Gram-negative coccobacillus.
●​ Causes Pertussis ("Whooping
Cough").
 ●​ Highly communicable disease of
childhood.
●​ Mode of Transmission (MOT):
Airborne. Brucella spp.
Stages of Pertussis ●​ Small, gram-negative rods.
●​ Zoonotic infection (transmitted
1.​ Catarrhal Stage – Mild cough and from animals to humans).
sneezing, highly infectious stage.
2.​ Paroxysmal Stage – Explosive Brucella Species and Hosts
coughing followed by a "whoop"
upon inhalation. ●​ Brucella abortus – Found in cattle.
3.​ Convalescence Stage – Period of ●​ Brucella melitensis – Found in
recovery. goats and sheep.
●​ Brucella suis – Found in swine.
Treatment & Prevention ●​ Brucella canis – Found in dogs.

●​ Treatment (Catarrhal Stage): Pathology

Erythromycin.
●​ Treatment (Paroxysmal Stage): ●​ Brucellosis (also known as
Oxygen and sedation. Undulant Fever, Malta Fever,
●​ Prevention: DPT vaccine. Bang’s Disease).
●​ Common sources: Contaminated
milk products.
●​ Occupational hazard for dairy
Legionella pneumophila farmers and livestock handlers.

●​ Found in cold and wet places

(showerheads, faucets, drinking
fountains, air-conditioning systems). Yersinia pestis
Pathology
●​ Small, gram-negative rod.
●​ Agent of Plague.
●​ Legionnaire’s Disease – Fatal
bacterial pneumonia.
●​ Pontiac Fever – Self-limiting, Forms of Plague
non-fatal respiratory infection.
1.​ Bubonic Plague – Most common
●​ Also causes wound abscess,
form, characterized by buboes
endocarditis, encephalitis.
(swollen lymph nodes).
Treatment 2.​ Pneumonic Plague – Second most
common form, occurs due to
●​ Macrolides, Quinolones, bacteria in the lungs. MOT:
Tetracycline. Inhalation.
 3.​ Septicemic Plague ("Black 1.​ Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) –
Death") – The most deadly form, Causes Traveler’s Diarrhea
leads to massive septicemia. ("Turista, Montezuma’s Revenge,
Tokyo Two-Step").
2.​ Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) –
Bloody diarrhea with pus and
mucus.
Other Gram-Negative 3.​ Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) –
Bacteria Causes "Infantile Diarrhea" (watery
stool with mucus, no blood).
●​ Pasteurella multocida – Causes 4.​ Enterohemorrhagic E. coli
Cat-bite Disease. (EHEC/VTEC) – Causes Hemolytic
●​ Bartonella henselae – Causes Uremic Syndrome (HUS)
Cat-Scratch Disease. (thrombocytopenia, hemolytic
●​ Pseudomonas aeruginosa – anemia, kidney failure).
Strictly aerobic gram-negative 5.​ Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC)
rod, oxidase-positive. – Watery stool with mucus.
○​ Produces pigments:
■​ Pyocyanin (blue).
■​ Pyoverdin
(yellow-green).
■​ Pyorubrin (red).
■​ Pyomelanin
Review Questions
(brown).
1.​ Which biotype of E. coli causes
○​ Most common cause of
Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome?
nosocomial respiratory
○​ Enterohemorrhagic E. coli
tract infections and UTIs.
(EHEC).
2.​ Sunken eyes and
"washerwoman’s hands" are
symptoms of which infection?
○​ Cholera.
Family Enterobacteriaceae 3.​ Agent of peptic ulcer?
(Largest Family of Enteric ○​ Helicobacter pylori.
4.​ Which stage of typhoid fever is
Gram-Negative Bacteria) scybala evident?
○​ Early typhoid fever.
Escherichia coli ("E. coli") 5.​ Which Vibrio species is
considered a flesh-eating
●​ Normal flora of the GI tract. bacteria?
●​ Most common cause of UTI. ○​ Vibrio vulnificus.
●​ #2 cause of neonatal meningitis.

E. coli Biotypes and Infections

:
 Obligate
Mycobacterium Intracellular
Bacteria
Mycobacterium tuberculosis

●​ Obligate aerobe. Rickettsia

●​ Causes Tuberculosis (TB).
●​ Very short rods.
●​ Mode of Transmission (MOT):
●​ Transmitted through arthropod
Respiratory aerosol (airborne
vectors.
transmission).
●​ Diagnosed by the Weil-Felix Test.
●​ Diagnosed by the Tuberculin Skin
Test (Mantoux Test). Treatment
Treatment (Multi-Drug Therapy for 6 to 9 ●​ Drug of Choice (DOC):
months) Doxycycline.
●​ Alternative: Chloramphenicol.
●​ First-Line Drugs (RIPE):
○​ Rifampicin, Isoniazid, Rickettsial Species and Associated
Pyrazinamide, Ethambutol. Diseases
●​ Second-Line Drugs:
○​ Amikacin, Kanamycin, ●​ Rickettsia rickettsii – Rocky
Capreomycin. Mountain Spotted Fever.
●​ Third-Line Drugs: ●​ Rickettsia conorii – Mediterranean
○​ Rifabutin, Macrolides, Spotted Fever.
Linezolid. ●​ Rickettsia akari – Rickettsialpox.
●​ Rickettsia prowazekii – Epidemic
Typhus, Brill-Zinsser Disease.
●​ Rickettsia typhi – Endemic
Mycobacterium leprae Typhus.
●​ Orientia tsutsugamushi – Scrub
●​ Causes Leprosy (Hansen's
Typhus.
Disease).
●​ Mode of Transmission: Prolonged
contact with droplets from infected
individuals. Coxiella burnetii
●​ Slowest growing human bacterial
pathogen. ●​ Agent of Q fever ("Query Fever").
●​ Not cultivable in the laboratory. ●​ Highly transmissible infection.
●​ Treatment: Dapsone. ●​ Mode of Transmission:
○​ Inhalation of contaminated
particles.
 ○​ Ingestion of unpasteurized ○​ Perinatal transmission (via
milk. placenta, usually in the 3rd
month of pregnancy).
Treatment ○​ Blood transfusion (during
early syphilis).
●​ Drug of Choice (DOC): ●​ Diagnostic Tests: RPR, VDRL.
Doxycycline. ●​ Treatment: Penicillin G.

Stages of Syphilis

Chlamydia 1.​ Primary Stage – Hard chancre

(painless ulcer).
1.​ Chlamydia trachomatis​ 2.​ Secondary Stage – Condylomata
lata (wart-like lesions).
○​ Causes Trachoma (#1 3.​ Latent Stage – Asymptomatic, but
cause of preventable infection persists.
blindness). 4.​ Tertiary Stage – Formation of
○​ Causes Lymphogranuloma gummas (soft tumors).
venereum (STD).
2.​ Chlamydia psittaci​

○​ Causes Psittacosis (Parrot Borrelia burgdorferi

Fever/Ornithosis).
3.​ Chlamydia pneumoniae​ ●​ Causes Lyme Disease.
●​ Mode of Transmission: Tick bite.
○​ Causes sinusitis,
pharyngitis, acute Borrelia recurrentis
respiratory disease,
bronchitis, and pneumonia. ●​ Causes Relapsing Fever.
○​ Mode of Transmission: ●​ Mode of Transmission: Human
Human-to-human body louse.
transmission.

Leptospira interrogans

Spirochetes ●​ Tightly coiled spirochete with

hooked ends.
●​ Causes Leptospirosis.
Treponema pallidum ●​ Mode of Transmission:
Consumption of food/drinks
●​ Causes Syphilis. contaminated with rat urine.
●​ Modes of Transmission:
○​ Intimate contact (sexual
intercourse).
 2.​ Mold Form – Multicellular.
Mycoplasma
Mycoplasma pneumoniae

●​ Cell-wall deficient bacteria. Types of Mycoses

●​ Causes Primary Atypical
Pneumonia ("Walking
Pneumonia").
(Fungal Infections)
●​ Also associated with Cold
1.​ Superficial Mycoses – Limited to
Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia
the outermost layers of the skin and
(CAIHA).
hair.
●​ Mode of Transmission: Aerosol
2.​ Cutaneous Mycoses – Affect skin,
droplets.
hair, and nails.
●​ Treatment: Tetracycline,
3.​ Subcutaneous Mycoses – Involve
Macrolides, Fluoroquinolones.
deep layers of skin, muscle, and
●​ Penicillin/Beta-Lactam drugs are
connective tissue.
ineffective (due to lack of cell wall).
4.​ Systemic Mycoses – Affect
internal organs.
5.​ Opportunistic Mycoses – Affect
immunocompromised individuals.

Mycology (Study of
Fungi)
Opportunistic
General Characteristics
Mycoses
●​ Eukaryotic organisms (with a true
nucleus).
1. Cryptococcus neoformans
●​ Achlorophyllous (lack
chloroplasts).
●​ Common in AIDS patients.
●​ Obligate aerobes (require oxygen).
●​ Acquired from bird droppings.
●​ Saprophytic (live on decaying
●​ Causes pulmonary infections and
matter).
fungal meningitis.
●​ Thallophytes (lack roots and
●​ Treatment: Amphotericin B +
stems).
Flucytosine.
●​ Cell wall contains chitin.
●​ Cell membrane contains sterols
2. Candida albicans
(ergosterols).
●​ Most common fungal disease
Two Forms of Fungi worldwide.

1.​ Yeast Form – Unicellular.

 ●​ Mode of Transmission: Direct ●​ Traditionally grouped into:
invasion or dissemination. ○​ Amoeba
●​ Associated with Oral Thrush. ○​ Flagellates
●​ Risk Factors: Diabetes, ○​ Ciliates
immunocompromised state, ○​ Sporozoa
prolonged antibiotic use.
●​ Treatment: Amphotericin B, Helminths (Worms)
Ketoconazole, Fluconazole.
●​ Multicellular parasites.
3. Aspergillus spp. ●​ Includes three phyla:
○​ Nematodes (Roundworms)
●​ Causes Aspergillosis (affects ○​ Cestodes (Tapeworms)
lungs, ears, and nails). ○​ Trematodes (Flukes)
●​ Treatment: Corticosteroids,
Itraconazole, Amphotericin B.

4. Pneumocystis jirovecii

●​ Formerly classified as a
Protozoans
protozoan.
●​ Causes Pneumocystis Pneumonia Amoeba
(PCP).
●​ Major cause of death among AIDS
Entamoeba histolytica
patients.
●​ Treatment: Cotrimoxazole, ●​ Most common protozoan parasite
Pentamidine. of the large intestine.
●​ Only pathogenic Entamoeba
species.
Here’s your Parasitology notes, fully
Two Forms:
organized and formatted for easy studying:
●​ Cyst – Non-motile, non-feeding,
infective stage.
●​ Trophozoite – Motile, feeding
stage.
Parasitology
Pathology

Classification of Parasites 1.​ Amoebic Dysentery – Watery

stool with blood, pus, and mucus.
2.​ Extraintestinal Amoebiasis – Liver
Protozoa
invasion, forming anchovy
●​ Unicellular eukaryotes. sauce-like lesions.
●​ Motile unicellular organisms.
Treatment: Metronidazole.
 ○​ Vulvovaginitis (Itchiness,
burning sensation,
greenish-yellow purulent
Flagellates discharge).
○​ "Strawberry Cervix"
Giardia lamblia appearance.

●​ Other Names: Giardia intestinalis, Treatment: Metronidazole, Acidic

Giardia duodenalis, Lamblia Douche.
duodenalis, Cercomonas intestinalis.
●​ "Old Man with Eyeglasses"
appearance.
●​ Habitat: Duodenum, Jejunum,
Upper Ileum.
Ciliates
●​ Mode of Transmission (MOT):
Ingestion of cysts. Neobalantidium coli

Pathology – Giardiasis ●​ Largest intestinal protozoan.

●​ MOT: Ingestion of cysts.
●​ Traveler’s Diarrhea / Gay-Bowel
Syndrome. Pathology – Balantidiasis (Ciliary
●​ Acute Infection: Foul-smelling, Dysentery)
rotten egg odor of stool.
●​ Chronic Infection: Steatorrhea ●​ Severe diarrhea.
(fatty stools).
Treatment: Tetracycline, Metronidazole.
Treatment: Metronidazole.

Sporozoa
Trichomonas vaginalis

●​ Most common non-viral sexually

Malaria
transmitted infection.
●​ Leading parasitic disease causing
●​ Only pathogenic Trichomonas
mortality worldwide.
species.
●​ MOT: Bite of an infected female
●​ Habitat:
Anopheles mosquito.
○​ Males: Prostate gland.
○​ Females: Vagina. Causative Agents
●​ MOT: Sexual contact.
●​ Plasmodium falciparum – Most
Pathology – Trichomoniasis ("Ping-Pong common in the Philippines.
Disease") ●​ Plasmodium vivax – Most
common worldwide.
●​ Males: Often asymptomatic.
●​ Plasmodium malariae.
●​ Females:
 ●​ Plasmodium ovale (Rare).
●​ Plasmodium knowlesi.

Malaria Paroxysms (Symptoms)

Helminths
1.​ Cold Stage (Chills/Rigors):
Shivering, teeth chattering, (Parasitic Worms)
sudden coldness (15-60 min).
2.​ Hot Stage (Flush Phase): High
fever, confusion, delirium (2-6 Intestinal Nematodes
hours). (Roundworms)
3.​ Sweating Stage (Defervescence):
Profuse sweating, temperature
lowers (2-4 hours).
Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis
(STH)
Treatment
●​ MOT:
●​ Prophylaxis: Mefloquine, ○​ Ingestion of infective eggs
Doxycycline. from contaminated soil.
●​ Therapeutic: ○​ Skin penetration by
○​ Artemether-Lumefantrine – infective larvae.
First-line drug for P. ●​ Causative Agents:
falciparum. ○​ Ascaris lumbricoides (Giant
○​ Quinine + Intestinal Roundworm).
Doxycycline/Tetracycline – ○​ Trichuris trichiura
Second-line if AL fails. (Whipworm).
○​ Quinine IV Drip – Drug of ○​ Enterobius vermicularis
choice for severe P. (Pinworm/Seatworm/Tiwa).
falciparum malaria. ○​ Hookworms (Necator
○​ Primaquine – Given on the americanus, Ancylostoma
4th day to prevent duodenale).
transmission. ○​ Strongyloides stercoralis
(Threadworm).
Malaria Resistance Factors
Treatment: Mebendazole, Albendazole,
●​ Duffy-null phenotype (common in Ivermectin.
Africans & American Blacks) –
Resistant to P. vivax and P.
knowlesi.
●​ Sickle Cell Anemia – Resistant to
P. falciparum. Extraintestinal Nematodes
●​ G6PD Deficiency – Resistant to P. – Filariasis
falciparum.
●​ Infants (first year of life) – Natural ●​ Invasion of nematodes in the
resistance due to high HbF levels. lymphatics.
 ●​ MOT: Arthropod bites.

Causative Agents & Disease

Associations Trematodes
●​ Wuchereria bancrofti – Lower
Elephantiasis (Mosquito vector:
(Flukes)
Aedes, Anopheles, Culex).
●​ Brugia malayi – Upper Liver Flukes
Elephantiasis (Mosquito vector:
Mansonia, Anopheles). ●​ Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola
●​ Loa loa ("Eye Worm") – Calabar gigantica (MOT: Ingestion of
swelling (Vector: Deer Fly). infected vegetables).
●​ Onchocerca volvulus ●​ Clonorchis sinensis, Opisthorchis
("Convoluted Worm") – River felineus (MOT: Ingestion of
Blindness (Vector: Blackfly). infected fish).
●​ Associated with liver carcinoma.

Lung Fluke – Paragonimus

westermani
Cestodes ●​ MOT: Ingestion of

(Tapeworms) raw/undercooked crabs.

Blood Flukes – Schistosomiasis

Taenia solium ("Pork Tapeworm")
●​ Schistosoma japonicum, S.
●​ MOT: Ingestion of mansoni, S. haematobium (MOT:
raw/undercooked pork. Skin penetration of larvae).
●​ Causes:
○​ Taeniasis solium – Treatment for Flukes: Praziquantel.
Abdominal discomfort,
hunger, malabsorption.
○​ Cysticercosis – Larvae
migrate to organs,
including the brain. Virology
Taenia saginata ("Beef
Tapeworm") DNA Viruses (Mnemonic:
●​ MOT: Ingestion of
PaPaAdPoHeHe)
raw/undercooked beef.
●​ Papillomaviridae
●​ Longest tapeworm (up to 20
●​ Parvoviridae
meters).
●​ Adenoviridae
 ●​ Poxviridae 6. Herpesviridae
●​ Hepadnaviridae
●​ Herpesviridae ●​ Diseases:
○​ Chicken Pox
1. Papillomaviridae (Varicella-Zoster Virus).
○​ CMV Mononucleosis
●​ Diseases: (Cytomegalovirus).
○​ Warts (Human Papilloma ○​ Infectious Mononucleosis
Virus - HPV). (Kissing Disease)
○​ Hemorrhagic Cystitis (BK (Epstein-Barr Virus).
virus). ○​ Roseola Infantum (6th
○​ Progressive Multifocal Disease) (Human
Leukoencephalopathy (JC Herpesvirus 6).
virus).
○​ Merkel Cell Carcinoma (MC
virus).
RNA Viruses
2. Parvoviridae

●​ Diseases: Togaviridae
○​ Erythema Infectiosum (5th
Disease / Slapped Cheek ●​ Diseases:
Syndrome). ○​ Chikungunya Fever –
●​ Causative Agent: Parvovirus B19. Causes myositis and
arthritis.
○​ German Measles (Rubella).
3. Adenoviridae
●​ Mode of Transmission: Aedes
●​ Diseases: aegypti mosquito.
○​ Swimming Pool
Conjunctivitis. Flaviviridae (Arboviruses -
○​ Infantile Gastroenteritis. Arthropod-borne viruses)
●​ #1 cause of viral conjunctivitis.
●​ Diseases:
4. Poxviridae ○​ Dengue Fever (Dengue
virus).
●​ Disease: Smallpox (Eradicated ○​ Zika Virus Infection (Zika
worldwide). virus).
○​ Hepatitis C (Hepacivirus).
5. Hepadnaviridae ●​ Mode of Transmission for
Hepatitis C: Blood transfusion.
●​ Disease: Hepatitis B.
●​ Mode of Transmission (MOT): Bunyaviridae (Arboviruses -
Sexual contact, blood transfusion. Arthropod-borne viruses)
 ●​ Diseases: ○​ COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2).
○​ California Encephalitis (La
Crosse Encephalitis Virus).
○​ Hemorrhagic Fever Renal
Syndrome (Hantavirus).

Reoviridae

●​ Disease: Infantile Diarrhea

(Rotavirus).
●​ #1 cause of gastroenteritis among
infants during winter months.

Filoviridae

●​ Diseases:
○​ Ebola Virus Disease (Ebola
virus).
○​ Marburg Disease (Marburg
virus).

Rhabdoviridae

●​ Disease: Rabies (Rabies virus).

Retroviridae

●​ Diseases:
○​ HIV/AIDS (Human
Immunodeficiency Virus).
○​ T-cell Leukemia (Human
T-lymphotropic Virus).
Midterms cutie.
Coronaviridae

●​ Diseases:
○​ Common Colds
(Coronavirus).
○​ Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome (SARS)
(SARS-CoV-1).
○​ Middle East Respiratory
Syndrome (MERS)
(MERS-CoV).