1388 Chapter 18 Signal Generators and Waveform-Shaping Circuits

played by diode D1 for positive v I . We can use Eq. (18.7) to find the positive limiting level L+
 
R R
L+ = V 4 + VD 1 + 4 (18.9)
R5 R5

and the slope of the transfer characteristic in the positive limiting region is −(Rf  R4 )/R1 . We
thus see that the circuit of Fig. 18.4(a) functions as a soft limiter, with the limiting levels L+
and L− , and the limiting gains independently adjustable by the selection of appropriate resistor
values.
Finally, we note that increasing Rf results in a higher gain in the linear region while
keeping L+ and L− unchanged. In the limit, removing Rf altogether results in the transfer
characteristic of Fig. 18.4(c), which is that of a comparator. That is, the circuit compares
v I with the comparator reference value of 0 V: v I > 0 results in v O  L− , and v I < 0 yields
v O  L+ .

EXERCISE

18.4 For the circuit of Fig. 18.4(a) with V = 15 V, R1 = 30 k, Rf = 60 k, R2 = R5 = 9 k, and
R3 = R4 = 3 k, find the limiting levels and the value of v I at which the limiting levels are reached.
Also determine the limiter gain and the slope of the transfer characteristic in the positive and negative
limiting regions. Assume that VD = 0.7 V.
Ans. ±5.93 V; ±2.97 V; –2; –0.095

18.2 Op Amp–RC Oscillator Circuits

In this section we shall study some practical oscillator circuits utilizing op amps and RC
networks. These circuits are usually assembled on printed-circuit boards; their frequency of
operation extends from very low frequencies to at most 1 MHz.

18.2.1 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

One of the simplest oscillator circuits is based on the Wien bridge. Figure 18.5 shows a
Wien-bridge oscillator without the nonlinear gain-control network. The circuit consists of an
op amp connected in the noninverting configuration, with a closed-loop gain of 1 + R2 /R1 .
In the feedback path of this positive-gain amplifier, an RC network is connected. The loop
gain can be easily obtained by multiplying the transfer function Va (s)/Vo (s) of the feedback
network by the amplifier gain,
 
R Zp
L(s) = 1 + 2
R1 Zp + Zs
1 + R2 /R1
=
1 + Zs Yp
 18.2 Op Amp–RC Oscillator Circuits 1389




Figure 18.5 A Wien-bridge oscillator without amplitude stabilization.

Thus,
1 + R2 /R1
L(s) = (18.10)
3 + sCR + 1/sCR
Substituting s = jω results in
1 + R2 /R1
L(jω) = (18.11)
3 + j(ωCR − 1/ωCR)
The loop gain will be a real number (i.e., the phase will be zero) at one frequency given by
1
ω0 CR =
ω0 CR
That is,
ω0 = 1/CR (18.12)

Oscillations will start at this frequency if the loop gain is at least unity. This can be achieved
by selecting
R2 /R1 = 2 (18.13)

To ensure that oscillations will start, one chooses R2 /R1 slightly greater than 2. The reader can
easily verify that if R2 /R1 = 2 + δ, where δ is a small number, the roots of the characteristic
equation 1 − L(s) = 0 will be in the right half of the s plane.
The amplitude of oscillation can be determined and stabilized by using a nonlinear control
network. Two different implementations of the amplitude-controlling function are shown in
Figs. 18.6 and 18.7. The circuit in Fig. 18.6 employs a symmetrical feedback limiter of the
type studied in Section 18.1.4. It is formed by diodes D1 and D2 together with resistors R3 , R4 ,
R5 , and R6 . The limiter operates in the following manner: At the positive peak of the output
voltage v O , the voltage at node b will exceed the voltage v 1 (which is about 13 v O ), and diode D2
conducts. This will clamp the positive peak to a value determined by R5 , R6 , and the negative
power supply. To be specific, the value of the positive output peak can be calculated by setting
v b = v 1 + VD2 and writing a node equation at node b while neglecting the current through D2 .
Similarly, the negative peak of the output sine wave will be clamped to the value that causes
diode D1 to conduct. The value of the negative peak can be determined by setting v a = v 1 − VD1
1390 Chapter 18 Signal Generators and Waveform-Shaping Circuits

D21

R2

R1

Cs
Rs
Cp
Rp
16 nF

D2

Figure 18.6 A Wien-bridge oscillator with a limiter used for amplitude control.

THE The Wien bridge consisting of four resistors and two capacitors was invented in 1891 by
WIEN-BRIDGE Max Wien, a Prussian physicist, for inductance measurement. Much later, William
OSCILLATOR: Hewlett (cofounder in 1939 of Hewlett-Packard), while working toward his master’s
degree at Stanford University, realized the importance of placing part of the Wien bridge
in a positive-feedback loop to form what was called the Wien-bridge oscillator. The first
product in 1939 of the new Hewlett-Packard Company was the HP200A, a flexible,
precision sine-wave generator using vacuum tubes to implement the amplifier and a
tungsten lamp to control the loop gain and thus the amplitude of the sine wave.

EXERCISE

18.5 For the circuit in Fig. 18.6: (a) Disregarding the limiter circuit, find the location of the closed-loop
poles. (b) Find the frequency of oscillation. (c) With the limiter in place, find the amplitude of the
output sine wave (assume that the diode drop is 0.7 V).
Ans. (a) (10 /16)(0.015 ± j); (b) 1 kHz; (c) 21.36 V (peak-to-peak)
5
 18.2 Op Amp–RC Oscillator Circuits 1391

D1

D2

Rs

Cs
Cp
Rp
16 nF

Figure 18.7 A Wien-bridge oscillator with an alternative method for amplitude stabilization.

and writing an equation at node a while neglecting the current through D1 . Finally, note that
to obtain a symmetrical output waveform, R3 is chosen equal to R6 , and R4 equal to R5 .
The circuit of Fig. 18.7 employs an inexpensive implementation of the parameter-variation
mechanism of amplitude control. Potentiometer P is adjusted until oscillations just start to
grow. As the oscillations grow, the diodes start to conduct, causing the effective resistance
between a and b to decrease. Equilibrium will be reached at the output amplitude that causes the
loop gain to be exactly unity. The output amplitude can be varied by adjusting potentiometer P.
As indicated in Fig. 18.7, the output is taken at point b rather than at the op-amp output
terminal because the signal at b has lower distortion than that at a. To appreciate this point,
note that the voltage at b is proportional to the voltage at the op-amp input terminals and that
the latter is a filtered (by the RC network) version of the voltage at node a. Node b, however,
is a high-impedance node, and a buffer will be needed if a load is to be connected.

EXERCISE

18.6 For the circuit in Fig. 18.7, find the following: (a) the setting of potentiometer P at which oscillations
just start; (b) the frequency of oscillation.
Ans. (a) 20 k to ground; (b) 1 kHz

18.2.2 The Phase-Shift Oscillator

The basic structure of the phase-shift oscillator is shown in Fig. 18.8. It consists of a
negative-gain amplifier (–K) with a three-section (third-order) RC ladder network in the
feedback. The circuit will oscillate at the frequency for which the phase shift of the RC