Photo Courtesy: https://www.google.com.ph/search?

q=ecology+hd+nature+photo&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjWjdONmqvrAhUC9pQKHblOCI8Q2-

Sarah Jane S. Jucal, MEd.

Analyn C. Sa-an, MSci.
 Human knowledge and understanding of the importance of relationship
and interaction between organisms and the environment play a vital
role in human well-being and prosperity. Ecology is the scientific study
of the interaction between organisms and their environment. Both biotic
and abiotic factors are significant in maintaining balance in the
environment. Biomes are the environments that have characteristics of
not changing too much over time. There are few biomes in the world
like Aquatic (rivers, streams, lakes, open sea zone, deep-sea zone,
neritic zone) and Terrestrial (tundra, taiga, grassland, tropical
rainforest, temperate rainforest, and desert).

The energy that comes to the earth comes from the sun which means
the sun is the source of energy for the ecosystem. The feeding
relationship in an ecosystem is the food chain and food web. To
maintain the ecosystem many biochemical cycles are going on like
water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus and limited nutrients. Most of
the energy resources in our environment are affected by interacting
populations of the same or different species, hence the growth of the
size of the population of living things have a greater impact on the future
state of a particular area or habitat.

In this module, you will learn the following lessons:

Lesson 1 – Basic Ecological Terminologies
Lesson 2- The Ecosystem and Its Components
Lesson 3 - Energy Flow in Ecosystem
Lesson 4 – Population and Community Ecology

Module Outcomes:
At the end of the module, you must have:
1. defined ecological terms and concepts;
2. explained the components of Ecosystems;
3. described and differentiated the major types of the ecosystem;
4. examined the relationship of different organisms in an ecosystem;
5. illustrated and discussed the flow of energy in an ecosystem; and
6. discussed population and community ecology.

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Before you start with the lessons in this module, familiarize yourself with the terms listed
in Table 1.

Table 1. Terms you need to know in this module.

Any living organism that makes its own food by
Autotroph
converting simple inorganic molecules into complex
organic compounds like carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
An area of the planet that can be classified according to
Biome
the plants and animals that live in it.

An organism that only eats animal tissue. Most predators

Carnivore
and scavengers are exclusively carnivorous. Some
examples of carnivores include members of the feline
family, like lions, tigers, and house cats, and birds of
prey, like eagles, hawks, and owls
Community A group of two or more populations of organisms from
different species inhabiting the same location at the
same time

Consumers Animals of an ecological food chain that consume other

organisms.
Decomposer An organism that feeds on and breaks down dead or
decaying matter in the process of ecological
decomposition.

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Detritivore An organism that consumes detritus, also known as
decomposing organic matter, to obtain nutrients. All
decomposers are detritivores, including fungi, worms,
and some bacteria.

Ecosystem A term describing all the living and nonliving things in a

certain location.

Food chain A simple, direct, and eating or trophic relationship among

a group of organisms, where one organism, like a plant,
is the food source for the next organism, like a cow,
which in turn is the food source for the next organism,
like a human, and so on.

Food web A complex trophic relationship among a group of

organisms, consisting of interactions among multiple food
chains. A food web describes how multiple producers
and consumers directly or indirectly interact in an
ecosystem.

Population A group of individuals of the same species inhabiting the

same area.
Producers Also known as autotrophs, make their own food. They
make up the first level of every food chain

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 Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you must have:
1. defined ecological terms and concepts; and
2. explained the levels of organization from atoms to biosphere;

Ecology is a scientific field of study that explores the interactions between

organisms, like individuals, populations, or communities, and the abiotic
components in the environment, like chemicals, temperature, climate, and
landscapes. In studying these living and non-living components, some important
ecological terms and concepts should be explained and understood. The living and
non-living things are arranged from the simplest (atom) to most complex
(biosphere) in the levels of the organization.

Engage

Investigate the picture

Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=level
s+of+biological+organization&source

What do you know about this picture?

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Explore

Think of 10 commonly used ecological terms that you can still remember from your
biology subject. List down and define them.

Explain

Ecology is a study of the relationships between living organisms, including

humans, and their physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital
connections between plants and animals and the world around them. In effect, it
is a study of connections in nature. To enhance their understanding of nature,
scientists classify matter into levels of organization from atoms to the biosphere.
Ecologists focus on organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, and the
biosphere (Table 2)

Table 2. Levels of Organization

Parts of the earth's air, water, and soil

Biosphere
where life is found

A community of different species

interacting with one another and with
Ecosystem
their non-living environment of matter
and energy

Populations of different
species living in a particular
Community
place, and potentially
interacting with each other

A group of individuals of the

Population same species living in a
particular place

Organism An individual living being

The fundamental structural

Cell
and functional unit of life
Chemical combination of two
Molecule or more atoms of the same or
different elements
The smallest unit of a chemical
Atom element that exhibits its
chemical properties

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Elaborate

In your local area, select a specific ecosystem then write the different levels of the
organization as to (example, ecosystem- terrestrial, community - lions and
elephants, population- lion, organism-lion).

Ecosystem Community Population Organism

Write a song with a tune of “Bahay Kubo” based on the organisms found in your
chosen ecosystem.

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Evaluate

Name: Date:
Program and Section: Score:

I. Multiple Choice
Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it on the space provided
before each number.

___1.Any living organism that makes its own food by converting simple inorganic
molecules into complex organic compounds like carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins.
A. Autotrophs C. Decomposer
B. Consumers D. Detrivore

___2. The smallest unit of a chemical element that exhibits its chemical
properties.
A. Cell C. Molecule
B. Atom D. Organism

___3. A complex trophic relationship among a group of organisms, consisting of

interactions among multiple food chains.
A. Food web C. Both A and B
B. Food chain D. None of these

___4. An area of the planet that can be classified according to the plants and
animals that live in it.
A. Earth C. Biome
B. Atmosphere D. all of the above

___5. Also known as autotrophs, make their own food. They make up the first
level of every food chain.
A. Producer C. Decomposer
B. Consumer D. Detrivore

___6.It is a study of the relationships between living organisms, including

humans, and their physical environment.
A. Biology C. Ecology
B. Geoscience D. None of these

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___7.What is the correct order of organization from least to most complex?
A. Population-community-biosphere
B. Atom-molecule-cell-organism
C. atom-cell-molecule-organism
D. cell-atom-molecule-organism

___8. A group of toads falls under which level of organization?

A. Population C. Community
B. Biome D. Biosphere

___9. A term describing all the living and non-living things in a certain location.
A. Community C. Organism
B. Population D. Ecosystem

___10. An individual living being.

A. Community C. Organism
B. Population D. Ecosystem

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 Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you must have:
1. defined an ecosystem;
2. differentiated biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem;
3. explained the different major types of an ecosystem;
4. described the nature of each ecosystem;
.

The ecosystem is made up of both biotic (living) and abiotic components. These
biotic and abiotic components interact to maintain equilibrium in an ecosystem.
There are different types of ecosystems and each has unique environmental
conditions characterized by a distinct climate, soil, topography and distribution of
plants and animals.

Engage

Have you ever been on a team, a sports team, perhaps? What is it like? Is it
different than trying to do something alone? How is it better? We are going to try
to understand how things in the environment work together, similar to how a team
works together to try to win a basketball or soccer game. We call this special
interaction among people and living and non-living things, teamwork

Explore

Lists down at least five living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) factors found in your
area.

Living (Biotic factor) Non-living (Abiotic factor)

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Explain

I. Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a group or community composed of living and non-living things
that interacts with one another. They can be natural as well as artificial. Every
ecosystem has two components, namely, biotic components and abiotic
components. Biotic components refer to all living organisms in ecology while
abiotically refers to the non-living things. These biotic and abiotic interactions
maintain the equilibrium in the environment.

II. Components of Ecosystem

Biotic components are the living things that have a direct or indirect influence
on other organisms in an environment. For example plants, animals and
microorganisms and their waste materials.
Abiotic components of an ecosystem include all chemical and physical
elements i.e. non-living components. Abiotic components can vary from region
to region, from one ecosystem to another. They mainly take up the role of life
supporter. They determine and restrict the population growth, number, and
diversity of biotic factors in an ecosystem. Hence they are called limiting
factors.
A terrestrial ecosystem consists of abiotic factors like climate, type of soil or
rock, altitude, temperature, nutrients, and minerals, whereas abiotic
components in an aquatic ecosystem include dissolved gases, depth of water,
salinity, pH of water, light intensity, etc.
III. The Significance of Biotic and Abiotic Components
A. Biotic components can be classified into three categories:
 Producers: These include all the autotrophs. They use light
energy and synthesize food on their own, e.g. plants, green
algae, etc.
 Consumers: These include all the heterotrophs that directly or
indirectly depend on producers for their food. Consumers are
further categorized as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and
parasites.
 Decomposers: These include saprophytes which act on dead
matter and decay them for their nutrition.
The relevance of biotic and abiotic components in an environment appears
when they start interacting with each other. For example, biotic elements like
plants provide food for other organisms. The soil is the abiotic element that
supports the growth of the plants by providing nutrients and other essential
elements. Biotic components depend on abiotic components for their survival
and help in the formation of abiotic factors like soil, nutrients, etc.

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IV. Food Chains and Webs
A food chain is a chain that shows how organisms are linked to each other
through food. A food web (Figure 2.2) shows how two food chains are
connected. A single food web consists of many food chains. Every food chain
begins with producers and ends with top carnivores.

Figure 2.1. A food chain showing the relationship of different organisms.

Source:https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/802414858580466591/?nic_v2=1a2XfnW5s

A food web links all of the food chains in an ecosystem together, showing a
more holistic view of energy transfer in the ecosystem.

Figure 2.2. A food web showing the relationship of different organism

Source:https://www.pinterest.com.au/pin/141863456998136368/?nic_v2=1a2XfnW5s

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 The energy flow from one level to another level in a food chain gives the trophic
level of an ecosystem. The producers come at the first trophic level followed by
herbivores (primary consumers), then small carnivores (secondary consumers)
and large carnivores (tertiary consumers) occupy the fourth trophic level.
V. Trophic Levels

Each step in a food chain or food web is a trophic level. As you increase the
trophic level, the amount of energy decreases.

Figure 2.3. The trophic level and amount of energy as the level increases.
Source: https://www.askiitians.com/revision-notes/class-10-science/our-environment/

VI. Major Types of Ecosystem: Biomes and Aquatic Life Zones

Life exists on land systems called biomes and in freshwater ocean aquatic
zones. As viewed from outer space, the earth resembles land and vast
expanses of ocean. Biologists have classified the land (terrestrial) portion of
the biosphere into biomes. Each of these large regions –such as forests,
deserts, and grasslands- is characterized by a distinct climate and specific
species. The watery part of the biosphere is divided into aquatic life zones,
each containing numerous ecosystems. Examples included freshwater zones
(such as lakes and streams) and ocean or marine life zones (such as coral
reefs, coastal estuaries, and the deep ocean).

Biomes consist of broad regional groups of related manageable units called

ecosystems. A biome is one of several terrestrial environments, a habitat
characterized throughout its extent by similar paths, animals, climate and

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 social types. The distribution of animals and plant forms is determined largely
by climate, topography and the soil. The same or very similar ecological niches
may be occupied by different species in geographically separated biomes.

VII. Major Types of Biomes

A. Deserts
Deserts generally occur in semi-tropical and temperate regions having
rainfall of less than about 20 cm a year. Its climate has the least
precipitations and is unpredictable from year to year. Precipitation is so
slow that in some desserts, evaporation from soil and plant surface
exceeds precipitation. There are two kinds of deserts:

 Cool Deserts – these are dominated by sagebrush, rabbitbrush

and smaller perennial plants
 Hot Deserts – these are dominated by creosote, cacti, acacias,
agave and yucca.

Desert soil is largely unprotected by vegetation. It is subject to severe

erosion from wind and occasional rain. It has a thin top layer of decaying
plant materials called humus.

Organisms of the desert have both structural and behavioral adaptations

to meet their three most critical needs for survival: food, water, and heat.
Plants with seasonal leaf production have water-storage tissues and
thick epidermal layers that help reduce water loss. Animals live in
burrows or rocky shelters to escape from the onslaught of the daytime
heat.

B. Grasslands

Grasslands are dominated by grasses and a rich array of deep-rooted

beautifully flowering non-grass species. They have a few trees because
of inadequate rainfall and frequent grass fire that kill woody seedlings.

C. Forests

Forests are regions where trees grow as a result of adequate

temperature and minimal precipitation of 75 centimeters or more.

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D. Tropical Biomes

 Tropical Rainforest is a forest with high, fairly constant rainfall and

temperature that permit trees to grow throughout the year. Annual
rainfall may exceed 400 centimeters. This is a biome with the
highest species diversity. The number of species in a given area
may have almost 100 different species per hectare.
 Tropical seasonal forest is also known as the monsoon forest.
Seasonal rainfall is concentrated during part of the year after
which follows as an increasingly pronounced dry season. The
proportion of deciduous trees (trees that lose their lives for a
season) increases as the length of the dry season increases.
 Tropical savanna consists of grassland dotted with scattered
small trees and shrubs such as acacias. Some savannas are
entirely grassland; others contain many trees.
 Tropical Thornwood, shrubland and tropical shrub. The
proportion of trees depends on the competition between trees
and the grass for water. The soil is more fertile than most tropical
rainforests, but the rainfall is erratic.

E. Temperate Biomes

 Temperate deciduous forest occurs in a moderately humid area

where precipitation takes place throughout the year but winters
are cold restricting plant growth during summers. Most of the
trees lose their leaves in autumn. They lose little water by
transpiration in winter where their roots could not replace it from
the frozen soil.
 Temperate evergreen forest occurs where the condition favors
conifers or broadleaf evergreens over deciduous trees. It has
poor soil condition, frequent droughts, and forest fires
 Temperate rainforest occurs in cold climates near the sea with
abundant winter rainfall and summer clouds or fogs.
 Temperate woodland occurs where the climate is too dry to
support a forest yet provides sufficient moisture to support trees
as well as grasses. Dominant trees are conifers, evergreens,
flowering trees, and deciduous trees.
 Temperate shrublands is represented by Chaparral communities
that occur in all five regions of the world having a fairly dry climate
with little or no summer rain.
 Temperate grassland is also known variably as a prairie in North
America, steppe in Asia, pampas in South America, and veldt in

| 15
 South Africa. The grasslands are natural ranges for grazing
animals, but they must be treated with care or they degrade into
shrubland.
F. Taiga
Taiga came from the Russian word meaning “primeval forest’. It is also
called the boreal forest. It is dominated by conifers that can survive
extreme cold winter. The trees in the taiga are further apart than in the
forest and enough sunlight penetrates the forest floor to support an
extensive ground cover for the shrubs. Most taiga precipitations are
snow. The mammal’s grown hair or plumage makes them blend in a
surrounding with white background.
G. Tundra
The tundra is a treeless biome that occurs far north in the Arctic regions
where winters are too dry and cold to permit the growth of trees. It is a
biome of low-growing plants where the water reaches plant roots for only
a few months of the year because the soil is frozen for the rest of the
time. The permanently frozen layer is permafrost

Elaborate

In your local ecosystem, illustrate a simple food chain and food web and label the
trophic levels.

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Evaluate

Name: Date:
Program and Section: Score:

I. Matching Type
A. Match each item with the correct statement below. Write only the letter
corresponding to your answer.

a. temperate grassland d. tropical rain forest

b. coniferous forest e. savanna
c. tundra

_____1. It has the greatest biological diversity of any land biome

_____2. It has trees with cones
_____3. It has a variety of grasses as its main plants
_____4. It has mosses, lichens, and low growing shrubs in the warm season
_____5. It has large grazing animals

B. Match each item with the correct statement below. Write only the letter
corresponding to your answer

a. temperate deciduous forest d. savanna

b. coniferous forest e. desert
c. temperate grassland

____ 6. It has grass, but few trees due to fires, drought, and grazing
____ 7. It has many trees that do not change much seasonally
____ 8. It has organisms with special adaptations to a hot, dry climate
____ 9. It has clumps of trees and seasonal rains
____10. It has many trees that lose all of their leaves to save

Supplementary Notes
The following are suggested video links for further learning:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bn41lXKyVWQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E6WdEyt93vA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mle5gmEpYys
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yy191KVBNP0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pNxgY4Ru3gs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUmHWrF8MnY

| 17
 Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you must have:
1. explained how energy flow in an ecosystem; and
2. illustrated and discussed the different cycles of matter;

An ecological balance is maintained through the energy flow in the ecosystem. The
energy that is found in food webs comes from the sun and transformed into chemical
energy through photosynthesis. In an ecosystem, matter cycling happens
when matter moves from one form to another or from one place to another.
These cycles are also called biogeochemical cycles because they include a variety
of biological, geological, and chemical processes. The four biogeochemical cycles
are water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles. These
biogeochemical cycles transport and store important elements to be used by living
organisms.

Engage

What is the cycle? Do you ever wonder how energy is produced, utilized and
returned in an ecosystem?

Explore

Explain briefly the life cycle of plants. (This is an example of what we call cycle)
Illustrate a simple food chain. (This is how energy flows in an ecosystem)

Explain

I. Producers provide energy for other organisms in an ecosystem.

All organisms must have a source of energy to survive. However, not all
organisms obtain their energy by eating other organisms.

Producers are organisms that get their energy from non-living resources,
meaning they make their own food. Producers are also called autotrophs. In
the word autotroph, the suffix -troph comes from a Greek word meaning
“nourishment.” The prefix auto- means “self.”

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II. Consumers are organisms that get their energy by eating other living or once-
living resources, such as plants and animals. Consumers are also called
heterotrophs. In the word heterotroph, the prefix hetero- means “different.”
Most producers need sunlight to make food. These producers depend directly
on the sun as their source of energy. For this reason, all the consumers
connected to these producers depend indirectly on the sun for their energy.

III. Cycles of Matter:

Matter is recycled within the ecosystem and it is done through Biogeochemical

Cycles. This is the way that water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycle
through the atmosphere.

A. Water Cycle

All living things depend on water. It is through the processes of

condensation, evaporation, and precipitation that water cycles pass
through in the atmosphere.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cycle#/media/File:Watercyc lesummary.jpg

| 19
B. Carbon Cycle

All living things are made up of carbon, which makes it important. In

the carbon cycle, there are 4 major processes:
 Photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition.
Photosynthesis is the process by which energy from the sun is
used to form bonds of chemical energy that hold organic matter
together.
 Erosion and volcanic activity
 Burial and Decomposition of dead organisms and their
conversion into coal and petroleum
 Human activities such as mining, cutting and burning forests,
and burning fossil fuels, releasing carbon into the atmosphere
as carbon dioxide.
The key processes in the carbon cycle are: Carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere is converted into plant material in the biosphere
by photosynthesis. While organisms in the biosphere obtain energy
by respiration and so release carbon dioxide that was originally trapped
by photosynthesis. Respiration happens when plants convert
the carbon in atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbon-containing organic
compounds, such as sugars, fats, and proteins.)

Figure 2.5. The Carbon cycle

Source :https://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Water/co2_
cycle.html

| 20
C. Nitrogen Cycle
In the nitrogen cycle, there are two processes that help gaseous
nitrogen come into our soil.
Nitrogen fixation: bacteria which turn nitrogen gas into ammonia. This
ammonia is then converted to nitrates and nitrites by other bacteria.
Denitrification: process where bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen
gas.

Figure 2.6. The Nitrogen cycle

Source: https://www.fredericknewspost.com/news/environment/the-
nitrogen-cycle-and-trees/article_892f760f-f004-58b8-a223-684
b5c3d9fdc.html

| 21
 D. Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus helps form DNA and RNA
Phosphorus does NOT enter the atmosphere (like water, carbon,
oxygen and nitrogen)
Phosphorus exists as phosphate and is found in rocks, soil and ocean
sediments (sand)
Phosphate is used by producers and then moves up through the
food chain

Figure 2.7. The Phosphorus cycle

Source: https://qforquestions.com/sedimentary-cycle/phosphorus-cycle/

Elaborate

Choose one among Nitrogen, Carbon, Phosphorus cycle then create a collage or
a digital version (powerpoint, MSword, video) of cycle explaining each step.

| 22
Evaluate

Name: Date:
Program and Section: Score:

I. Multiple Choice

Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it on the space provided
before each number.
___1. What step of the water cycle is when plants gives off water vapor from
photosynthesis?
A. Evaporation C. Condensation
B. Transpiration D. Sublimation

___2. Oxidation of ammonium salts to nitrites and further oxidation of nitrites to

nitrates.
A. Ammonification C. Nitrification
B. Nitrogen fixation D. Decomposition

___3. Decomposition with the production of ammonia especially in the action of

bacteria.
A. Ammonification C. Nitrification
B. Nitrogen fixation D. Decomposition

___4. Which part of the carbon cycle occurs when plants convert sunlight and
C02 into oxygen and sugar?
A. Photosynthesis C. Respiration
B. Combustion D. all of the above

___5. Without phosphorus, living beings cannot grow, reproduce, or move. This
is because phosphorus___________________.
A. forms part of the structure of DNA and RNA.
B. is needed for energy transport in cells.
C. provides structure to cell membranes.
D. All of the above

___6. Which nutrient cycle does not have a troposphere in its processes?
A. Nitrogen C. Carbon
B. Phosphorus D. Water

| 23
 ___7. Which of the following is known as the “sedimentary” cycle because its
reservoir is sedimentary rocks?
A. Sulfur C. Nitrogen
B. Phosphorus D. Carbon

___8. The process by which a gas changes into a liquid?

A. Precipitation C. Evaporation
B. Condensation D. all of the above

___9. One of the main ways CO2 is removed from the atmosphere is ____.
A. Photosynthesis C. Respiration
B. Combustion D. Decomposition

___10. The process in which nitrogen is circulated and recycled is called?

A. Sulfur Cycle C. Nitrogen Cycle
B. Phosphorus Cycle D. Carbon Cycle

Supplementary Notes
The following are suggested video links for further learning:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jFjI6y46QRk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ccWUDlKC3dE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_dYkByQ9Kmg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DsCMYyQ0NWU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tm2LG5ScT1g

| 24
 Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you must have:
1. defined and differentiated population and community ecology;
2. identified the factors that affect the population growth;
3. described interactions between and within species in a
community; and
4. calculated the index of diversity based on species richness and
relative abundance.

Humans have always been one of the greatest factors in the degradation of energy
resources. The use of resources in the community is vastly affected by the growth
of the size of the population of living things. Studying the degree of this growth may
serve as a warning of what would happen in the future if living things especially
humans will continue to increase their population dramatically.

Engage

In your understanding, what is Population? What is Community?

Explore

Watch the video link and answer the guide questions.

Organism, Population, Community: What is the difference?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ClLHcSXzRos
Guide Questions
1. What is the difference between Population and Community?
2. Give at least three examples of each concept

Explain

I. Population Ecology

The population in human demography is a set of humans in a given area. In

genetics, a population is a group of isolated interbreeding individuals. Population
ecology is a group of similar species living in a certain place at the same time.
Examples would be all the cats in the house, all the maya birds in the campus, all

| 25
the narra tree in a province, all the tilapia in the Philippines and all the bees in the
world.

II. Population Distribution, Density and Size

A. Population Distribution

Characterized by where organisms are found on earth and are

determined by biotic and or abiotic factors, it is also about where a
particular species of the organism does occur. The spatial relationships
of individual organisms to one another may take several different forms
and it is called dispersion.

Dispersion is the spatial distribution of individuals of a population and

comes in three general kinds of patterns (Figure 2.8):

 Clumped (aggregated) dispersion occurs when individuals

clumped together or clustered in groups. A clumped dispersion
may be seen in plants that drop their seeds straight to the
ground—such as oak trees—or animals that live in groups—
schools of fish or herds of cows. Clumped dispersions also
happen in patchy habitats, with only some patches that are
suitable to live in.
 Regular dispersion occurs when individuals are of the same
distance from one another. One example of regular dispersion
comes from plants that secrete toxins to inhibit the growth of
nearby individuals—a phenomenon called allelopathy. We can
also find regular dispersion in animal species where individuals
stake out and defend territories.
 Random dispersion occurs when the habitat of the organism is
relatively uniform so individuals are neither repelled nor attracted
to one another. In random dispersion, individuals are distributed
randomly, without a predictable pattern. An example of random
dispersion comes from dandelions and other plants that have
wind-dispersed seeds. The seeds spread widely and sprout
where they happen to fall, as long as the environment is
favorable—has enough soil, water, nutrients, and light.

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Clumped dispersion Regular dispersion Random dispersion

Figure 2.8. Patterns of Distribution

Source: https://www.unbc.cal/sites/default/files/sections/cheelkin
/biol410lecture2publish.pdf

B. Population Density
Population Density is the number of individuals per unit area or unit
volume. It describes the degree of the crowdedness of a population in a
given area.
Population Size pertains to the number of individuals in a population.
Examples of these are the number of people in the Philippines, the
number of cats, acacia tree, and even the number of milkfish.
These are the four primary factors that determine population size:
 Natality is the addition of organisms to the population through
reproduction. Many organisms reproduce fast and some may not,
this is the reason why some organisms are more than the others.
Natality increase population density.
 Mortality is losing a member of the population due to death. It can
decrease population density.
 Immigration is the addition of organisms because of the
movement of an organism from one place to another. It has the
same effect as natality.
 Emigration is the loss of individuals that move out of the
population and has same effect as mortality.

C. Population Growth
Growth is an important feature of the population since the increase or
decrease of population size determines the interaction with other
populations in the community and its impact on the environment.

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III. Carrying Capacity defined as the capacity of the environment or an ecosystem
to support and sustain a level of the population under an ideal set of conditions.
The carrying capacity of the Earth is calculated to be 8-15 billion, that when it is
surpassed, there will be consequences such as food shortage and shelter
shortage. To sustain a certain environment, organisms that should only be the one
that would live in that particular place.
IV. Limiting Factor are somewhat tied to carrying capacity. For instance, animals
increase rapidly and may temporarily exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat
so as a result, organisms may experience anxiety, hunger, sickness, poor
reproductive success, and damage to the habitat. For example, multiplying
grasshoppers can very quickly eat all the vegetation in a farm but with the
vegetation gone, food becomes the limiting factor and the grasshoppers may
starve or move to another area, thus the farm has a reduced carrying capacity
relative to the grasshoppers.
V. Community Ecology

There are several populations in an area. In a grassland, one would find

populations of grasshoppers, frogs, snakes, grasses, herbs and shrubs, and many
others. Together, all these populations would form an ecological or biotic
community. In other words, Community Ecology is the study of the organization
and functioning of communities, which are assemblages of interacting populations
of the species living within a particular area or habitat.
VI. Community Interactions
Interspecific interactions affect the survival and reproduction of the species that
engage in them. As shown in Table 3, these interactions can be grouped into three
broad categories: competition, exploitation, and positive interactions.

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Table 3. Interspecific interaction
Interaction Description
Competition (-/-) Two or more species compete for a
resource that is in short supply.
Example: Rice and weeds
competing for light and nutrients
found in soil.

Exploitation (+/-) One species benefits by feeding

upon the other species, which is
harmed. Exploitation includes the
following:

Predation One species, the predator, kills and

eats the other, the prey. Example:
A snake (predator) eating a bird
(prey).

Herbivore An herbivore eats part of a plant or

alga. Example: A cow (herbivore)
eating grass.

Parasitism The parasite derives its

nourishment from a second
organism, its host, which is
harmed. Example: A leech is found
feeding on a frog's blood

Positive interactions (+/+ or 0/+) One species benefits while the

other species benefits or are not
harmed. Positive interactions
include the following:

Mutualism (+/+) Both species benefit from the

interaction. Example: A clownfish
live within the protective tentacles
of the sea anemone. In return, the
sea anemone receives cleaning
and protection.

Commensalism (+/0) One species benefits, while the

other is not affected. Example: The
cattle egrets eat the insects that is
stirred up by cattle when they are
grazing. The cattle are unaffected,
while the birds gain food.

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VII. Species Diversity
Species Diversity of a community is the variety of different kinds of organisms that
make up the community. It has two components: the species richness and relative
abundance. Species richness is the number of different species in the community.
The relative abundance of the different species is the total number of individuals
of a species with relation to the total number of individuals of all species in a given
area or community.
Imagine two small forest communities, each with 100 individuals distributed among
four tree species (A, B, C, and D) as follows:
Community 1: 25A, 25B, 25C, 25D
Community 2: 80A, 5B, 5C, 10D
The species richness is the same for both communities because they both contain
four species of trees, but the relative abundance is very different.
Relative abundance= Total # of individuals of a species
Total # of individual of all species

In community 1, the relative abundance of species A is 0.25

Relative abundance=25/100=0.25
In community 2, the relative abundance of species A is 0.8
Relative abundance= 80/100= 0.8

Ecologists use many tools to compare the diversity of communities across time
and space. They often calculate indexes of diversity based on species richness
and relative abundance. One widely used index is Shannon diversity (H):
H = -(pA ln pA + pB ln pB + pC ln pC + c)
where A, B, C . . . are the species in the community, p is the relative abundance of
each species, and In is the natural logarithm; the ln of each value of p can be
determined using the “ln” key on a scientific calculator. A higher value of H
indicates a more diverse community. Let’s use this equation to calculate the
Shannon diversity index of the two communities
For community 1, p = 0.25 for each species, so H = -4(0.25 ln 0.25) = 1.39.
For community 2, H = -[0.8 ln 0.8 + 2(0.05 ln 0.05) + 0.1 ln 0.1] = 0.71.
These calculations confirm our intuitive description of community 1 as more
diverse.

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Elaborate

Compute the index of diversity

1. Grassland 1 has 100 individuals distributed among four species: 20A, 25B,
25C, and 30D. Grassland 2 has 100 individuals distributed among three
species: 80A, 15B, and 5C. Calculate the Shannon diversity (H) for each
grassland. Which is more diverse?

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Evaluate

Name: Date:
Program and Section: Score:

I. Multiple Choice

Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it on the space
provided before each number.
___1. The group of similar species living in a certain place at the same time.
A. Community C. Organism
B. Population D. Biosphere

___2. Both species benefit from the interaction.

A. Commensalism C. Mutualism
B. Predation D. Herbivore

___3. It occurs when individuals clumped together or clustered in groups.

A. Random distribution C. Regular distribution
B. Clumped distribution D. Irregular distribution

___4. It is the variety of different kinds of organisms that make up the community.
A. Species richness C. Relative abundance
B. Species diversity D. all of the above

___5. Addition of organisms to the population through reproduction

A. Mortality C. Natality
B. Immigration D. Emigration

___6.A leech is found feeding on a frog's blood. What type of interaction is this?
A. Mutualism C. Herbivore
B. Parasitism D. Predation

___7. It is the study of the organization and functioning of communities, which are
assemblages of interacting populations of the species living within a
particular area or habitat.
A. Community Ecology C. Community
B. Population Ecology D. Population

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 ___8. It is the number of different species in the community.
C. Species richness C. Relative abundance
D. Species diversity D. all of the above

___9. The cow is eating grass. What type of interaction?

A. Mutualism C. Herbivore
B. Parasitism D. Predation

___10. Ants are an example of a community or population?

A. Community C. Organism
B. Population D. Biosphere

Supplementary Notes
The following are suggested video links for further learning:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s4Ty2Oo7MnI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1aRSeT-mQE

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References

Campbell, N. A., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P.V., and
Reece, J.B. (2018) Biology A Global Approach 11th Edition. Pearson
Education Limited. New York. 1270-1293 pp

Guido, R. M. D., Garcia, R. E., Meneses, J. L., Quilang, A. B.,and Binag, N. D.

(2015). Fundamentals of Environmental Science. Books Atbp. Publishing
Corp. 179 pp

Lee, S.J. and Anes, M.L. (2010). Lecture Notes in Environmental Science. The
Economy of Nature and Ecology of Man. 2dn Ed. C& E. Publishing, Inc.
257 pp

Miller, G. T. Jr. and Spoolman, S.E. (2009) .Essentials of Ecology. Brooks/Cole.

Cengage Learning. USA.. 274 pp

Miller, G. T. Jr. (2006). Environmental Science, Working with the Earth. 11th Ed.
Brooks/Cole. Thomson Learning. USA.436

Tayo, G. T., Gascon, C. N., Maglambayan, V. B., Novicio, L. P. and Viril, V. M.

(2004) Fundamentals of Environmental Science.Trinitas Publishing Inc.
141 pp

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s4Ty2Oo7MnI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1aRSeT-mQE
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lnAKICtJIA4
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sV-KQ91Fnck
https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/
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https://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Water/co2_cycle.html

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 https://qforquestions.com/sedimentary-cycle/phosphorus-cycle/
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trees/article_892f760f-f004-58b8-a223-684b5c3d9fdc.html
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yy191KVBNP0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pNxgY4Ru3gs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUmHWrF8MnY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jFjI6y46QRk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ccWUDlKC3dE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_dYkByQ9Kmg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DsCMYyQ0NWU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tm2LG5ScT1g

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