D.

C Circuits
3.1 Concept of DC voltage & current.

3.2 Resistance in series, properties of series circuit, voltage distribution in series circuit,
equivalent resistance of series circuit, Applications of series circuits.

3.3 Resistance in parallel, properties of parallel circuit, current distribution in parallel circuit,
equivalent resistance of parallel circuit, Applications of parallel circuits.

3.4 Series-parallel combination, Equivalent resistance of seriesparallel combination.

Application of ohm’s law for simple DC circuits (Numerical problems based on

3.4)

3.5 Types Of DC Electric Current source, Ideal voltage source, Practical Voltage Source, Ideal
current source, Practical current Source, Source transformation.

3.6 Concept of Open circuit and short circuit.

Resistance in series ( Series circuit)
⚫
Properties of Series Circuit
The same current flows through each part of a series circuit.
The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistances
The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers dissipated in individual
resistances
Voltage applied to a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + …..+ Vn

Voltage distribution in series circuit-

Mathematically, we can express it as
By using Ohm’s law the individual voltage drops can be calculated as

Application of Voltage in Series Circuits

The application of voltages in series circuits include:
Voltage divider.
Fire alarm battery.
Batteries in remote, toys etc.
Lighting purposes in a train, Christmas tree etc.
Resistances in parallel (Parallel circuit)
When two or more electrical components are connected in a way that one end of each
component is connected to a common point and the other end is connected to another
common point, then the electrical components are said to be connected in parallel, and such
an electrical DC circuit is referred as a parallel DC circuit.
In this circuit, every component will have the same voltage drop across them, and it will be
exactly equal to the voltage which occurs between the two common points where the
components are connected.
Also in a parallel DC circuit, the current has several parallel paths through these
parallel-connected components, so the circuit current will be divided into as many paths as
the number of components.
The voltage drop across each component is equal. Again as per Ohm’s law, the voltage drop
across any resistive component is equal to the product of its electrical resistance and current
through it.
Suppose three resistors R1, R2, and R3 are connected in parallel across a voltage source of V
(volt) as shown in the figure. Let I (Ampere) be the total circuit current which is divided
into current I1, I2, and I3 flowing through R1, R2, and R3 respectively. Now according to
Ohm’s law:
The voltage drop across resistor R1, V = I1.R1
The voltage drop across resistor R2, V = I2.R2
The voltage drop across resistor R3, V = I3.R3
The voltage drop across the whole parallel DC circuit,
V = Voltage drop across resistor R1 = voltage drop across resistor R2 = voltage drop across
resistor R3
⇒ V = I1.R1 = I2.R2 = I3.R3

Thus when a number of resistors are connected in

parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is
given by the arithmetic sum of the reciprocals of their
individual resistances.
Properties of a Parallel Circuit
Voltage is the same across each branch in a parallel circuit.
The total current is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents.
The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances
The total resistance of the circuit is always less than the smallest of the resistances.
If n resistors, each of resistance R, are connected in parallel, then total resistance RP = R/n
Total power is equal to the sum of the power dissipated by each branch resistance.

Application of Parallel circuit:-

There are various applications of parallel circuits and are used almost everywhere. Some of
them are listed below:
(1)Home Appliances
(2)Power Grids
(3) Decoration lighting
Series-Parallel Circuit
This circuit is a combination of series and parallel circuits.
Resistor circuits that combine series and parallel resistors networks
together are generally known as Resistor Combination or mixed
resistor circuits.
Such combined series and parallel circuits can be solved by proper
application of Ohm’s law and the rules for series and parallel circuits to
the various parts of the complex circuit.
we now know that resistors in series carry exactly the same current and
that resistors in parallel have exactly the same voltage across them.
 In above circuit, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel
R1 is connected in series with parallel combination of R2
and R3
So equivalent resistance of this series parallel combination
is given by Rt= R1 + R2 II R3
Rt= R1 + ( 1/R2 +1/R3) = R1 + R2R3 /R2 +R3

In above circuit, 12 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in parallel

3, 6 and 5 ohm are connected in series with parallel combination of 12 and 6 Ω
So equivalent resistance of this series parallel combination is given by
Rt = 3+6+ (1/12 +1/6) + 5 = 9+ 12x6/(12+6)+ 5 =14+72/ 18 = 14 + 4 = 18 Ω
⚫ Applications of Series-Parallel Circuits:-
Series-parallel circuits combine the advantages of both series and parallel circuits and minimize
their disadvantages. Generally, less copper is required and a smaller size wire can be used. Such
circuits are used whenever various types of circuits must be fed from the same power supply.

A few common applications of series-parallel circuits are given below :

⚫ (i) In an automobile, the starting, lighting and ignition circuits are all individual circuits
joined to make a series-parallel circuit drawing its power from one battery.

⚫ (ii) Radio and television receivers contain a number of separate circuits such as tuning
circuits, r.f. amplifiers, oscillator, detector and picture tube circuits. Individually, they may be
simple series or parallel circuits. However, when the receiver is considered as a whole, the
result is a series-parallel circuit.

⚫ (iii) Power supplies are connected in series to get a higher voltage and in parallel to get a
higher current.
 Numricals on series parallel circuits

Example 1: There are three resistors joined in series in a system having resistance equal to 10 Ω,
20 Ω and 30 Ω respectively. If the potential difference of the circuit is 240 V, find the total
resistance and current through the circuit.

Solution: Given, R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, R3 = 30 Ω and V = 240 V

Total resistance (R) =?
Current through the circuit ( I ) =?
According to Ohm’s Law Total resistance in series (R) = Sum of resistance of all resistors
R=10Ω+20Ω+30Ω=60Ω
We know that electric current I=V/ R
Or, I=240V÷60Ω = 4A
Thus, total resistance (R)=60Ω
Current through the circuit = 4 A
Example 2: There are two electric lamps M and N which are joined in a series having resistance
equal to 15.2 Ω and 20 Ω respectively. If the potential difference between two terminals of
electric circuit is 220V, find the total resistance and electric current through the circuit. Also find
the voltage drop across the two lamps separately.
Solution: Given, resistance (R1) of one electric lamp, M = 15.2 Ω
Resistance (R2) of other electric lamp, N = 20 Ω
Potential difference (V) through the circuit = 220 V
(1) Total resistance (2) Electric current (I) through the circuit =?
(3) Voltage drop through each of the electric lamp =?
According to Ohm’s Law; total resistance in series
= Sum of resistance of all resistors = 15.2Ω+20Ω = 35.2Ω
Electric Current I=V/ R=220V÷35.2Ω=6.25A
Voltage drop (V1) across electric lamp M = 15.2 x 6.25 =95 V
Voltage drop(V2) across electric lamp N = 20 x 6.25 = 125 V
Thus, electric current through the circuit = 6.25 A
Voltage drop across electric lamp M = 95V
Voltage drop across electric lamp N = 125V
Find current ii, voltages VR1 and VR2 in the ciruit below given that the voltage
source e=20 Volts, the resistances R1=100Ω and R2=300Ω

I=E/R1+R2
Substitute known quantities
i=20 /(100+300) =0.05 A

Calculate VR1 and VR2 using Ohm's law

VR1=iR1=0.05×100=5V
VR2=iR2=0.05×300=15V
⚫ Example 1
Find the current I through a resistor of resistance R = 2 Ω if the
voltage across the resistor is 6 V.
Solution to Example 1
Substitute R by 2 and V by 6 in Ohm's law V = R I.
6=2I
Solve for I
I=6/2=3A
⚫
Solution to Example 2
We use Ohm's law V = R I to find the current I1 passing through R1.
4 = 5 I1
Solve for I1
I1 = 4 / 5 = 0.8 A
The two resistors are in series and therefore the same current passes
through them. Hence the current I2 through R2 is equal to 0.8 A.
We now use Ohm's law to find the voltage V2 across resistor R2.
V2 = R2 I2 = 10 (0.8) = 8 V
⚫ Example 4
The current passing through a resistor in a circuit is 0.01 A when the
voltage across the same resistor is 5 V. What current passes through this
resistor when the voltage across it is 7.5 V?
Solution to Example 4
Use Ohm's law V = R I to find the resistor R in this circuit.
5 = R (0.01)
Solve for R
R = 5 / 0.01 = 500 Ω
We now use Ohm's law V = R I and the value of R to find the current when
the voltage is 7.5.
7.5 = 500 I
Solve for I
I = 7.5 / 500 = 0.015 A
⚫ Example 3: There are two resistors R1 and R2 having resistance
equal to 20Ω and 30Ω respectively are connected in parallel in
an electric circuit. If the potential difference across the electric
circuit is 5 V, find the electric current flowing through the circuit
and the total resistance of the resistors.
⚫ Solution: Given, R1 = 20 Ω, R2 = 30 Ω, Potential difference (V)
=5V
⚫ Total resistance (R) =?
⚫ Electric current (I) through the circuit =?
⚫ We know that in parallel combination, the reciprocal of total
resistance is;
⚫ 1R=1R1+1R21R=1R1+1R2
⚫ =120Ω+130Ω=120Ω+130Ω
⚫ =3+260Ω=560Ω=3+260Ω=560Ω
⚫ Or, 1R=112Ω1R=112Ω
⚫ Now, electric current through the circuit I=VRI=VR
⚫ Or, I=5V÷12Ω=0.416AI=5V÷12Ω=0.416A
⚫ Thus, total resistance R=12ΩR=12Ω
⚫ Electric current (I) through the circuit = 0.416 A
⚫ Example 4: There are five electric appliances, viz. electric heater and electric lamp,
an electric fan, computer and an exhaust fan are connected in parallel in a
household. The resistance electric appliances are 40Ω, 5 Ω, 8Ω, 20Ω and 10Ω
respectively. If an electric current of 240V is flowing through the circuit then find
a. Total resistance through the circuit
b. Total electric current (I) through the circuit and
c. the current through each of the resistor.
⚫ Solution:We know that the recpirocal of total resistance = sum of reciprocals of
individual resistances
⚫ 1Rtotal=140Ω+15Ω+18Ω+120Ω+110Ω1Rtotal=140Ω+15Ω+18Ω+120Ω+110Ω
⚫ =1+8+5+2+440Ω=1+8+5+2+440Ω
⚫ =2040Ω=12Ω=2040Ω=12Ω
⚫ Or, Rtotal=2 ΩRtotal=2 Ω
⚫ Now, electric current through the circuit =VR=VR
⚫ Or, I=240V÷2Ω=120AI=240V÷2Ω=120A
⚫ Similarly, electric current through different appliances can be calculated as follows:
Electric current through heater =240V÷40Ω=6A=240V÷40Ω=6A
⚫ Electric current through electric lamp =240V÷5Ω=48A=240V÷5Ω=48A
⚫ Electric current through electric fan =240V÷8Ω=30A=240V÷8Ω=30A
⚫ Electric current through computer =240V÷20Ω=12A=240V÷20Ω=12A
⚫ Electric current through exhaust =240V÷10Ω+24A=240V÷10Ω+24A
⚫ The total current through the circuit can be calculated by adding the electric current
through individual resistors.
⚫ Or, Itotal = 6 A + 48 A + 30 A + 12 A + 24 A = 120 A
Voltage and Current Sources
⚫ The various types of sources available in the electrical network are voltage source
and current sources. A voltage source has a forcing function of emf whereas the
current source has a forcing function of current.
⚫ Contents:
⚫ Voltage Source
⚫ Current Source
 Voltage Source
A voltage source is a two-terminal device whose voltage at
any instant of time is constant and is independent of the
current drawn from it. Such a voltage source is called
an Ideal Voltage Source and have zero internal resistance.

Practically an ideal voltage source cannot be obtained.

Sources having some amount of internal resistances
are known as Practical Voltage Source. Due to this
internal resistance; voltage drop takes place, and it
causes the terminal voltage to reduce. The smaller is
the internal resistance (r) of a voltage source, the more
closer it is to an Ideal Source.
The symbolic representation of the ideal and practical
voltage source is shown below.
⚫ Figure A shown below shows the circuit diagram and
characteristics of an ideal voltage source:
Figure B shown below gives the circuit diagram and characteristics of Practical
Voltage Source:

The example of voltage sources is batteries and alternators.

Current Source
⚫ The current sources are further categorised as Ideal and Practical current
source.
⚫ An ideal current source is a two-terminal circuit element which supplies
the same current to any load resistance connected across its terminals. It is
important to keep in mind that the current supplied by the current source
is independent of the voltage of source terminals. It has infinite resistance.
⚫ A practical current source is represented as an ideal current source
connected with the resistance in parallel. The symbolic representation is
shown below:
Figure C shown below, show its
characteristics.
Figure D shown below shows the characteristics of Practical Current
Source.

The example of current sources is photoelectric cells, collector

currents of transistors.
Source Transformation
⚫ Source Transformation simply means
replacing one source by an equivalent source. A
practical voltage source can be transformed into
an equivalent practical current source and
similarly a practical current source into voltage
source.
⚫ Any practical voltage source or simply a voltage
source consists of an ideal voltage source in
series with an internal resistance or impedance
(for an ideal source this impedance will be zero),
the output voltage becomes independent of the
load current. Cells, batteries and generators are
the example of the voltage source.
⚫ For any practical current source or simply current
source, there is an ideal current source in parallel with
the internal resistance or impedance, for ideal current
source this parallel impedance is infinity.
⚫ The semiconductor devices like transistors, etc. are
treated as a current source or an output produce by
the direct or alternating voltage source is called direct
and alternating current source, respectively.
⚫ The voltage and current source are mutually transferable or in other
words the source transformation i.e. voltage to the current source and
current to a voltage source can be done. Let us understand this by
considering a circuit given below:
⚫ Figure A represents a practical voltage source in series with the
internal resistance rv, while figure B represents a practical current
source with parallel internal resistance ri
⚫ For the practical voltage source the load current will be given by
the equation:

Where,
⚫ iLv is the load current for the practical voltage source
V is the voltage
rv is the internal resistance of the voltage source
rL is the load resistance
 ⚫ It is assumed that the load resistance rL is connected at the terminal x-y.
Similarly for the practical current source, the load current is given as:

Where,
iLi is the load current for the practical current source
I is the current
ri is the internal resistance of the current source
rL is the load resistance connected across the terminal x-y in the figure B
Two sources become identical, when we will equate equation (1) and equation
(2)

However, for the current source, the terminal voltage at x-y

would be Iri, x-y terminal are open. i.e.
V = I x ri
⚫ Therefore, we will get,

⚫ Therefore, for any practical voltage source, if the

ideal voltage is V and internal resistance be rv, the
voltage source can be replaced by a current source
I with the internal resistance in parallel with the
current source.
Source Transformation: Conversion of Voltage Source into
Current Source

When the voltage source is connected with the

resistance in series and it has to be converted into the
current source than the resistance is connected in
parallel with the current source as shown in the above
figure.
Where Is = Vs /R
 Conversion of Current Source into
Voltage Source

In the above circuit diagram a current source which is

connected in parallel with the resistance is transformed
into a voltage source by placing the resistance in series
with the voltage source.
Where,Vs = Is / R
 Open Circuits
⚫ As the name implies, an open is a gap or break or
interruption in a circuit path. When there is a break in any
part of a circuit, that part is said to be open-circuited. No
current can flow through an open. Since no current can
flow through an open, according to Ohm’s law, an open has
infinite resistance (R = V/I = V/0 = ∞). An open circuit may
be as a result of component failure or disintegration of a
conducting path such as the breaking of a wire. 1.