Class-4

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, and by what means concerning an
inquiry or a research study constitute a research design. “A research design is the
arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”

Miller defines “designed research” as “the planned sequence of the entire process
involved in conducting a research study”.

According to P.V. Young, “Research design is the logical and systematic planning and
directing of a piece of research.”

In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. More
explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:

(i) What is the study about?

(ii) Why is the study being made?

(iii) Where will the study be carried out?

(iv) What type of data is required?

(v) Where can the required data be found?

(vi) What periods of time will the study include?

(vii) What will be the sample design?

(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?

(ix) How will the data be analyzed?

(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

Need for research design/Significance of research design

Research is a scientific investigation of a problem for which we need systematic planning of

research. The need for research design is as follows:

● For successful research, we need a research design because it includes the

formulation of a strategy to resolve a particular question.

● It reduces inaccuracy.

● Guides the research in the right direction. A research design states the structure

and process of conducting a research process. Thus, it shows a path to the

researcher without which he may be lost or confused as to what next step he has
to take. More so, it also takes care of the budget and time frame of the research study.
All this planning can only make a research study a success story.

● Minimizes wastage of time and money. Research design is needed because it

facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby making
research as efficient as possible and yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time, and money.

● Helpful in collecting research materials.

● Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money,

manpower, time, and effort. Research design stands for advance planning of the
methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in
their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of
staff, time, and money.

● Provides an overview to other experts. The design helps the researcher to organize

his ideas in a form that makes it will be possible for him to look for flaws and
inadequacies. Such a design can even be given to others for their comments and
critical evaluation. In the absence of such a course of action, it will be difficult for the
critic to provide a comprehensive review of the proposed study.

Features/Characteristics of a Good Research Design

It is a challenge to translate a general scientific model into a practical research operation.
Therefore, designing a research study is not a simple task. There is nothing like a completely
correct design or a completely incorrect design. A design may work very well for one
research problem and may not work at all for the other. There are some features, however, a
good research design should possess.

They are:

1. Freedom from bias: A good research design should ensure that the method of data
collection and analysis is free from systematic errors.

2. Freedom from confounding: In a good research design, the variables involved in the
study are separated from each other so that they do not influence each other.

3. Control of extraneous variables: In a well-designed research study, the variables that are
not under scrutiny do not systematically influence the experimental variables, for example
things like temperature, time of day, etc.

4. Within resources: A design should draw limits of a research study so that it could be
completed within available resources like time, money, and staff.

5. Optimality: The best research design is one that yields maximum precision using
minimum resources.

6. Flexibility: A good research design is flexible enough to incorporate changes in it

whenever needed.

7. The preparation of the research design should be done with great care as any error in
it may destroy the entire project.

Important concepts/factors relating to research design

Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the various
concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood. Some of the
important concepts relating to Research Design are discussed below:

1. Identify dependent and independent variables: Identify dependent and independent

variables for the study. When changes in one variable are dependent upon the changes in
other variables or variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the
variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or
explanatory or exogenous variables. For instance, if we say that height depends upon age,
then the height is a dependent variable and age is an independent variable. For example, if
demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the
independent variable. And, if more variables determine demand, like income and price of the
substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the price of an
original commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable that is determined by
independent variables like the price of the original commodity, income, and price of
substitutes.

2. Control on Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not directly related
to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous
variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a
relationship between children’s school performance and their self-confidence. In this case,
the latter is an independent variable, and the former is a dependent variable. In this context,
intelligence may also influence school performance. However, since it is not directly
related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an
extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable(s) on the dependent
variable is technically called the ‘experimental error’. Therefore, a research study
should always be framed in such a manner that the influence of extraneous variables on
the dependent variable/s is completely controlled, and the influence of the independent
variable/s is clearly evident.

3. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When the objective

of the research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis-testing research.
Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or non-experimental design. The
research in which the independent variable is manipulated/altered is known as
‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’, whereas the research in which the
independent variable is not manipulated/altered is termed as ‘non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research.

Non-experimental research cannot find the cause-effect relationship and does not allow
any manipulation of control variables.

Examples of experimental research are laboratory experiments that involve mixing different
chemical elements together to see the effect of one element on the other while non-
experimental research examples are investigations into the characteristics of different
chemical elements.

Non-experimental research may further be carried out on Ammonia, to determine its

characteristics, behavior, and nature.

4. Experimental and control groups: When a group is exposed to usual conditions in

experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as a ‘control group’. On the other hand,
when the group is exposed to certain new or special conditions, it is known as an
‘experimental group’.

For example
5. Treatments: The conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are
usually referred to as ‘treatments.

If we want to determine through an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of

fertilizers on the yield of wheat, in that case, the three varieties of fertilizers will be treated as
three treatments.

6. Experiment: An experiment refers to verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating

to a given research problem. Experiments can be of two types, viz., absolute experiment and
comparative experiment.

If we want to determine the impact of fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute
experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the
impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as a comparative
experiment. Often, we undertake comparative experiments when we talk of designs of
experiments.
Different Research Designs

Different research designs can be conveniently described if they are categorized as:

1. research design in case of exploratory research studies;

2. research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies, and

3. research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.

Research design in case of exploratory research studies;

Exploratory research is the process of investigating a problem that has not been studied
or thoroughly investigated in the past.

Characteristics of exploratory research:

● Exploratory research is usually conducted to have a better understanding of the

existing problem. Final decisions or results cannot be prepared with the help of
exploratory research.

● Exploratory research is often used when the issue you’re studying is new or when the

data collection process is challenging.

● This research is conducted in order to determine the nature of the problem and helps

the researcher to develop a better understanding of the problem.

● Exploratory research is flexible and provides the initial groundwork for future

research.

● The absence of relevant information from past research means the researcher will

spend a lot of time studying materials in detail.

1. Step-by-step example of exploratory research

For some subjects, it’s possible to use large government data, such as the decennial census or
yearly American Community Survey (ACS) open-source data.

How you proceed with your exploratory research design depends on the research
method you choose to collect your data. In most cases, you will follow five steps.

We’ll walk you through the steps using the following example.
Example: Exploratory research topic

You teach English as a second language (ESL). The current methods for oral proficiency all
focus on reducing the learner’s non-native accent, but you suspect that having an accent
doesn’t actually reduce intelligibility.

Therefore, you would like to focus on improving intelligibility instead of reducing the
learner’s accent.

However, the relationship between someone’s accent and their intelligibility hasn’t been
studied yet. You decide to develop an exploratory research design to investigate this
relationship without spending too many resources or too much time doing so.

Step 1: Identify your problem

The first step in conducting exploratory research is identifying what the problem is and
whether this type of research is the right avenue for you to pursue. Remember that
exploratory research is most advantageous when you are investigating a previously
unexplored problem.

Step 2: Hypothesize a solution

The next step is to come up with a solution to the problem you’re investigating. Formulate a
hypothetical statement to guide your research.

Step 3. Design your methodology

Next, conceptualize your data collection and data analysis methods and write them up in a
research design.

Step 4: Collect and analyze data

Next, you proceed with collecting and analyzing your data so you can determine whether
your preliminary results are in line with your hypothesis.

Step 5: Avenues for future research

Decide if you would like to continue studying your topic. If so, it is likely that you will need
to change to another type of research.
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main
purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of
developing working hypotheses from an operational point of view.

2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies

What is Descriptive Research Design?

A descriptive research design is a type of research design that aims to systematically

obtain information to describe a phenomenon, situation, or population. More
specifically, it helps answer the what, when, where, and how questions regarding the research
problem rather than the why.

These types of research studies may describe consumer attitudes, intentions, behaviors, or the
number of competitors and their strategies.

Example of Descriptive Research Design

To gain a deeper understanding of the descriptive method of research, let’s consider the
following example:

Some research problems and research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:

❖ Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.

❖ A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.

❖ A school district wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather than

textbooks.

❖ To understand if its wellness questionnaire programs enhance the employees' overall

health.

Why use Descriptive Research Design?

Descriptive research allows researchers to thoroughly investigate the background of a
research problem before further research can be carried out.
There are many different contexts in which the use of a descriptive research design is
beneficial, including the following:
1. To measure data trends
The descriptive method of research can be used to measure changes in variables over some
time, allowing trends to be identified and analyzed.
2. To compare variables
Descriptive research can be used to compare different variables and how different
demographics respond to them.
3. To define the characteristics of subjects
It can also be used to determine the different characteristics of the subjects. This can include
characteristics such as opinions, behavior, etc.
4. To verify or validate existing conditions
Descriptive research is a useful tool when trying to test the validity of an existing condition,
as it involves conducting an in-depth analysis of every variable before concluding.

The design must focus attention on the following:

(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period
should the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analyzing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.
Step-1: Outline the research objective

The first step is to identify and outline your research objectives and then translate these
objectives into criteria of investigation. You must identify the different issues and questions
in which the knowledge of the situation must be surveyed.

Once you’ve clearly stated your criteria and objectives, you must also specify the nature of
the data that must be gathered.

Step-2: Determine the tools and techniques to be used for data collection

In this step, you must determine the tools you will employ for the data collection process.
Some examples of different tools that can be used are interviews, questionnaires, observation
schedules, etc.
In this stage, you will have to identify which tools and techniques are relevant and valid to
your study.

Step-3: Define the target population and sample group

You will have to outline your target population. The target population is the group of
individuals that you are examining in your research study.

Step-4: Data collection

As you collect data, keep your research question and objectives in mind and aim to gather
authentic and objective data without personal bias. While designing the data-collection
procedure, adequate safeguards against bias and unreliability must be ensured. Whichever
method is selected, questions must be well examined and be made unambiguous; interviewers
must be instructed not to express their own opinion; observers must be trained to uniformly
record a given behavior item.

Step-5: Analyze the data collected

Use appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis methods to analyze your data. As discussed
earlier, common data analysis methods for descriptive research include descriptive statistics,
cross-tabulation, content analysis, qualitative coding, visualization, and comparative analysis.

Interpret your findings in light of your research question and objectives. Identify patterns,
trends, and relationships in the data, and describe the characteristics of your sample or
population

Step-6: Write the report

The final step of survey research involves writing the report. Draw conclusions based on your
analysis and interpretation of the data. Report your results in a clear and concise manner,
using appropriate tables, graphs, or figures to present your findings. Ensure that your report
follows accepted research standards and guidelines.

Applications of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has numerous applications in various fields. Some of the
common applications of descriptive research design are:
Market research: Descriptive research design is widely used in market research to
understand consumer preferences, behavior, and attitudes. This helps companies to develop
new products and services, improve marketing strategies, and increase customer satisfaction.

A restaurant chain wants to understand the demographics and attitudes of its customers. They
conduct a survey asking customers about their age, gender, income, frequency of visits,
favorite menu items, and overall satisfaction. The survey data is analyzed using descriptive
statistics and cross-tabulation to describe the characteristics of their customer base.

A marketing team wants to understand the attitudes and behaviors of consumers towards a
new product. They conduct a series of focus groups and use qualitative coding to identify
common themes and patterns in the data. They also create visualizations such as word clouds
to show the most frequently mentioned topics.

Health research: Descriptive research design is used in health research to describe the
prevalence and distribution of a disease or health condition in a population. This helps
healthcare providers to develop prevention and treatment strategies.

A medical researcher wants to describe the prevalence and risk factors of a particular disease
in a population. They conduct a cross-sectional study in which they collect data from a
sample of individuals using a standardized questionnaire. The data is analyzed using
descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation to identify patterns in the prevalence and risk
factors of the disease.

Educational research: Descriptive research design is used in educational research to

describe the performance of students, schools, or educational programs. This helps educators
to improve teaching methods and develop effective educational programs.

An environmental scientist wants to describe the biodiversity of a particular ecosystem. They

conduct an observational study in which they collect data on the species and abundance of
plants and animals in the ecosystem. The data is analyzed using descriptive statistics to
describe the diversity and richness of the ecosystem.

An education researcher wants to describe the learning outcomes of students in a particular

school district. They collect test scores from a representative sample of students in the district
and use descriptive statistics to calculate the mean, median, and standard deviation of the
scores. They also create visualizations such as histograms and box plots to show the
distribution of scores.
Social science research: Descriptive research design is used in social science research to
describe social phenomena such as cultural norms, values, and beliefs. This helps researchers
to understand social behavior and develop effective policies.

Public opinion research: Descriptive research design is used in public opinion research to
understand the opinions and attitudes of the general public on various issues. This helps
policymakers to develop effective policies that are aligned with public opinion.

Environmental research: Descriptive research design is used in environmental research to

describe the environmental conditions of a particular region or ecosystem. This helps
policymakers and environmentalists to develop effective conservation and preservation
strategies.

Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies

Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those

where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables.