STRAIN

By: Dr. Elijah Paul Eugenio

 STRAIN

• A strain is when a muscle or tendon (tissue

that attaches muscle to bone) is stretched
too far. A strain is sometimes called a
"pulled muscle." Depending on the level of
muscle strain, it may heal within a few
weeks, but reinjury can happen.
 STRAIN

By: Engr. Elijah Paul Eugenio

 STRAIN

• Strain is the response of a system to an

applied stress. When a material is loaded
with a force, it produces a stress, which
then causes a material to deform.
Engineering strain is defined as the amount
of deformation in the direction of the
applied force divided by the initial length of
the material.
 Stress-Strain Diagram

• Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in

tension-compression-testing machine. As
the axial load is gradually increased in
increments, the total elongation over the
gauge length is measured at each
increment of the load and this is continued
until failure of the specimen takes place.
 Stress-Strain Diagram

• Knowing the original cross-sectional area and

length of the specimen, the normal stress σ
and the strain ε can be obtained. The graph of
these quantities with the stress σ along the y-
axis and the strain ε along the x-axis is called
the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain
diagram differs in form for various materials.
The diagram shown below is that for a
medium-carbon structural steel.
Stress-Strain Diagram
 Stress-Strain Diagram
• Metallic engineering materials are classified
as either ductile or brittle materials. A ductile
material is one having relatively large tensile
strains up to the point of rupture like
structural steel and aluminum, whereas
brittle materials has a relatively small strain
up to the point of rupture like concrete. An
arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently
taken as the dividing line between these two
classes.
Stress-Strain Diagram
 Proportional Limit (Hooke’s Law)
• From the origin O to the point
called proportional limit, the
stress-strain curve is a straight
line. This linear relation between
elongation and the axial force
causing was first noticed by Sir
Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called
Hooke's Law that within the
proportional limit, the stress is
directly proportional to strain or σ∝ε or σ=kε
 Proportional Limit (Hooke’s Law)
σ∝ε or σ=kε

• The constant of proportionality k

is called the Modulus of Elasticity
(E) or Young's Modulus and is
equal to the slope of the stress-
strain diagram from O to P. Then:
σ=Eε
Ex: Common assumption of Modulus of Elasticity “E” of Steel is 200GPa
Stress-Strain Diagram
 Elastic Limit

• The elastic limit is the limit beyond which

the material will no longer go back to its
original shape when the load is removed,
or it is the maximum stress that may be
developed such that there is no permanent
or residual deformation when the load is
entirely removed.
 Elastic and Plastic Ranges

• The region in
stress-strain

Elastic Region
diagram from O
to E is called the
elastic range.
The region from
E to R is called
the plastic
range.
Stress-Strain Diagram
 Yield Point
• Yield point is the point at which the
material will have an appreciable
elongation or yielding without any
increase in load.
• Is the point on a stress-strain curve that
indicates the limit of elastic behavior and
the beginning of plastic behavior. Below
the yield point, a material will deform
elastically and will return to its original
shape when the applied stress is removed.
Stress-Strain Diagram
 Ultimate Strength

• The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain

diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile
strength.
• The maximum stress it withstands before
fracturing.
• The ultimate strength may also be called
the tensile strength or the ultimate tensile
strength (UTS).
Stress-Strain Diagram
 Rapture Strength

• Rapture strength is the strength of the

material at rupture. This is also known as
the breaking strength.
• The rupture strength of a material refers to
the stress or load that a material can
withstand before it breaks or ruptures, it is
the point at which the material
experiences complete failure under
tension.
 Modulus of Resilience
• Modulus of resilience is the work done on a
unit volume of material as the force is
gradually increased from O to P, in N·m/m3.
This may be calculated as the area under
the stress-strain curve from the origin O to
up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in
the figure). The resilience of the material is
its ability to absorb energy without
creating a permanent distortion.
Stress-Strain Diagram
 Modulus of Toughness

• Modulus of toughness is the work done on

a unit volume of material as the force is
gradually increased from O to R, in N·m/m3.
This may be calculated as the area under
the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R).
The toughness of a material is its ability to
absorb energy without causing it to break.
Stress-Strain Diagram
 Working Stress, Allowable Stress,
and Factor of Safety

• Working stress is defined as the actual

stress of a material under a given loading.
The maximum safe stress that a material
can carry is termed as the allowable stress.
The allowable stress should be limited to
values not exceeding the proportional
limit.
 Working Stress, Allowable Stress,
and Factor of Safety

• However, since proportional limit is

difficult to determine accurately, the
allowable tress is taken as either the yield
point or ultimate strength divided by a
factor of safety. The ratio of this strength
(ultimate or yield strength) to allowable
strength is called the factor of safety.
 AXIAL
DEFORMATION
 AXIAL DEFORMATION
(Common Formulas)

• In the linear portion of the stress-strain

diagram, the Stress is proportional to strain
and is given by:

σ=Eε
AXIAL DEFORMATION
σ=Eε
𝑷 δ
since σ= and ε =
𝑨 𝑳
𝑷 δ
then =E ( )
𝑨 𝑳

Therefore:
𝑷𝑳 σ𝑳
δ= =
𝑨𝑬 𝑬
 AXIAL DEFORMATION

𝑷𝑳 σ𝑳
δ= =
𝑨𝑬 𝑬

• To use this formula, the load must be axial,

the bar must have a uniform cross-
sectional area, and the stress must not
exceed the proportional limit.
 AXIAL DEFORMATION
• If however, the cross-sectional area is not
uniform, the axial deformation can be
determined by considering a differential
length and applying integration.
𝑳
𝑷 𝒅𝒙
δ= න
𝑬 𝟎 𝑳
where A = ty, and y and t if
variable, must be
expressed in terms of x.
 AXIAL DEFORMATION
• For a rod of unit mass ρ suspended
vertically from one end, the total
elongation due to its own weight is
𝝆𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑴𝒈𝑳
δ= =
𝟐𝑬 𝟐𝑨𝑬
• where ρ is in kg/m3, L is the length of the
rod in mm, M is the total mass of the rod in
kg, A is the cross-sectional area of the rod
in mm2, and g = 9.81 m/s2.
 AXIAL DEFORMATION
Stiffness, k
• Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force
acting on an elastic body to the resulting
displacement. It has the unit of N/mm.
𝑷
k=
δ
 LOAD (N) ELONGATION (mm)
ACTIVITY: 0 0
6 310 0.010
The following data were 12 600 0.020
recorded during the tensile test 18 800 0.030
of a 14-mm-diameter mild steel 25 100 0.040
rod. The gage length was 50 mm. 31 300 0.050
37 900 0.060

Plot the stress-strain diagram 40 100 0.163

41 600 0.433
and determine the following 46 200 1.25
mechanical properties: 52 400 2.50
(a) proportional limits; 58 500 4.50
(b) modulus of elasticity; 68 000 7.50
(c) yield point; 59 000 12.5

(d) ultimate strength; and 67 800 15.5

(e) rupture strength. 65 000 20.0

65 500 Fracture
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
LOAD ELONGATION STRESS STRAIN
500.0000
441.7362
0 0 0.0000 0 450.0000
6310 0.01 40.9905 0.0002 400.0000
425.4959
12600 0.02 81.8511 0.0004 350.0000
270.2386
18800 0.03 122.1271 0.0006 300.0000 246.2030

25100 0.04 250.0000

163.0526 0.0008
200.0000 260.4944
31300 0.05 203.3286 0.001
150.0000
37900 0.06 246.2030 0.0012 100.0000
40100 0.163 260.4944 0.00326 50.0000
41600 0.433 270.2386 0.00866 0.0000
46200 1.25 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
300.1207 0.025
STRESS STRAIN
52400 2.5 340.3967 0.05
58500 4.5 380.0230 0.09
a.Proportional Limit = 246.20 MPa
68000 7.5 441.7362 0.15 b.Modulus of Elasticity
59000 12.5 383.2711 0.25 E = slope of stress-strain diagram within proportional limit
67800 15.5 440.4369 0.31 E = 246.20/0.0012 = 205 166.67 MPa = 205.2 GPa
65000 20 422.2478 0.4 c.Yield Point = 270.24 MPa
65500 Failure 425.4959 0 d.Ultimate Strength = 441.74 MPa
e.Rupture Strength = 425.5 MPa