LESSON 1: THE ELEMENTS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

Teaching is a deliberate intervention that involves the planning and

implementation of instructional activities and experiences to meet
intended learning outcomes according a teaching plan.

Learning is a desired outcome of a teaching-learning process.

Learning which is a primary function of the brain can be described
in many ways as follows:
1.​ “A change in human disposition or capability that persists over a
period of time and that is not simply ascribable to processes of
growth.” — From The Conditions of Learning by Robert Gagne

2.​ “Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s

knowledge or behavior due to experience. This definition has
three components:
1) the duration of the change is long-term rather than
short-term;
2) the locus of the change is the content and structure of
knowledge in memory or the behavior of the learner;
3) the cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the
environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical
condition or physiologic intervention.”
– From Learning in Encyclopedia of Educational Research,
Richard E. Mayer

3.​ “We define learning as the transformative process of taking in

information that—when internalized and mixed with what we
have experienced—changes what we know and builds on what
we do. It’s based on input, process, and reflection. It is what
changes us.” – From The New Social Learning by Tony Bingham
and Marcia Conner

4.​ “It has been suggested that the term learning defies precise
definition because it is put to multiple uses. Learning is used to
refer to (1) the acquisition and mastery of what is already
 known about something, (2) the extension and clarification of
meaning of one’s experience, or (3) an organized, intentional
process of testing ideas relevant to problems. In other words, it
is used to describe a product, a process, or a function.” –From
Learning How to Learn: Applied Theory for Adults by R.M. Smith

5.​ “Acquiring knowledge and skills and having them readily

available from memory so you can make sense of future
problems and opportunities.” From Make It Stick: The Science
of Successful Learning by Peter C. Brown, Henry L. Roediger III,
Mark A. McDaniel

6.​ “A process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of

experience and increases the potential of improved
performance and future learning.” From How Learning Works:
Seven Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching by Susan
Ambrose, et al.

7.​ “The process of gaining knowledge and expertise.” From The

Adult Learner by Malcolm Knowles

8.​ “Learning involves strengthening correct responses and

weakening incorrect responses. Learning involves adding new
information to your memory. Learning involves making sense of
the presented material by attending to relevant information,
mentally reorganizing it, and connecting it with what you
already know.” From eLearning and the Science of Instruction
by Ruth C. Clark and Richard E. Mayer

9.​ “A persisting change in human performance or performance

potential…[which] must come about as a result of the learner’s
experience and interaction with the world.” From Psychology of
Learning for Instruction by M. Driscoll
10.​ “Learning is a process that occurs within nebulous
environments of shifting core elements – not entirely under the
control of the individual. Learning (defined as actionable
knowledge) can reside outside of ourselves (within an
organization or a database), is focused on connecting
specialized information sets, and the connections that enable us
to learn more are more important than our current state of
knowing.” From Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital
Age by George Seime
Three Elements of Teaching and Learning Process
●​ the TEACHER,
●​ the LEARNER and
●​ a CONDUCIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Learner
A learner is an embodied spirit--he is neither body nor spirit alone.
He/she consists of a body that is capable of feeling and a rational
soul. The body and soul exist in co-dependency.

Nourishing the learner both materially and spiritually ensures his

readiness to do his role in the teaching and learning process.
●​ Body: feeding programs, health services, health break, any sort
of “energizers.”
●​ Soul: sublime thoughts, words of inspiration and spiritual
advice (Bible for Christians, Koran for Muslims, Vedas
for the Hindus and Gautama’s Buddha’s teachings for
the Buddhists)

The Fundamental Equipment of the Learner

Cognitive Faculties Appetitive Faculties
●​ Five senses ●​ Feelings
●​ Instinct ●​ Emotions
●​ Imagination ●​ Rational will
●​ Memory
 ●​ Intellect

Degrees of Utilization of the Cognitive and Appetitive Faculties

1.​ Ability
The students' native ability dictates the prospects of success
in any purposeful activity. It determines their capacity to
understand and assimilate information for their own use and
application.

2.​ Aptitude
It refers to the students' innate talent or gift. It indicates & a
natural capacity to learn certain skills.

3.​ Interests
Learners vary in activities that are undertaken due to a strong
appeal or attraction (interesting topics will be more
meaningful and easily absorbed).

4.​ Family & Cultural background

Students who come from different socioeconomic
background manifest a wide range of behaviour due to
differences in upbringing practices.

5.​ Attitudes
Attitude refers to an individual perspective and disposition.
Some positive attitudes are curiosity, responsibility, creativity
& persistence.

Before the emergence of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory,

the concept of intelligence was measured only in terms of
language and mathematical competence. With the Theory on
Multiple Intelligences, there are seven more intelligences that
were added making up the nine (9) multiple intelligences.
Learning Styles - the way a person processes, internalizes and
studies new and challenging material
1.​ Sensing-thinking (Mastery Learner)
2.​ Intuitive thinking (Understanding Learner)
3.​ Intuitive-Feeling (Self-Expressive Learner)
4.​ Sensing-Feeling (Interpersonal Learner)

The Dunn and Dunn Learning Style model (developed by Dr.

Kenneth Dunn and Dr. Rita Dunn) points to five different learning
styles according to five (5) groups of stimuli. These elements are,
namely, environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological and
psychological.

Global learners prefer to work in an environment with soft lighting

and informal seating. People with this processing style need breaks,
snacking, mobility and sound.

Analytic learners, on the other hand, prefer to work in an

environment with bright light and formal seating. They work best
with few or no interruptions, in a quiet environment and little or no
snacking.

There are other models/theories of learning styles such as the Kolb

learning styles, VARK learning styles and Honey and Mumford
learning styles. Each of these theories presents different
preferences of an individual in learning.

Teacher
To facilitate learning, a teacher must:
●​ Be an expert in his/her subject and skilled in science and art of
teaching;
●​ Have a pleasing personality and a model of values; and
●​ Have passion for teaching, sense of humor, patience and
enthusiasm.
The National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) sums
up the professional and personal traits of a professional teacher.

The Professional Teacher

-​ the "licensed professional who possesses dignity with high
moral values as well as technical and professional
competence...he adheres to, observes, and practices a set of
ethical and moral principles, standards, and values." (Code of
Ethics of Professional Teachers, 1997).
-​ the one who went through four to five year period of rigorous
academic preparation in teaching and one who is given a
license to teach by the Board of Professional Teachers of the
Professional Regulation Commission after fulfilling
requirements prescribed by law such as the Licensure
Examination for Teachers (LET).

Professional Attributes Personal Attributes

-​ Control of the knowledge Personality is the sum of one's
base of teaching and personal characteristics. It is
learning and use this one's identity.
knowledge to guide the
science and art of his/her Teachers' personality must be
teaching practice. natural and genuine, devoid of
pretenses and artificiality. They
-​ Repertoire of best
must be consistent, true and
teaching practice and can
authentic.
use these to instruct
children in classrooms and
to work with adults in the
school setting.
-​ Disposition and skills to
approach all aspects of
his/her work in a
reflective, collegial, and
problem-solving manner.
-​ View of learning to teach
as a lifelong process and
 dispositions and skills for
working towards
improving his/her own
teaching as well as
improving schools.

Qualities of a Teacher
1.​ Passion
Passion in teaching is a compelling force that emerges from
one's inborn love for children.

2.​ Humor
Humor stands for anything funny, which elicits a smile,
laughter or amusing reaction.

3.​ Values and Attitudes

Values connote standards, code of ethics and strong beliefs.
a.​ Open-mindedness is basic in promoting respect and trust
between teachers and students
b.​ Fairness and impartiality eliminate discrimination.
Teachers must be unbiased and objective in judging their
students work and performance.
c.​ Professionalism is highly treasured in the teaching
profession. Teachers are adjudged professional if they
are knowledgeable, skilled and value-laden.

4.​ Patience
In teaching, patience refers to a teacher's uncomplaining
nature, self-control and persistence.

5.​ Enthusiasm
Enthusiasm is synonymous to eagerness and excitement
(students look forward to any activity initiated by enthusiastic
teachers).
 Commitment is a "solemn promise" to perform the duties and
responsibilities mandated by the laws and code of ethics of
the profession. It is an unwavering pledge to perform all
teaching and learning activities with consistency and
selflessness to the best interest of the students under their
care.

Learning Environment
"To heredity, the child owes his possibilities. However, to
environment, he owes the realization of these possibilities."

The learning environment is the place where teaching and learning

can take place in the most effective and productive manner. It
consists of the classroom and all the instructional features (physical)
and the non-threatening classroom climate (psychological) needed
in planning and implementing all teaching and learning activities.

Arrangement of Furniture
-​ The furniture, like the table for demonstration located in
front of the room and the chairs facing it are neatly arranged
with sufficient spaces in- between for ease in moving around.
-​ Display shelves for safekeeping of projects, collections and
outstanding work are located at the sides.
-​ Attached to the wall is the bulletin board for hanging posters,
announcements and illustrations about the unit being
undertaken.
-​ During discussions, the board in front is used for clarifying
step-by-step procedures and making clearer diagrams,
illustrations and figures.
-​ Teaching devices like globes, maps and charts are kept in
nearby cabinets, together with simple tools and materials.
-​ A temporary table is placed at the right side where supplies,
materials and handled instruments are arranged, ready for the
day's lesson.


Physical Condition of the Classroom

-​ Natural light and flowing fresh air add to their comfort and
ease. Free from noise coming from the surroundings,
students' concentration and interest are easily sustained.

Interactions
-​ Students differ in abilities and interests while teachers likely
employ different strategies.
-​ Teachers must be sensitive to positive or negative interactions
and must immediately undertake an instant revision or
adjustment in the methodology when necessary.
-​ The primary goal is to be able to motivate them to work
harmoniously, thereafter, inculcate the values of cooperation
and congeniality.

The learning environment needs to be conducive to the teaching

and learning process. A conducive learning environment is
necessary in the full development of the cognitive and appetitive
faculties of the learner.

A Facilitative Learning Environment

Pine and Horn (1990) described the learning environment that
facilitates learning. It is an environment:
●​ Which encourages people to be active;
●​ Which promotes and facilitates the individual's discovery of
the personal meaning of idea;
●​ Which emphasizes the uniquely personal and subjective
nature of learning in which difference is good and desirable;
●​ Which consistently recognizes people's right to make
mistakes;
●​ Which tolerates ambiguity;
●​ In which evaluation is a cooperative process with emphasis on
self- evaluation;
●​ Which encourages openness of self rather than concealment
of self;
●​ In which people are encouraged to trust in themselves as well
as in external resources;
●​ In which people feel they are respected;
●​ In which people feel they are accepted;
●​ Which permits confrontation.
LESSON 2: THE PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

Learning is defined as the acquisition of a knowledge used with

fluency to make sense of the world solve problems and make
decisions.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
By knowing some principles on how learning takes place, teachers
will be guided on how to teach. Below are some principles of
learning from Horne and Pine (1990):
1.​ Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is
activated by the learner. Learning has something to do with
something which happens in the unique world of the learner.

2.​ Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance

of ideas. Students most readily internalize and implement
concepts and ideas which are relevant to their needs and
problems. Learning is a process which requires the
exploration of ideas in relation to self and community.

3.​ Learning is a consequence of experience. People become

responsible when they assume responsibility. Experiential
learning makes use of direct as well as vicarious experiences.

4.​ Learning is a cooperating and collaborative process.

Cooperation fosters learning. Students are taught to live
together and learn interdependently.

5.​ Learning is an evolutionary process. Behavioral change takes

time and patience.

6.​ Learning is sometimes painful. Behavioral change often calls

for the giving up of the old and comfortable ways of believing,
thinking and valuing.
7.​ One of the richest resources for learning is the learner himself.
Each individual has an accumulation of experiences, ideas,
feelings and attitudes which comprise a rich vein of material
for problem solving and learning.

8.​ The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual.

Learning is affected by the total state of being of the
individual.

9.​ The process of problem solving and learning is highly unique

and individual. Each person has his own unique styles of
learning and solving problems. It pays to allow students to
learn in accordance with their unique learning styles and
multiple intelligences.

Learning is a continuous process of acquiring knowledge and skills

through experience, instruction, and practice. Aside from the
principles of learning pointed out by Horne and Pine, here are
some other key principles to consider:
1.​ Readiness:
-​ Learners must be motivated and prepared to learn new
information.
-​ Factors like prior knowledge, interest, and emotional state
can influence their readiness.
-​ Creating a stimulating environment and addressing any
gaps in prior knowledge can enhance readiness and
promote effective learning.

2.​ Active Participation:

-​ This can involve hands-on activities, discussions,
problem-solving tasks, and other interactive methods that
encourage participation and deeper understanding.

3.​ Repetition and Reinforcement:

 -​ Repetition plays a crucial role in solidifying new
information and developing skills.
-​ Frequent exposure to information and practicing learned
skills through various methods improves retention and
mastery.
-​ The repetition should be spaced and varied to avoid
boredom and promote deeper understanding.

4.​ Relevance and Meaningful Connections:

-​ Making connections and demonstrating real-world
applications can improve engagement and the perceived
value of learning.

5.​ Feedback and Error Correction:

-​ Receiving constructive feedback is essential for
identifying areas of strength and weakness, allowing
learners to adjust their approach and improve their
understanding.
-​ This feedback can come from instructors, peers,
self-reflection, or assessments.

6.​ Individualized Learning:

-​ This may involve providing diverse learning materials,
offering choices in learning methods, and acknowledging
different learning paces.

7.​ Social Interaction and Collaboration:

-​ Collaboration, discussions, and peer-to-peer learning can
provide different perspectives, foster teamwork, and
share knowledge and experiences.

8.​ Transfer of Learning:

-​ The ultimate goal of learning is to apply acquired
knowledge and skills to new situations.
 -​ Providing opportunities to practice in simulated or
real-world situations can facilitate transfer of learning and
its effective application beyond the initial learning context.

By understanding and applying these principles, educators,

instructors, and individuals seeking knowledge can create a more
effective and engaging learning environment, fostering meaningful
knowledge acquisition and skill development.

LAWS OF LEARNING
While different researchers have proposed various principles and
theories, Thorndike's laws remain a valuable foundation for
understanding the basic mechanisms of learning. The term "laws
of learning" often refers to the foundational principles proposed
by Edward Thorndike:
Law of Effect Learning is strengthened when accompanied
by a pleasant feeling. Leaning is weakened
when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
Law of Exercise Things most often repeated are best
remembered.
Law of Individuals learn best when they are
Readiness physically, mentally and emotionally ready to
learn. And they do not learn when they see
no reason to learn.
Law of Primacy What is taught must be right the first time.
Law of Recency Things most recently learned are best
remembered
Law of Intensity The more intense the material taught, the
more it is likely learned
Law of Freedom Things freely learned are best learned. The
greater the freedom enjoyed bn the students
in the class, the greater is the intellectual and
moral advancement enjoyed by them

Principles of Learning in Public Schools

The public school program is based on principles of learning that
teachers and administrators should use as the basis of the
experiences they plan for their students. These principles include
the following:
1.​ Learning is a process of actively constructing knowledge.
Therefore, teachers and administrators have a responsibility
to
-​ create environments and plan experiences that foster
inquiry, questioning, predicting, exploring, collecting,
educational play, and communicating
-​ engage learners in experiences that encourage their
personal construction of knowledge
-​ provide learners with experiences that actively involve
them and are personally meaningful

2.​ Students construct knowledge and make it meaningful in

terms of their prior knowledge and experiences. Therefore,
teachers and administrators have a responsibility to
-​ find out what students already know and can do
-​ create learning environments and plan experiences that
build on learners’ prior knowledge
-​ recognize, value, and use the great diversity of
experiences and information students bring to school
-​ ensure that students are invited or challenged to build on
prior knowledge, integrating new understandings with
existing understandings

3.​ Learning is enhanced when it takes place in a social and

collaborative environment. Therefore, teachers and
administrators have a responsibility to
-​ ensure that talk, group work, and collaborative ventures
are central to class activities
-​ see that learners have frequent opportunities to learn
from and with others
-​ structure opportunities for learners to engage in diverse
social interactions with peers and adults
-​ help students to see themselves as members of a
community of learners
4.​ Students need to continue to view learning as an integrated
whole. Therefore, teachers and administrators have a
responsibility to
-​ plan opportunities to help students make connections
across the curriculum and with the world outside and
structure activities that require students to reflect on
those connections

5.​ Learners must see themselves as capable and successful.

Therefore, teachers and administrators have a responsibility
to
-​ provide activities, resources, and challenges that are
developmentally appropriate to the learner
-​ encourage risk taking in learning
-​ ensure that all students experience genuine success on a
regular basis
-​ value experimentation and treat approximation as signs
of growth
-​ provide learning opportunities that develop self-esteem

6.​ Learners have different ways of knowing and representing

knowledge. Therefore, teachers and administrators have a
responsibility to
-​ recognize each learner’s preferred ways of constructing
meaning and provide opportunities for exploring
alternative ways
-​ plan a wide variety of open-ended experiences and
assessment strategies
-​ structure frequent opportunities for students to use
various art forms— music, drama, visual arts, dance,
movement, crafts—as a means of exploring, formulating,
and expressing ideas
7.​ Reflection is an integral part of learning. Therefore, teachers
and administrators have a responsibility to
-​ challenge their beliefs and practices based on continuous
reflection
-​ reflect on their own learning processes and experiences
-​ encourage students to acknowledge and articulate their
learnings

Having an adequate knowledge of various learning principles and

laws of learning provides teachers with a powerful toolkit, giving
them significant advantages in their profession. Here's how:
1.​ Designing Effective Learning Experiences:
●​ Tailored Instruction: Understanding different learning
styles and principles allows teachers to adapt instruction
to match individual needs and preferences.
●​ Motivational Strategies: Utilizing principles of positive
reinforcement based on Thorndike's Law of Effect,
teachers can motivate learners and encourage desired
behaviors that support learning.
●​ Scaffolding Knowledge: Concepts like constructivism and
social learning theory emphasize building new
knowledge on the foundation of prior learning and
through social interaction. Teachers can effectively
'scaffold' concepts for students, making complex ideas
more approachable.

2.​ Enhanced Classroom Management:

●​ Clear Expectations: Teachers who clearly outline
expected behaviors and consistently reinforce them
foster a structured and predictable learning
environment.
●​ Positive Reinforcement: By focusing on positive
reinforcement, teachers can minimize disruptive
behaviors while promoting a positive and supportive
classroom atmosphere.
3.​ Addressing Learning Challenges:
 ●​ Identifying Learning Difficulties: This allows for timely
intervention and support, preventing frustration and
ensuring students don't fall behind.
●​ Differentiated Instruction: Teachers can modify content,
processes, and assessments to support students with
varying learning needs.

4.​ Fostering a Growth Mindset:

●​ Embracing Effort: Principles of learning encourage
teachers to focus on effort and progress rather than
innate ability.
●​ Building Self-Efficacy: By providing opportunities for
success and celebrating improvement, teachers can
foster self-efficacy in students.

5.​ Professional Development:

●​ Continuous Learning: A solid foundation in learning
principles and theories allows teachers to critically
evaluate new teaching methods and educational trends.
●​ Lifelong Learners: Teachers who understand how people
learn are better equipped to be lifelong learners
themselves, continually enriching their own professional
development.

In a nutshell, adequate knowledge of learning principles and laws

empowers teachers to create dynamic and student-centered
classrooms. Ultimately, this understanding translates to better
learning outcomes and a more fulfilling teaching experience.

LESSON 3.1: MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION-FORMULATING

OBJECTIVE-RELATED PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
(formulating learning objectives)

❖​ Begin with the end in mind. Begin the lesson with a clearly
defined objectives so that we will have a sense of direction.

❖​ Share lesson objective with students. Objectives when shared

and possessed by students will become their personal target.

❖​ Lesson objectives must be in then two or three

domains-cognitive, psychomotor and affective. Our lesson
should be holistic and complete because it dwells on
knowledge, skills and values.

❖​ Work on significant and relevant lesson objectives. Our lesson

objectives must be connected to our students’ experiences.

❖​ Lesson objective must be aligned with the aims of education as

embodied on the Philippine Constitution and other laws and
on the vision-mission of the educational institution of which
you are a part of.

❖​ Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking. The

questions should be divergent, high-level and open-ended.
Our teaching strategies and techniques must be such that
they serve as the catalyst in the development of
higher-order-thinking-skills (HOTS).

❖​ For accountability of learning, lesson objectives must be

SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-oriented
Relevant, Time-bound and Terminal)

HOW TO WRITE LESSON OBJECTIVES

When formulating objectives, bear in mind that objectives must be
outcomes rather than instructional process.
✔​ It describes student performance. It does not say anything
about what the instructor will do or try to accomplish.
✔​ It is about ends rather than means. It describes a product of
instruction rather than the process of instruction. It describes
about what students will be able to do when they are
competent rather than describing how they will be made
competent.
✔​ An objective describes the conditions under which the
performance occur on the job.
✔​ An objective describes the standards of acceptable
performance; it tells how well someone must perform being
considered competent on that objective.
LESSON 3.2: MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION- SELECTION AND
ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT

GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN THE SELECTION AND ORGANIZATION OF

CONTENT
1.​ Observe the following qualities in the selection and
organization of content:
A.​ Validity - quality of being logically or factually sound
B.​ Significance - must respond to the needs and interests
of the learners
C.​ Balance - does not only contain facts, but also concepts
and values (cognitive, psychomotor, and
affective)
D.​ Self-sufficiency - just enough to impart knowledge yet
still entice to conduct supplementary
research
E.​ Interest - something that piques their interest
F.​ Utility - content must be useful to the students
G.​ Feasibility - can be discussed and effectively maximized
within the given time period

2.​ The structure of cognitive subject matter must go beyond the

facts. Construct a more sophisticated knowledge base
through a process of conceptual understanding.

Some strategies to develop conceptual understanding among

the students:
1.​ Organize units around a few core ideas and themes.
2.​ Explore each topic in-depth.
3.​ Explain how ideas relate to students' own experiences.
4.​ Show students that conceptual understanding of subject
matter is far more important that knowledge of isolated
facts.
5.​ Ask students to teach others what they have learned.
6.​ Promote dialogue.
 7.​ Use authentic activities by incorporating lessons into real
world.

3.​ The subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skill

and affective elements.
▪​ Cognitive Component
✔​ Facts – idea that can be verified
✔​ Concepts – categorization of ideas
✔​ Principles – relationship between facts and
concepts
✔​ Hypotheses – educated guesses about relationships
✔​ Theories – explains why principles are true
✔​ Laws – firmly established; tested principle or theory

▪​ Skill Component
✔​ Manipulative skills - skills that involve moving or
using an object with the hands or
feet
✔​ Thinking skills - application of what was learned,
evaluation and critical and creative
thinking and synthesis
●​ Divergent thinking
-​ Fluent thinking – generates lots of ideas
-​ Flexible thinking – variety
of ideas are generated
-​ Original thinking – different from the norm
-​ Elaborative thinking
– uses prior
knowledge and
expands it
●​ Convergent thinking – narrowing down many
possible thoughts to end
up on a single best idea
●​ Problem solving – made easier if problem is clear
-​ Algorithm - specific, step by step
instructions
 -​ Heuristic strategy – general, experience-
based techniques
●​ Metaphoric thinking – “analogic thinking”;
implies parallelism or
similarity
●​ Critical thinking – information based on accuracy
-​ Verbal reasoning
-​ Argument analysis
-​ Hypothesis testing
-​ Decision making
●​ Creative thinking – producing both original and
worthwhile
-​ Awareness
-​ Curiosity
-​ Imagination
-​ Fluency
-​ Flexibility
-​ Originality
-​ Elaboration
-​ Perseverance

▪​ Affective Component – both taught and caught

✔​Attitudes
✔​Values
​
LESSON 3.3: SELECTION AND USE OF TEACHING STRATEGIES
GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN THE SELECTION AND USE OF TEACHING
STRATEGIES
1.​ Learning is an active process.
2.​ The more senses that are involved in learning, the more and
the better the learning.
3.​ Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning.
4.​ Learning is meaningful when it is connected to the student’s
everyday life.
5.​ Good teaching goes beyond recall of information.
6.​ An integrated approach is far more effective than isolated bits
of information.
7.​ There is no such thing as best teaching method. The best
method is the one that works and yields.
LESSON 3.4: TEACHING METHODS AND APPROACHES

TEACHING APPROACH, STRATEGY, METHOD AND TECHNIQUE

Teaching approach is a set of principles, beliefs or ideas about the
nature of learning which is translated into the classroom.

Approach
-​ a broader term than method.
-​ has no scientific logic.
-​ set of ideas.
-​ overall view or ideas of looking at things to face a problem.
-​ is personal philosophy of teaching.
-​ can also have many methods.

Teaching approach is like the form or the way we teach or how we

do it. The following are the main approaches of teaching learning:
❖​ Teacher centered approach: Are more traditional in nature,
focusing on the teacher as instructor. They are sometimes
referred to as direct instruction, deductive teaching or
expository teaching, and are typified by the lecture type
presentation. In these methods of teaching, the teacher
controls what is to be taught and how students are presented
with the information that they are to lean.

❖​ Child centered approach: Student centered approaches

(sometimes referred to as discovery learning, inductive
learning, or inquiry learning) place a much stronger emphasis
on the learner’s role in the learning process.

❖​ Inductive and Deductive approach:

In inductive approach students moves towards specified
(example) to general (rules). At first, many examples are put
forward to student and then he draws out a conclusion on the
basis of these examples. Deductive approach is opposite to
 inductive approach because in it first, a principle or rule is put
in front of students and then it is clarified by giving examples.

❖​ Herbartian approach:
This approach is given by John Fredric Herbart. He advocated
that teaching should be planned actively if we intend to make
it.

This approach is based on appreciative mass theory of learning.

Therefore, he gives more emphasis of teacher (content)
presentation. The proposition of that theory is that the learner
is like a clean slate and all the knowledge is given from outside.
If new knowledge is imparted by linking with old knowledge of
the student, it may be acquired easily and retained for a longer
period. The teaching content should be presented into units
and units should arrange in a logical sequence.

Herbert has given five steps for this approach:

a)​ Preparation
b)​ Presentation
c)​ Comparison and abstraction
d)​ Generalization
e)​ Application

❖​ Evaluation Approach or Bloom’s Approach:

The concept of evaluation approach is given by B. S. Bloom. His
main emphasis was that testing should be based on teaching
and both these activities should be objective-centered.

Under this approach, yearly plan and unit plan are prepared. It
has three main steps:
f)​ Formulating Educational Objectives
g)​ Creating Learning Experiences
h)​ Evaluating the Change behavior
Teaching strategy is a long-term plan of action designed to achieve
a particular goal.

Strategy
-​ been borrowed from military science.
-​ the science or art of planning and directing large military
movements and operations.
-​ refers to the pattern of acts that serve to attain certain
outcomes.
-​ It means the determination of some policy before presenting
the content with the help of which teaching objectives are
achieved.
-​ skillful planning of a working system by which the objectives
can be achieved easily.
-​ changes according to the changing situation.

If we use strategy in teaching-learning situations, then it is known

as instructional strategies.

Teaching strategy is the means to achieve learning objectives.

According to E. Stones and S. Morris, teaching strategy is a
generalized plan for a lesson which includes structure, desired
learner behavior in terms of goals of instruction and an outline of
planned tactics necessary to implement the strategy.

Examples:
o​ Blackboard is a strategy to provide visual structure during a
lecture or discussion.
o​ Free writing is a strategy for encouraging students to explore
ideas in writing.
o​ Debate is a teaching strategy in which students organize
planned presentation for various viewpoints.

The effectiveness of strategy is evaluated in terms of realization of

set objectives. The behavioral objectives and teaching condition are
the two basic elements of teaching strategy.
The figure below shows some of the teaching strategies which can
be used in the teaching-learning process.

Teaching method is a systematic way of doing something. It implies

an orderly logical arrangement of steps. It is more procedural.

Method
-​ the procedure within an approach.
-​ more scientific than an approach and has step by step
procedure to solve problem.
-​ scientific way of presenting the subject keeping in mind the
psychology and physical requirements of the children.
-​ a process or procedure whose successful completion results
in learning or as a means through which teaching becomes
effective.
-​ the formal structure of the sequence of acts.
Teaching method is what kind of activity we use in order to teach.
It is a style of presentation of content in classroom.
The term method covers both strategy and techniques of
teaching.

Method is related to the nature of content of a subject to be

taught. It involves the choice of what is to be taught and in which
order is to be presented.

Two main types of teaching method:

❖​ Non-Participatory method: In these type of methods, teacher
casts himself/herself in the role of being a master of the
subject matter (an expert or an authority). Learners on the
other hand are presumed to be passive and copious recipients
of knowledge from the teacher. Examples of such methods
are lecture method and demonstration method.

❖​ Participatory methods: This refers to the way in which

teachers and students are in constant interaction, active
involvement and continuous exchange of views and ideas in
the overall teaching and learning. These methods are
sometimes known as interactive teaching method or learner
centered teaching method. They are designed only for smaller
groups of participants, but their advantage is that they
encourage better retention of learned. They are
contemporary modern methods of education. Examples of
such methods are discussion method, question answer method,
project method, problem solving method, etc.

The effectiveness of instructional method is evaluated in terms of

mastery over the subject matter. The content and mode of
presentation are the two main elements of teaching method.
Teaching technique is a well-defined procedure used to accomplish
a specific activity or task. It is a teacher’s particular style or trick
used to accomplish an immediate object.

LESSON 3.5: USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

Instructional materials
-​ the content or information conveyed within a course.
-​ includes the lectures, readings, textbooks, multimedia
components, and other resources in a course.
-​ the tools used in educational lessons, which includes active
learning and assessment (any resource a teacher uses to help
him teach his students).

*Not all useful objects in a classroom are instructional materials

(ex. writing utensils, paper, and inspirational wall signs)

Traditional Resources
Traditional resources include any textbooks and workbooks used
in the classroom.
Examples:
o​ literature textbooks, writing textbooks, and even vocabulary
and spelling workbooks.
o​ any supplemental reading material (novels or poems)

These materials can really help to introduce new concepts to your

students in terms of displaying theme in different types of
literature, some useful basic practice activities or even writing
activities that might be difficult for students.

To evaluate these traditional resources, the most important aspect

is to make sure you choose material within the resource that
appropriately relates to your learning objective.

Graphic Organizers
A second type of instructional material is the graphic organizer,
which is any type of visual representation of information.
Examples:
o​ Diagrams, charts, tables, flow charts, and graphs

All of these graphic organizers allow students to physically see

relationships between ideas. In fact, having students create their
own graphic organizers can be a great way to incorporate active
learning.

To evaluate your graphic organizers, the most important aspect is

to make sure they support learning and are not merely creative
distractions.

Different Types of Graphic Organizers

​ T-Chart
A T-Chart helps organize ideas into
two columns and examine two
components of an object, concept,
or events (ex: pros and cons,
advantages and disadvantages, or
facts and opinions).

​ Concept Map
A concept map shows
relationships between the main
idea and other information.
Concepts or ideas are represented
in circles or boxes and are linked
to related ideas with arrows. Most
concept maps represent a
hierarchical structure (general to
more specific sub-ideas). Another
feature of a concept map is the
inclusion of cross-links to
 demonstrate relationships
between sub-ideas in different
segments of the concept map.

​ Main Idea Web

The main idea web starts with
a central idea and branches out
into related ideas and
details (or sub-ideas).
Sometimes referred to as
spider or semantic maps, this
type of graphic organizer is
used primarily for
brainstorming.

​ Venn Diagram
A Venn diagram is used to compare
and contrast two or more groups
of things by
visually displaying their similarities
and differences in two or more
circles that overlap.

​ Sequence Chart
A sequence chart (or flow
diagram) presents a series of
steps or events in order.
Students can use this type of
organizer as a flowchart
to organize thoughts.

A cycle diagram is a type of sequential

chart that is used to represent a
sequence of stages, tasks, or events in a
 circular flow. This kind of diagram
accentuates the flow and
interconnection between things, rather
than emphasizing the actual stages or
steps.
Teacher-Made Resources
A last type of instructional material comprises any teacher-made
resources. Many of these are used for assessment in the
classroom, which is determining the level of learning on any given
topic.
Examples:
o​ Handouts, worksheets, tests, quizzes, and projects

Evaluating these materials is very important. Everything a teacher

creates must be a true assessment of the learning objectives.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN THE SELECTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL

MATERIALS
For optimum learning, the following general principles should be
observed:
1.​ All instructional materials are aids to instruction. They do not
replace the teacher.
2.​ Choose the instructional material that best suits your
instructional objectives.
3.​ If possible, use variety of tools. Using videos, computers,
overheads and the chalkboard not only keeps students’
interest but also respond to the needs of those who receive
information in different ways.
4.​ Check out your instructional materials before class starts to be
sure it is working properly.
5.​ For results, abide by the general utilization guide on the use of
media.
✔​ Learn how to use the instructional media. Before using
it, make sure you know how to manipulate the desired
product.
 ✔​ Prepare introductory remarks, questions or initial
comments you may need.
✔​ Provide a conducive environment.
✔​ Explain the objectives of the lesson.
✔​ Stress what is to be watched or listened to carefully.
✔​ State what they will be expected to do with the
information they will learn.
✔​ Prepare measures that can assess their gains based on
the objectives.

The figure shows some of

the instructional materials
which form part of what is
now called educational
technology which we can
incorporate in teaching.

Different Types and Examples of Instructional Materials: