School of Information Technology and

Engineering

Foundations of electrical engineering 2

Laboratory work №8

Checked by: Christina A.Mlikova

Done by: Maxim Y.Bazarov

Almaty 2025
Task 1. Research of DC circuits with nonlinear elements

1.1 Answers on all questions:

1) Symmetric nonlinear elements have the same I-V

characteristics in both directions (like varistors), while
asymmetric elements conduct differently in forward and
reverse directions (like diodes).
𝑈
2) Static resistance is the ratio of voltage to current 𝑅 = ,
𝐼
𝑑𝑈
while differential resistance is the derivative showing
𝑑𝐼
resistance at a specific point.

3)

4) For series connection, the graphical solution is found by

summing the voltage drops across nonlinear elements and
finding the intersection with the source line.

5) For parallel connection, the total current is the sum of

branch currents at the same voltage, found by plotting
individual I-V curves and summing them.

6) In combined connection, series elements voltages are

added, and parallel branch currents are summed, then
plotted graphically to find the operating point.
7) For the branched circuit, use node voltages and plot I-V
curves of each branch, applying KCL to find the
intersection that satisfies both node equations.

1.2 Procedure of carrying out the work

1.2.2 Assemble an electric circuit with a single voltage

source and two nonlinear resistances connected in series.
In the circuit should be provided the possibility of plug in
the instruments to measure the current and the voltages
across each elements and power source. Set the EMF of
source E = 15…20V and write down the measurement
results.
U, V 0 ±5 ±10 ±15 ±20
I1, mA 0 5 10 15 20
I2, mA 0 5 10 15 20

1.2.3 Assemble an electric circuit with a single voltage

source and two nonlinear resistances connected in parallel.
In the circuit should be provided the possibility of plug in
the instruments to measure the current and the voltages
across each elements and source. Set the EMF of source E
= 15…20V and write down the measurement results.
U, V 0 ±5 ±10 ±15 ±20
I1, mA 0 10 20 30 20
I2, mA 0 10 20 30 20

1.2.4 Assemble an electric circuit with a single voltage

source (EMF) and combined connection of nonlinear
resistances as shown in figure 1.1. In the circuit should be
provided the possibility of plug in the instruments to
measure all currents and voltages across each element and
source. Set the EMF of source E = 15…20V and write
down the measurement results.
U, V 0 ±5 ±10 ±15 ±20
I1, mA 0 6.667 13.333 20 26.667
I2, mA 0 3.333 6.667 10 13.333
I3, mA 0 3.333 6.667 10 13.333
1.2.5 Assemble a branched electric circuit with nonlinear
resistances, pair of nodes and two voltage sources as
shown in figure 1.2. In the circuit should be provided the
possibility of plug in the instruments to measure all
currents and voltages across each element and voltage
between two nodes. Set the EMF of sources: E1 = 20V and
E2 = 10…15V. Write down the measurement results.
U, V 0 ±5 ±10 ±15 ±20
I1, mA 26.667 23.333 20 16.667 13.333
I2, mA 13.333 16.667 20 23.333 26.667
I3, mA 13.333 6.667 3.333u 6.667 13.333
2.1.1 Constructed the current-voltage characteristics of
three nonlinear elements.
2.1.2 Made the graphical calculation of the scheme in
point 1.2.2 and compared the calculated values with the
experimental data.

2.1.3 Made the graphical calculation of the scheme in

point 1.2.3 and compared the calculated values with the
experimental data.

2.1.4 Made the graphical calculation of the scheme in

point 1.2.4 and compared the calculated values with the
experimental data.
2.1.5 Made the graphical calculation of the scheme in
point 1.2.5 and compared the calculated values with the
experimental data.
2.1.6 Conclusion: After conducting the experiment, I
compared the experimental data with the calculated results,
and they matched. This shows that the theoretical analysis
and practical observations aligned well, supporting the
accuracy of the models used in the study. This successful
comparison indicates a good understanding and validation
of the circuit behavior under the given conditions.

Task 2. Diode characteristics

Part 1: diode v-i characteristics

1.2 Forward Bias Region

V1 (meas), V Vr (meas), V Vd (meas),V Id (calc), mA
0 0 0 0
2.5 1.885 0.615 2.5
5 4.359 0.6406 4.999
7.5 6.844 0.6563 7.5003
10 9.332 0.6683 10
1.1
1.3 Reverse Bias Region
V1 (meas), V Vr (meas), V Vd (meas),V Id (calc), A
0 0 0 0
2 0.002 1.998 2 ∗ 10−6
4 0.004 3.996 4 ∗ 10−6
6 0.006 5.994 6 ∗ 10−6
8 0.008 7.992 8 ∗ 10−6
10 0.01 9.99 10 ∗ 10−6
12 0.012 11.988 12 ∗ 10−6
14 0.014 13.986 14 ∗ 10−6
16 0.016 15.984 16 ∗ 10−6
18 0.018 17.982 18 ∗ 10−6
20 0.02 19.98 20 ∗ 10−6
Part 2: diode v-i characteristics (sweep method)

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4 1N4004 and 1N5231B are absolutely not similar to
each other. Because, firstly, the reason is changing
connections of anode and cathode. Secondly, 1N4004
blocks reverse voltage, allowing only forward conduction
for rectification. The 1N5231B allows reverse conduction
beyond 5.1V, making it useful for voltage regulation.
So, the difference is shown in the both picture below.

Additional details for each part of this lab are given below:
W1. Made graphs the overall V-I characteristic for the
1N4148 diode based on your data, on linear axes with each
region of the curve identified, using different voltage
scales for the forward and reverse bias regions.
W2. Derived the exponential model parameters Is and n
for your diode based on two or more of your data points
and Shockley’s Diode Equation, presented in class.
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠 ∗ (𝑒 𝑛 ∗ 𝑉𝑡 − 1)
Given by my data:
Vt ≈ 25.85𝑚𝑉 (the value of thermal voltage at room t)
Vd1 = 0.615V, Id1 = 2.5mA
Vd2 = 0.6406V, Id2 = 4.999mA

Took values from forward bias,

V1 (meas), V Vr (meas), V Vd (meas),V Id (calc), mA
0 0 0 0
2.5 1.885 0.615 2.5
5 4.359 0.6406 4.999
7.5 6.844 0.6563 7.5003
10 9.332 0.6683 10
𝑉𝑑2−𝑉𝑑1
𝐼𝑑2
=𝑒 𝑛 ∗ 𝑉𝑡
𝐼𝑑1
𝐼𝑑2 𝑉𝑑2−𝑉𝑑1
ln (𝐼𝑑1) = 𝑛∗𝑉𝑡

𝑉𝑑2−𝑉𝑑1 0.6406−0.615 0.0256

𝑛= 𝐼𝑑2 = 4.999 = =
𝑉𝑡∗ln( ) 25.85 ∗ 10−3 ∗ ln( ) 25.85∗10−3 ∗ 0.693
𝐼𝑑1 2.5
𝑛 ≈ 1.43

𝐼𝑑1 2.5∗10−3
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑉𝑑1 = 0.615 = 1.667 ∗ 10−10 𝐴
𝑒 𝑛∗𝑉𝑡 −1 𝑒 1.44∗25.85∗10−3 −1
W3. Made a graph Shockley’s diode equation alongside
your data using the parameters derived in part W4. Use a
semi-log scale, log(ID) vs. VD, and plot the forward bias
region only.
Vd (meas),V log10 𝐼𝑑 Id (calc), mA
0 - 0
0.615 0.398 2.5
0.6406 0.698 4.999
0.6563 0.875 7.5003
0.6683 1 10

*log10 0 = 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 → nothing will be in the

graph
W4.
(1) Based on your data, what voltage would you use for a
constant voltage drop model at a diode current of 5mA?
Vd (meas),V Id (calc), mA
0 0
0.615 2.5
0.6406 4.999 Id = 5mA → Vd = 0.64V
0.6563 7.5003
0.6683 10

(2) For a piece-wise linear model, what values would you

use for VD0 and rD, at a current of 5mA?
Id = 5mA, Vd = 0.64V
𝛥𝑉𝑑 0.6404−0.615 0.0256
𝑅𝑑 = 𝛥𝐼𝑑 = (4.999−2.5)∗10−3 = 2.499∗10−3 = 10.244Ω
𝑅𝑑 ≈ 10Ω

(3) How well do these models predict the diode’s V-I

behavior?

- The exponential model is the most accurate but complex,

while the piece-wise linear model provides a good trade-
off between accuracy and simplicity. The constant voltage
drop model is the easiest to use but less accurate,
especially at varying currents.

(4) Are there any deviations from the model (e.g. at low
currents or high currents)? What are the trade-offs
involved with each model? Accuracy? Ease of use? Etc.
- At low currents, all models overestimate voltage, while at
high currents, real diodes show extra resistance that
simpler models ignore. The CVDM is easiest but least
precise, PWLM is a practical balance, and the exponential
model is most accurate but harder to apply.

W6. Compare the V-I characteristics for the 1N4004 and

1N5231B. How are they similar? How do they differ?
- 1N4004 and 1N5231B are absolutely not similar to
each other. Because, firstly, the reason is changing
connections of anode and cathode. Secondly, 1N4004
blocks reverse voltage, allowing only forward
conduction for rectification. The 1N5231B allows
reverse conduction beyond 5.1V, making it useful for
voltage regulation. So, the difference is shown in the
both picture below.
Conclusion:
In this lab, I learned how to analyze the V-I characteristics
of different diodes, including rectifier and Zener diodes,
and compare various diode models. I gained an
understanding of how the constant voltage drop, piece-
wise linear, and exponential models approximate real
diode behavior, each with trade-offs between accuracy and
simplicity. Through experimental measurements and
graphical analysis, I confirmed theoretical predictions and
observed deviations at extreme current levels.
Additionally, I explored diode applications such as
rectification and voltage regulation, reinforcing my
understanding of nonlinear circuit behavior and practical
diode usage.