CSC 405 DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS (3 Units)

INTRODUCTION
Network: a collection of independent entities that are arranged in such a way to exchange data, information, or
resources. eg road network, telephone network, computer network.
Data Communication: This is a process of transmitting data signals from one point to the other through a
network. It is also the transfer of data and information between a source and a receiver. It involves the transfer
of data, the methods of transfer, and the preservation of the data during the transfer process. The fundamental
purpose of data communication is to exchange information between user’s computers, terminals, and application
programs.
COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

The basic components of data communication are:

1. Message: It is the data or information that needs to be exchanged between the sender and the receiver.
Messages can be in the form of text, numbers, images, audio, video, multimedia, etc.
2. Sender: This is the device that sends the message, it can be a computer, workstation, telephone/handset,
television etc
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. it can be a computer, workstation,
telephone/handset, or television.
4. Communication media: It is the path through which the message travels between source and destination. It is
also called medium or link which is either wired or wireless. For example, a television cable, telephone cable,
ethernet cable, satellite link, microwaves, etc.
5. Protocols: It is a set of rules that need to be followed by the communicating parties in order to have successful
and reliable data communication. You have already come across protocols such as Ethernet and HTTP.
MEASURING CAPACITY OF COMMUNICATION MEDIA
In data communication, the transmission medium is also known as channel. The capacity of a channel is the
maximum amount of signals or traffic that a channel can carry. It is measured in terms of bandwidth and data
transfer rate as described below:
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a channel is the range of frequencies available for transmission of data through that channel.
The higher the bandwidth, the higher the data transfer rate. Normally, bandwidth is the difference between the
maximum and minimum frequency contained in the composite signals.
Bandwidth is measured in Hertz (Hz).
1 KHz =1000 Hz
1 MHz =1000 KHz = 1000000 Hz
Data Transfer Rate
Data travels in the form of signals over a channel. One signal carries one or more bits over the channel. The data
transfer rate is the number of bits transmitted between source and destination in one second. It is also known as
the bit rate. It is measured in terms of bits per second(bps). The higher units for data transfer rates are:
1 Kbps=210 bps=1024 bps
1 Mbps=220 bps=1024 Kbps
1 Gbps=230 bps=1024 Mbps
1 Tbps=240 bps=1024 Gbps
Example : A user wants to upload a text document at the rate of 10 pages per 20 seconds. What will be the
required data rate of the channel? (Assume that 1 page contains 1600 characters and each character is of 8 bits).
Solution:

TRANSMISSION MODES
Transmission modes also known as communication modes, are methods of transferring data between devices on
buses and networks designed to facilitate communication. They are classified into three types: Simplex Mode,
Half-Duplex Mode, and Full-Duplex Mode
1. Simplex Mode

In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a
link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send
data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor can only give
the output.
Advantages of Simplex Mode

 Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.

 It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication channel.
 There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices, which simplifies the
communication process.
 Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or response is not required, such
as broadcasting or surveillance.
Disadvantages of Simplex Mode
 Only one-way communication is possible.
 There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received correctly.
 Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional communication.
2. Half-Duplex Mode
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is
sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no
need for communication in both directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized
for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both directions.

Advantages of Half Duplex Mode

  Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is useful in situations where devices
need to send and receive data.
 It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the channel can be used for both
transmission and reception.
 Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only requires one communication
channel.
Disadvantages of Half Duplex Mode
 Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both devices cannot transmit at the same
time.
 There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause problems in some applications.
 There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices, which can complicate
the communication process.
3. Full-Duplex Mode
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex mode, signals going in
one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in another direction, this sharing can occur in two
ways:
 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for
receiving.
 Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of the
channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a telephone line,
through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Advantages of Full-Duplex Mode

 Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication, which is ideal for real-time
applications such as video conferencing or online gaming.
 It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can transmit and receive data
simultaneously.
 Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there is no need for error correction
mechanisms.
Disadvantages of Full-Duplex Mode
 Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two communication channels.
 It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two physically separate
transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.
 Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it requires a high level of bandwidth and
may not be necessary for some types of communication.
Difference Between Simplex, Half duplex, and Full Duplex Transmission Modes

Parameters Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

Half Duplex mode is a two- Full Duplex mode is a two-

Simplex mode is a uni-
The direction of way directional way directional
directional
communication communication but one at a communication
communication.
time. simultaneously.

In simplex mode, Sender In Half Duplex mode, In Full Duplex mode,

Sender and can send the data but that Sender can send the data Sender can send the data
Receiver sender can’t receive the and also can receive the and also can receive the
data. data but one at a time. data simultaneously.

Usage of one channel for Usage of one channel for Usage of two channels for
Channel usage
the transmission of data. the transmission of data. the transmission of data.

The simplex mode

The Half Duplex mode Full Duplex provides better
provides less
Performance provides less performance performance than simplex
performance than half
than full duplex. and half duplex mode.
duplex and full duplex.

The Half-Duplex involves

Simplex utilizes the The Full-Duplex doubles
Bandwidth lesser utilization of single
maximum of a single the utilization of
Utilization bandwidth at the time of
bandwidth. transmission bandwidth.
transmission.

Suitable for It is suitable for those It is suitable for those It is suitable for those
transmissions when there transmissions when there is transmissions when there is
Parameters Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

requirement of sending and

is requirement of full requirement of sending
receiving data
bandwidth for delivering data in both directions, but
simultaneously in both
data. not at the same time.
directions.

Example of simplex
Example of half duplex Example of full duplex
Examples mode are: Keyboard and
mode is: Walkie-Talkies. mode is: Telephone.
monitor.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
A transmission medium can be anything that can carry signals or data between the source (transmitter)and
destination (receiver). For example, as we switch on a ceiling fan or a light bulb, the electric wire is the medium
that carries electric current from the switch to the fan or bulb.
In data communication, transmission media are the links that carry messages between two or
more communicating devices. Transmission can be classified as guided or unguided. Figure 11.7 shows the
classification of communication media. In guided transmission, there is a physical link
made of wire/cable through which data in terms of signals are propagated between the nodes. These are usually
metallic cables, fiber-optic cables, etc. They are also known as wired media.
In unguided transmission, data travels in the air in terms of electromagnetic waves using an antenna. They are
also known as wireless media.
classification of communication media
Dish-shaped antennas are used for sending and receiving data at longer distances. These antennas are mounted
on taller buildings so that they would be in line of sight. Waves gradually become weaker and weaker after
traveling a certain distance through the air. Therefore, repeaters are installed to regenerate the signals of the same
energy.
1. Wired Transmission Media (Guided Media)
Any physical link that can carry data in the form of signals belong to the category of wired transmission media.
Three commonly used guided/wired media for data transmission are, twisted pair, coaxial cable, and fiber optic
cable. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable carry the electric signals whereas the optical fiber cable carries the light
signals.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances

(i) Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair consists of two copper wires twisted like a DNA helical structure. Both the copper wires are
insulated with plastic covers. Usually, several such pairs are combined together and covered with a protective
outer wrapping, as shown in Figure 11.8.

Figure 11.8: Twisted pair of cables

Each of the twisted pairs acts as a single communication link. The use of a twisted configuration minimizes the
effect of electrical interference from similar pairs close by. Twisted pairs are less expensive and most commonly
used in telephone lines and LANs. These cables are of two types: Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and Shielded
twisted-pair (STP), as shown in Fig
 UTP Cable and STP Cable
(ii) Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable is another type of data transmission medium. It is better shielded and has more bandwidth
than a twisted pair. As shown in Figure 11.10, it has a copper wire at the core of the cable which is surrounded
with insulating material. The insulator is further surrounded with an outer conductor (usually a copper
mesh). This outer conductor is wrapped in a plastic cover. The key to the success of coaxial cable is its shielded
design that allows the cable's copper core to transmit data quickly, without interference of environmental
factors. These types of cables are used to carry signals of higher frequencies to a longer distance.

Coaxial Cable

Optical Fiber Cable

fiber optic cables are composed of very thin strands of extremely pure glass fibers. They transmit information
using light from lasers or LEDs that are modulated with data or used in some cases as a light source. The cables
themselves have several thousand fibers that are insulated from one another by a protective jacket. Each fiber
also has an internal cladding that bounces light inward to prevent signal loss.
Optical Fiber Cable
2. Wireless Transmission Media (Unguided Transmission Media)
Also known as unbounded or wireless media, they help in transmitting electromagnetic signals without using a
physical medium. Here, air is the medium. There is no physical connectivity between the transmitter and
receiver. These types of transmission media are used for longer distances however they are less secure than
guided media. There are three main types of wireless transmission media.
Features of Unguided Media
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
Types of Wireless Transmission Media (Unguided Transmission Media)
1. Radio Waves
Radio waves are transmitted in every direction throughout free space. Since these are omnidirectional, sent
waves can be received by any antenna. These waves are useful when the data is multicasted from one sender to
multiple receivers. Radio waves can cover large areas and even penetrate obstacles such as buildings and walls.
The frequency of these waves ranges between 3 kHz to 1GHz. Due to its omnidirectional nature, issues such as
interference might arise when another signal with the same bandwidth or frequency is sent. AM and FM radios
and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Radio Waves
2. Infrared
These waves are useful for only very short-distance communication. Unlike radio waves, they do not have the
ability to penetrate barriers. Their range varies between 300GHz – 400THz. Since they have larger bandwidth,
the data rate is very high for infrared waves. These have less interference and are more secure. It is used in TV
remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Infrared Transmission
3. Microwaves
For these waves, it is important for the transmitter and receiver antenna to be aligned. This is why it is known as
line-of-sight transmission. Due to this, they are suitable for shorter distances. They comprise of electromagnetic
waves with frequencies ranging between 1-400 GHz. Microwaves provide bandwidth between the range of 1 to
10 Mbps. The distance covered by the signal is proportional to the height of the antenna. For traveling to longer
distances, the height of the tower should be increased. Microwaves are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.

COMPUTER NETWORKS
A computer network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications.
Computer networks can be physical or logical. A physical computer network is a real network comprised of
cables and devices that send data back and forth. Logical networks are software representations of a physical
network, they are built on top of a physical network.
 Computer networks aim to share information and resources among multiple digital devices. The Internet is an
example of a computer network, made up of many smaller computer networks. Computer networks make
video streaming, social networks, and cloud networks possible.
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
Depending upon the geographical area covered by a network, it is classified as:
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and computer devices (including
telephones) in close proximity of around a few meters within a room. It can be used for communicating
between the devices themselves, or for connecting to a larger network such as the internet. PANs can be
wired or wireless

Figure 1 : Personal Area Network s

Characteristics of PAN
• It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.
• Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surroundings of
a single user.
• PAN includes mobile devices, tablets, and laptops.
• It can be wirelessly connected to the internet through WPAN.
• Appliances used for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.
Advantages of PAN
Here, are the important pros/benefits of using PAN network:
• PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
• It offers only short-range solutions up to ten meters
• Strictly restricted to a small area
Disadvantages of PAN
Here are important cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:
It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices that are connected in a limited
area such as a school, laboratory, home, or office building. It is a widely useful network for sharing resources
like files, printers, games, and other applications. The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers
and a printer in someone's home or office. It is a network that consists of less than 5000 interconnected
devices across several buildings.

Figure 2: Local Area Network

Characteristics of LAN
Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:
• It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
• LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
• There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and ethernet.
Advantages of LAN
Here are the pros/benefits of using LAN:
• Computer resources like hard disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area networks. This
significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed software for each client
in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data in only one place, which makes data more secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the LAN users.
Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the important cons/ drawbacks of LAN:
• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of installing Local
Area Networks is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check the personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer good privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case the LAN admin is not able to secure a
centralized data repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to software setup
and hardware failures
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN consists of a computer network across an entire city, a college
campus, or a small region. This type of network is larger than a LAN, which is mostly limited to a single
building or site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of network allows you to cover an area
from several miles to tens of miles.
Figure 3: Metropolitan Area Network
A MAN often acts as a high-speed network to allow the sharing of regional resources.
• A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.
• Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high-speed DSL to customers and cable
TV network
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN covers a large geographic area such as countries continents or even the whole of the world. A WAN is
two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many miles apart. To cover great distances, WANs
may transmit data over leased high-speed phone lines or wireless links such as satellites

Figure 4: Wide Area Network

Characteristics of WAN
• The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the latest files.
• Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.

Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/ pros of using WAN:
• WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore, business offices situated at longer distances
can easily communicate.
• Contains devices like mobile phones, laptops, tablets, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
 • WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.
Disadvantage of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of using WAN:
• The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
• It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network administrators.
• There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different technologies.
• It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and wireless
technologies.
• Offers lower security compared to other types of networks.
5. VPN (Virtual Private Network)
 A network which is constructed by using public wires to connect to a private network
 There are a number of systems which enable you to create networks using the Internet as a medium for
transporting data
 These systems use encryptions and other security mechanisms to ensure only authorized users can access
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and connections in a network. Nodes
usually include devices such as switches, routers, and software with switch and router features. Network
topologies are often represented as a graph.
A node is anything that has a NIC (Network Interface Card) in it. That is, anything that can send and receive
data via the TCP/IP internet protocol. A node can be a computer, printer, scanner, smartphone, or any device
that can communicate with other devices. Types of Computer Networks
Types of Network Topology
1. Bus Topology

Bus Topology
The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single cable
known as a backbone cable. Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or
directly connected to the backbone cable. When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts
a message over the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it
has been addressed or not. The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard
networks. The configuration of a bus topology is quite simple compared to other topologies.
The backbone cable is considered a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast to all the
stations.
The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
CSMA It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is maintained, i.e.,
the packets do not get lost.
Advantages of Bus topology
i. Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing through a
hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
ii. Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support upto 10 Mbps.
iii. Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
iv. Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology
i. Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
ii. Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any
fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
iii. Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the
nodes collide with each other.
iv. Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
v. Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are used to
regenerate the signal.
2. Ring Topology

Ring Topology
Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to another node.
Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Working of Token passing
o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches the
destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches. Once the
token received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Advantages of Ring topology:
i. Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the network
down.
ii. Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and monitoring are
available.
iii. Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
iv. Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on the single
host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
i. Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault
occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
ii. Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
iii. Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
iv. Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new devices
increases the communication delay.
3. Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central hub,
switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server are known
as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to bus
topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the
stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the
single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star topology. Any
changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore failure in
one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most
popular Star topology networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology
 o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected nodes will not
be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is required.

4. Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other in
hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the descendants of
the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child
hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband transmission,
i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can say that tree
topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as star
networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot the
problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
 o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will damage the
overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
5. Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with each
other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a critical
concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
Mesh topology is divided into two categories:
o Fully connected mesh topology
o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the computers available
in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are connected to those
computers with which they communicate frequently.
Advantages of Mesh topology:
o Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the
communication between connected computers.
o Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
o Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other
devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more
transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage. If the
network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the network.
6. Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar
topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a
ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting
these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the
network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the
functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength of the
network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network. It is
very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different from
usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling,
network devices, etc.
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE, LAYERING, AND PROTOCOLS
Network architecture, layering, and protocols are concepts that describe how data is exchanged between devices in a
network.
Network architecture
 the design of a computer network
 Includes the physical components, operational procedures, and communication protocols
 It can be peer-to-peer, client-server, hybrid, cloud-based, or software-defined
Layered architecture
A design approach that organizes network communication into layers with specific functions
Layers work together to simplify network operations
Examples of layered network architecture include the OSI and TCP/IP models
Protocols
A set of rules and conventions for exchanging information between entities Different protocols are used for different tasks,
such as file transfer
The most common types (or styles) of network architecture include:
1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P)
In a peer-to-peer network, all devices, often called “peers,” have equal capabilities and responsibilities. This architecture
doesn’t require a central server, and all devices communicate directly with each other. The distribution of resources in P2P
networks makes them potentially more resilient to failure than centralized architectures, as the failure of one node doesn’t
significantly impact the entire network.
Client-Server
In a client-server architecture, some computers (servers) provide services, and other computers (clients) use those services.
The server has more processing power and storage and performs most of the work. This centralization can make network
maintenance easier but also presents a single point of failure.
Hybrid: Hybrid networks combine elements of the client-server and peer-to-peer architectures. Some devices in the
network act as clients and access services, while others act as servers and provide services. Some devices fulfill both roles.
Cloud-Based Architecture
Cloud-based networks offer services and storage over the Internet. Users don’t need to maintain their hardware and
software; instead, they can access applications and storage provided by cloud service providers. This flexibility allows for
easy scaling and global accessibility.
Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
In an SDN architecture, the network’s control and forwarding functions are decoupled. This separation allows for
centralized management and control over the entire network, promoting flexibility and rapid deployment of new services.
LAYERED ARCHITECTURE IN COMPUTER NETWORKS
Layered Architecture in a computer network is defined as a model where a whole network process is divided into various
smaller sub-tasks. These divided sub-tasks are then assigned to a specific layer to perform only the dedicated tasks. A
single layer performs only a specific type of task. To run the application and provide all types of services to clients a lower
layer adds its services to the higher layer present above it. Therefore layered architecture provides interactions between the
sub-systems. If any type of modification is done in one layer it does not affect the next layer.
Elements of Layered Architecture
There are three different types of elements of a layered architecture. They are described below:
Service
Service is defined as a set of functions and tasks being provided by a lower layer to a higher layer. Each layer performs a
different type of task. Therefore, actions provided by each layer are different.
Protocol
Protocol is defined as a set rule used by the layer for exchanging and transmission of data with its peer entities. These rules
can consist details regarding a type of content and their order passed from one layer to another.
Interface
Interface is defined as a channel that allows to transmit the messages from one layer to the another.
In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the layer n on another machine and the
rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.
Significance of Layered Architecture
Divide and Conquer Approach:
Layered architecture supports divide and conquer approach. The unmanageable and complex task is further divided into
smaller sub tasks. Each sub task is then carried out by the different layer. Therefore, using this approach reduces the
complexity of the problem or design process.
Easy to Modify:
The layers are independent of each other in layered architecture. If any sudden change occurs in the implementation of one
layer, it can be changed. This change does not affect the working of other layers involved in the task. Therefore, layered
architectures are required to perform any sudden update or change.
Modularity:
Layered architecture is more modular as compared to other architecture models in computer network. Modularity provides
with more independence between the layers and are easier to understand.
Easy to Test:
Each layer in layered architecture performs a different and dedicated task. Therefore, each layer can be analyzed and tested
individually. It helps to analyze the problem and solve them more efficiently as compared to solving all the problems at a
time.
Scalability:
As networks grow in size and complexity, additional layers or protocols may be added to meet new requirements while
maintaining existing functionality.
Security:
The layered technique enables security measures to be implemented to varying degrees, protecting the community from a
variety of threats.
Efficiency: Each layer focuses on a certain aspect of verbal exchange, optimizing aid allocation and performance.
Evolution of Layered Architecture
In computer networks, layered architecture is majorly used for communication. The two network models that makes use of
layered architecture are:
OSI Model
TCP/IP Model
1. OSI MODEL
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. The OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International
Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the protocols used in the
various layers. The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows communication
between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a
part of the process of moving information across a network.
The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers: physical (layer 1), data link (layer 2), network (layer 3),
transport (layer 4), session (layer 5), presentation (layer 6), and application (layer 7).
All these seven layers work collaboratively to transmit data from one layer to another. Sending data over a network is
complex because various hardware and software technologies must work cohesively across geographical and political
boundaries Below are the layers of OSI Model.
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)
The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and deals with the physical transmission of data over the
network medium.It defines the electrical, mechanical, and procedural aspects of data transmission, including voltage levels,
cable types, connectors, and data transmission rates

The physical layer is also concerned with the following

i. Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os or 1s) with no interpretation.
To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
ii. Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the physical layer. In other
words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts.
iii. Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also must be synchronized at
the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
iv. Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network. Devices can be
connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected to every other device), a star topology (devices are
connected through a central device), a ring topology (each device is connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology
(every device is on a common link), or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more topologies).
v Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two devices: simplex, half-
duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-
way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex
(or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at the same time. Examples of physical layer devices include
network interface cards (NICs), hubs, repeaters, and cables (e.g., Ethernet cables, fiber-optic cables).
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
The data link layer is responsible for providing error-free and reliable data transmission between adjacent network nodes
over the physical layer. The data link layer transforms the physical layer, it makes the physical layer appear error-free to the
upper layer (network layer). The Data Link Layer provides for error detection and correction to make sure that the data sent
is the same as the data that was received. If an error is not correctable, the data-link standard needs to specify how the node
is to be told of the error so that it can retransmit the data that was in error.
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
i. Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable data units called
frames.
Ii. Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds a
header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the
sender's network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.
iii. Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at which data are produced
in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
iv. Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit
damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through
a trailer added to the end of the frame.
v Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to
determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
Manages MAC address Each node (Network Interface Card - NIC) has an address at the Data Link layer called
the Media Access Control address commonly referred to as the MAC Address. This is the actual hardware address, which
is assigned by the manufacturer of the device.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3)
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly
across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on
the same network (links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination. If
two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are
attached to different networks (links) with connecting devices between the networks (links), there is often a need for the
network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
i. Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the addressing problem locally.
If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination
systems. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the
logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
ii. Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetworks (network of networks) or a large
network, the connecting devices (called routers ) route the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the
network layer is to provide this mechanism.
Key protocols at this layer include the Internet Protocol (IP), which is important for routing and addressing, Internet
Control Message Protocol (ICMP) for diagnostic and error-reporting purposes, and routing protocols like Routing
Information Protocol (RIP) that manage the routing of data across networks.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)
The transport layer is responsible for end-to-end communication and ensures the reliable and efficient delivery of packet
between source and destination . The main purpose of the Transport Layer is to ensure that packets move over the network
reliably and without errors. The Transport Layer does this by establishing connections between network devices,
acknowledging the receipt of packets, and resending packets that aren’t received or are corrupted when they arrive.
In many cases, the Transport Layer protocol divides large messages into smaller packets that can be sent over the network
efficiently. The Transport Layer protocol reassembles the message on the receiving end, making sure that all packets
contained in a single transmission are received and no data is lost.
Responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
1. Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment containing a
sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
2. Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented. A connectionless transport
layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A
connection oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before
delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
3 Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
3. Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control.
Protocols at this layer include Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP is
connection-oriented and ensures reliable data transfer with error checking and flow control, making it suitable for
applications like web browsing and email. UDP is connectionless, offering faster, though less reliable, transmission,
suitable for applications like video streaming and online gaming.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5)
The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
i. Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a
time) mode.
ii. Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream of data
Protocols operating at the Session Layer include Remote Procedure Call (RPC), which enables a program to execute a
procedure on a remote host as if it were local
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
The Presentation Layer, also known as the syntax layer, is responsible for translating data between the application layer and
the network format. It ensures that data sent from the application layer of one system is readable by the application layer of
another system. This layer handles data formatting, encryption, and compression, facilitating interoperability between
different systems.
One of the key roles of the Presentation Layer is data translation and code conversion. It transforms data into a format that
the application layer can understand. For example, it may convert data from ASCII to EBCDIC. It also includes encryption
protocols to ensure data security during transmission and compression protocols to reduce the amount of data for efficient
transmission.
7. Application Layer (Layer 7)
The application layer is the topmost layer of the OSI model, it deals with the techniques that application programs use to
communicate with the network. The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information services.
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
i. Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical
terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host.
ii. File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in a
remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer, and to
manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
iii. Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage
Examples of protocols operating at the Application Layer include Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for web browsing,
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for file transfers, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for email services, and Domain
Name System (DNS) for resolving domain names to IP addresses. These protocols ensure that user applications can
effectively communicate with each other and with servers over a network.

TCP/IP MODEL
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based on standard protocols.
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the Internet. This model defines how data is transmitted over
networks, ensuring reliable communication between devices. It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer,
the Transport Layer, and the Application Layer. Each layer has specific functions that help manage different aspects of
network communication, making it essential for understanding and working with modern networks.
TCP/IP model was developed alongside the creation of the ARPANET, which later became the foundation of the modern
internet. It was designed with a focus on the practical aspects of networking at the time. The lower-level hardware details
and physical transmission medium were largely abstracted away in favor of higher-level networking protocols.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another. The main condition of this
process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by the
sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets
and combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring from one end to
another end. The TCP/IP model is used in the context of the real-world internet, where a wide range of physical media and
network technologies are in use. Rather than specifying a particular Physical Layer, the TCP/IP model allows for flexibility
in adapting to different physical implementations.

Layers of TCP/IP Model

1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Network/Internet Layer
4. Network Access Layer
1. Network Access Layer
A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference model.
It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the same network.
The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames transmitted by the network and
mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
2. Internet Layer
An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model. An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they arrive at the destination
irrespective of the route they take.
The protocols used in this layer are:
i. IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire TCP/IP suite.
The following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
 IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP addresses are used
by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide internetwork routing.
 Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.
Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer protocol. An IP protocol
ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
 Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link layer protocol is
known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP
protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be
done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an
original message.
 Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as direct
delivery. When the source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This
can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.
ii. ARP Protocol
ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP address.
The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the
network.
ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and process the request, but only recipient
recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical
address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header
iii. ICMP Protocol
ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram problems back to the sender.
A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable to route the data because of
some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used
to inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is responding or not.
The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them. The responsibility of the
correction lies with the sender.
ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because the IP datagram carries the
addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that it is passed to.
3. Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is being sent over the
network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission control protocol.
i. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
 It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
 User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the sender that user datagram
has been damaged.
UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application program that receives the
message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.
ii. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
 It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration of the transmission.
 TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the
segments must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual
circuit is discarded.
 At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment, and each segment
contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the frames to form an original message.
 At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence numbers.
4. Application Layer
 An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
 This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
 When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it forwards its data to
the transport layer.
There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed inside the application layer except
those who interact with the communication system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer
while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application layer
protocol.
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:
i. HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data over the world wide web.
It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the
efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
ii. SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for managing the devices on
the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
iii. SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail is known as a
Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail address.
iv. DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of a host to the internet
uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address
is known as Domain Name System.
v. TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local computer and
remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
vi. FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting the files from one
computer to another computer.
Why TCP/IP Model Does Not Have Physical Layer
The physical layer is not covered by the TCP/IP model because the data link layer is considered the point at which the
interface occurs between the TCP/IP stock and the underlying network hardware. Also, it is designed to be independent of
the underlying physical media. This allows TCP/IP to be flexible and adaptable to different types of physical connections,
such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, fiber optics, or even older technologies like dial-up modems. The physical layer is typically
handled by hardware components and standards specific to the physical medium being used, like Ethernet cables or radio
waves for Wi-Fi.
Advantages of TCP/IP Model
i. Interoperability: The TCP/IP model allows different types of computers and networks to communicate with each other,
promoting compatibility and cooperation among diverse systems.
ii. Scalability: TCP/IP is highly scalable, making it suitable for both small and large networks, from local area networks
(LANs) to wide area networks (WANs) like the internet.
iii. Standardization : It is based on open standards and protocols, ensuring that different devices and software can work
together without compatibility issues.
iv. Flexibility : The model supports various routing protocols, data types, and communication methods, making it
adaptable to different networking needs.
v. Reliability: TCP/IP includes error-checking and retransmission features that ensure reliable data transfer, even over long
distances and through various network conditions.
Disadvantages of TCP/IP Model
i. Complex Configuration : Setting up and managing a TCP/IP network can be complex, especially for large networks
with many devices. This complexity can lead to configuration errors.
ii. Security Concerns : TCP/IP was not originally designed with security in mind. While there are now many security
protocols available (such as SSL/TLS), they have been added on top of the basic TCP/IP model, which can lead to
vulnerabilities.
iii. Inefficiency for Small Networks : For very small networks, the overhead and complexity of the TCP/IP model may be
unnecessary and inefficient compared to simpler networking protocols.
iv. Limited by Address Space : Although IPv6 addresses this issue, the older IPv4 system has a limited address space,
which can lead to issues with address exhaustion in larger networks.
v. Data Overhead : TCP, the transport protocol, includes a significant amount of overhead to ensure reliable transmission.
This can reduce efficiency, especially for small data packets or in networks where speed is crucial.
OSI vs TCP/IP Model

Similarities between TCP/IP and OSI model

Both the TCP/IP and OSI models provide logical ways of networking, as well as the processing of information using a
layered system. In both systems, each layer has a specific function. This makes it easier to pinpoint where issues are
occurring in the event of a failure.
For example, in both models, you can determine if the data is not being transmitted properly to a hardware device by
isolating potential problems in the data link layer (OSI) or the hardware layer (TCP/IP).
The differences between the OSI and TCP/IP Model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It stands for Open System It stands for Transmission Control

Interconnection. Protocol.

It was developed by ARPANET

OSI model has been developed by ISO
(Advanced Research Project Agency
(International Standard Organization).
Network).

It consists of standard protocols that

It is an independent standard and
lead to the development of an internet.
generic protocol used as a
It is a communication protocol that
communication gateway between the
provides the connection among the
network and the end user.
hosts.
 The transport layer does not provide the
In the OSI model, the transport layer
surety for the delivery of packets. But
provides a guarantee for the delivery of
still, we can say that it is a reliable
the packets.
model.

This model is based on a vertical This model is based on a horizontal

approach. approach.

In this model, the session and

In this model, the session and
presentation layer are not different
presentation layers are separated, i.e.,
layers. Both layers are included in the
both the layers are different.
application layer.

It is also known as a reference model

through which various networks are
It is an implemented model of an OSI
built. For example, the TCP/IP model is
model.
built from the OSI model. It is also
referred to as a guidance tool.

In this model, the network layer

The network layer provides only
provides both connection-oriented and
connectionless service.
connectionless service.

Protocols in the OSI model are hidden

In this model, the protocol cannot be
and can be easily replaced when the
easily replaced.
technology changes.

It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

OSI model defines the services, In the TCP/IP model, services,

protocols, and interfaces as well as protocols, and interfaces are not
provides a proper distinction between properly separated. It is protocol
them. It is protocol independent. dependent.

The usage of this model is very low. This model is highly used.

It provides standardization to the It does not provide the standardization

devices like router, motherboard, to the devices. It provides a connection
switches, and other hardware devices. between various computers.
NETWORK DEVICES
Network devices manage traffic flow and direct data packets, provide security, and enable connectivity between network
segments or the Internet. Each device serves a specific purpose that allows for a seamless flow of information and
connectivity across an organization’s IT ecosystem.
Significance of Network Devices
Network devices play two key roles:
The first is establishing a network connection, as a router or a modem does.
The second one is maintaining, protecting and enhancing that connection, as with a hub, repeater, switch or gateway
Network devices are critical for establishing and managing networks. The purpose of a computer network is to share
resources like files, printers, and internet connections among an organization’s users and devices. They ensure data is
accurately routed and secured, supporting network services and applications’ effective and reliable operation. Without
network devices, your IT infrastructure would lack the ability to manage data traffic, leading to inefficiencies, data loss,
and security vulnerabilities. Network devices also enable scalability for businesses, allowing networks to adapt to changing
business needs, which is essential for maintaining optimal performance and protecting against cyber threats.
Functions of Network Devices
1. Networking devices serve the following general purposes:
2. Facilitate data transmission and communication between devices
3. Enable efficient and secure network connectivity
4. Enhance network performance and optimize traffic flow
5. Provide network security by enforcing access control and threat prevention
6. Simplify network management and configuration
7. Extend network coverage and overcome signal limitations
Types of Network Devices
Understanding the different types of network devices is important for optimizing and securing your organization’s network
infrastructure. Below, we provide a list of network device examples that form the foundation of effective network
management and communication:
 Repeater
 Hub
 Bridge
 Switch
 Routers
 Gateway
 Brouter
 Network Interface Card

1. Repeater
A digital signal can only travel so far down a cable until it degrades. This gradual weakening is referred to as attenuation
rate. A repeater operating at the OSI model’s physical layer (Layer 1) is a powered device that reenergizes the signal to
keep traveling further, repeaters help overcome distance-related limitations by strengthening the strength and quality of the
signal. They are instrumental in LANs and WANs as they minimize errors, reduce data loss, and ensure reliable delivery to
specific locations. One of the primary benefits of repeaters is the error-free transfer of data over longer distances. This will
ensure efficient and safe communication. Dedicated repeaters are rarely used today, as powered hubs, switches, and routers
do the job of a repeater. However, repeaters are occasionally employed to extend the range of remote wireless access
points.

Features of Repeaters
 Repeater can regenerate the signal without modifying it.
 Repeaters can be used in analog signals and digital signals.
 Repeaters can extend the range of networks.
 A repeater supports dynamic networking.
 The use of Repeaters reduces error and loss of data.
 Power is required for the working of repeaters.
 Using a repeater can add complexity to the network.
Working of Repeaters
Initially the source system transmits the signals. This source systems can be a mobile phone, laptop or radio.
This transmitted signal from the source system travels in the air if it’s a wireless network or through the cable if it is a
wired network. As the signal goes away from the source it’s strength gets weak.
The signal received by the repeater is not the actual signal sent by the source system but a weak signal. Therefore repeater
amplifies this weak signal to get it strengthened.
The strengthened signal is now being sent from the repeater to its destination. This signal is stronger and can travel at
longer distances. In short, it extends the network without losing the quality of the signal.
Repeaters are therefore used in various wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and wired technologies such as Ethernet.
2. Hub
A network hub is an essential multiport device that connects multiple Ethernet devices into a single broadcast network
segment, which makes them prone to traffic congestion. A Network Hub is one of the most commonly used networking
devices and can be easily found on any small network such as a home or office network. Hub operates at the physical layer
of the OSI model. It is the simplest networking device and hence has a low cost. A hub is a repeater with multiple ports.
The function of a hub in networking is similar to the repeater. It transfers data in the form of binary bits and is used for
broadcasting data. There are three types of Hubs:
 Passive hub
 Active hub
 Intelligent hub
Let’s look at each of these:
Passive Hub: Passive hubs are simply used to connect signals from different network cables as they do not have any
computerized element. They simply connect the wires of different devices in the star topology. Passive hubs do not do any
processing or signal regeneration and that’s why do not require electricity the most they can do is they can copy or repeat
the signal. It can’t clean the message, and it can’t amplify or strengthen the signal.
Active Hub: They have a power supply for regenerating, and amplifying the signals. When a port sends weak signaled
data, the hub regenerates the signal and strengthens it, then send it further to all other ports. Active hubs are expensive in
costs as compared to passive hubs.
Intelligent Hub: Provides additional features to the active hub. Also known as a manageable hub, as each port on the hub
can be configured by the network operator according to the network requirement. All the ports of the hub can be
configured, monitored, enabled or disabled.
The function of a Network Hub
When a Hub receives data from one of the connected devices, it passes data to all the other ports without checking for the
destination device except the port through which it receives the data.
3. Bridge
A bridge is a hardware used in computer networking that joins two or more network segments and routes data between
them according to MAC addresses. In short, a bridge improves network performance and connection by functioning at the
data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
Types of Bridges
There are three types of bridges in computer networks, which are as follows:
Transparent Bridge: Transparent bridges are invisible to other devices on the network. This bridge doesn’t reconfigure
the network on the addition or deletion of any station. The prime function of the transparent bridge is to block or forward
the data according to the MAC address.
Source Routing Bridge: Source routing bridges were developed and designed by IBM specifically for token ring
networks. The frame’s entire route is embedded with the data frames by the source station to perform the routing operation
so that once the frame is forwarded it must follow a specific defined path/route.
Translational Bridge: Translational bridges convert the received data from one networking system to another. Or it is used
to communicate or transmit data between two different types of networking systems. Like if we are sending data from a
token ring to an Ethernet cable, the translational cable will be used to connect both the networking system and transmit
data.
Features of Bridge
  Works at the data link layer, managing data more intelligently.
 Supports full-duplex, allowing data to be sent and received at the same time.
 Segments the network, reducing data traffic.
Working of Bridges
Let’s see the step-by-step working of the bridge in computer networks:
Receiving Data: The bridge gets data packets (or frames) from both network segments A and B.
Building a Table: It creates a table of MAC addresses by looking at where the data is coming from to know which device
is on which segment.
Filtering Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device also on network A, the bridge stops it from going further.
Forwarding Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device on network B, the bridge sends it to the correct place
on network B.
Repeating for Both Sides: The bridge does the same thing for data coming from network B.
Use Cases of Bridge
Below are the use cases of Bridge:
 Used in larger networks to reduce traffic and improve efficiency.
 Can be used to connect two different types of networks.
Difference between Hub and Bridge

Hub Bridge

Hub is a network device that is used for Bridge is also a network device that is used to connect two different
connecting a number of devices. LANs working on the same protocol.

Types of hubs are: Active and Passive. Types of bridges are: Source route, Transparent, and Translation.

Hub does not perform data filtration. While bridge performs data filtration.

But in bridge, one port is for incoming and another port for
Multiple ports are used in Hub.
outgoing.

While bridge connects two different LAN working on the same

Hub connects the LAN’s segment.
protocol.

Hub operates on the physical layer of the OSI

While bridge operates on the data link layer of the OSI model.
Model.
4. Switch
A switch is a networking device that is used to connect devices within a computer network. It is an essential component of
any local area network (LAN), as it enables devices to communicate with each other and share resources such as files,
printers, and internet access
It operates on the OSI model’s layer 2 or data link layer. They connect devices in a network and use packet switching to
send, receive, or forward data packets or data frames across the network.
A switch in a computer network has many ports into which computers can be plugged. When a data frame arrives at any
port of a network switch, it examines the destination address, performs the necessary checks, and sends the frame to the
corresponding device (s). It supports unicast, multicast, and broadcast communications.

Working of Switch in Computer Network

When the source wants to send a data packet to the destination, the packet first enters the switch, where it is read by the
switch, and the MAC address of the destination is found to identify the device before being sent out through the
appropriate ports that lead to the destination devices.
The switch creates a temporary connection between the source and destination for communication and then disconnects the
connection once the conversation is finished. Furthermore, it provides full bandwidth to network traffic going to and from a
device at the same time, reducing collision.
Types of Switches in Computer Network
Unmanaged-Switch
Unmanaged switches are the most basic type of switches that require no configuration. They are typically used in small
networks where simple connectivity is required. These switches have a fixed set of features and do not offer advanced
functionality such as Quality of Service (QoS) or VLANs. They are plug-and-play devices that simply connect network
devices.
Managed-Switch
Managed switches offer advanced features and configuration options such as VLANs, QoS, and port mirroring. They allow
network administrators to configure, manage, and monitor network settings, making them ideal for larger networks that
require more granular control. Managed switches can be further classified into two types: smart switches and fully
managed switches.
LAN -Switch: A LAN switch connects devices on a company’s internal LAN. Ethernet switches and data switches are
other names for them. These switches are particularly useful for reducing network congestion or bottlenecks. They
distribute bandwidth so that data packets in a network do not overlap.
PoE-Switch
Power over Ethernet (PoE) switches are used in PoE Gigabit Ethernets. Thanks to PoE technology, which combines data
and power transmission over the same connection, devices connected to it can receive energy and data over the same line.
Advantages of Switch in Computer Network
Here we have the Advantages of switches in computer networks:
Increased Network Performance: Switches help increase network performance by reducing network congestion and
improving data transfer rates. This is because they use packet switching, which allows data to be transmitted directly to its
intended destination.
Improved Security: Switches enhance network security by allowing administrators to create VLANs (virtual LANs) to
segment the network and control access to sensitive data. This helps prevent unauthorized access and protects against
security threats such as data breaches.
Easy Network Management: Switches offer a centralized point of control for network management, allowing
administrators to configure and monitor network settings from a single location. This reduces the need for manual
configuration on individual devices and saves time.
Scalability: Switches can easily be added or removed from a network, making them scalable and adaptable to changing
network requirements. This makes it easy to expand the network as the organization grows.
Disadvantages of Switch in Computer Network
Here we have the disadvantages of switches in computer networks:
Cost: Switches can be more expensive than other networking devices such as hubs or repeaters. This can be a disadvantage
for smaller organizations or those on a tight budget.
Complexity: Managed switches can be complex and require specialized knowledge to configure and manage. This can be
a disadvantage for organizations without experienced network administrators.
Single Point of Failure: A switch can be a single point of failure in a network. If a switch fails, it can cause the entire
network to go down, resulting in downtime and lost productivity.
Limited Compatibility: Switches may not be compatible with all network devices, particularly older or non-standard
devices. This can limit the flexibility of the network and require additional equipment to be purchased.
5. Router
A router is a hardware device designed to receive, analyze, and move incoming packets to another network. Routers
forward packets and allow multiple devices to use the same Internet
Types of Routers
Wired Router
Wired routers are traditional versions that use cable connections on both ends to receive and distribute data
packets. Wireless routers, which transmit data directly to computers and other electronic devices via radio signals, are more
advanced.
A wired router directly connects to a computer via a cable. One port links to a modem for receiving Internet packets, while
the other port connects to the computer for distributing processed Internet packets. Ethernet broadband router is one of the
most classic wired routers. It supports network address translation (NAT) technology, which allows multiple computers to
connect in wired routers to share a single IP address. It also uses stateful packet inspection (SPI) firewalls while providing
communication between computers within the network for security purposes. However, wired routers have a limited
number of device connections, and they are extremely inconvenient to connect, so they are gradually replaced by wireless
routers.

Wired Router
Wireless (Wi-Fi) router
A wireless router, also known as a Wi-Fi router or WLAN device, converts wired broadband data into radio signals,
establishing Wi-Fi networks for internet access, commonly used in homes and offices. Operating on the IEEE 802.11ac
Wave 2 standard, these routers integrate wireless access point functions with routers, transmitting data wirelessly via
antennas across various frequency bands. To ensure security, routers require login IDs and passwords, with additional
measures like MAC address filtering and Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA).

Wireless Router
Brouter
Short for bridge router, a brouter is a networking device that serves as both a bridge and a router.
Core router
A core router is a router in a computer network that routes data within a network, but not between networks.
Functions of a Router
Three main functions of a router include data packet routing, network address filtering, and acting as an intermediary
between networks.
1. Packet Forwarding: The primary function of a router is to forward data packets between networks. When a router
receives a packet, it examines the destination IP address and consults its routing table to determine the best path for
the packet to reach its destination. The router then forwards the packet to the appropriate next-hop router or
directly to the destination host.
2. Routing: Routers use routing protocols and algorithms to build and maintain a routing table. This table contains
information about the available paths to different networks and their associated metrics (e.g., hop count,
bandwidth, delay). The router uses this information to make decisions about the best route for each data packet.
3. Network Address Translation (NAT): NAT is a technique used by routers to allow multiple devices in a private
local area network (LAN) to share a single public IP address. When data packets are sent from the LAN to the
internet, the router replaces the private IP addresses with its public IP address. This helps conserve IPv4 addresses
and adds a layer of security as the internal IP addresses are hidden from the external network.
4. Packet Filtering and Firewalling: Routers can implement access control lists (ACLs) to filter incoming and
outgoing packets based on specific criteria, such as source IP address, destination IP address, port numbers, or
protocol types. This filtering capability is often used for security purposes to prevent unauthorized access and
protect the internal network from potential threats.
5. Interconnecting Different Network Technologies: Routers can interconnect networks that use different
technologies, such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and wide-area network (WAN) technologies like T1, DSL, or fiber-optic
 connections. They perform the necessary protocol conversions to ensure seamless data transfer between dissimilar
networks.
6. Path Selection: Routers use various metrics and algorithms to determine the best path for forwarding data. These
metrics can be based on factors like the speed, reliability, and cost of the available paths. The goal is to optimize
data transmission and reduce latency.
7. Dynamic Routing: Routers can adapt to changes in the network topology and automatically update their routing
tables by using dynamic routing protocols. These protocols exchange information with other routers, allowing
them to learn about new routes or failures in the network. Examples of dynamic routing protocols include OSPF
(Open Shortest Path First) and BGP (Border Gateway Protocol).
8. Quality of Service (QoS): Routers can prioritize certain types of traffic over others, ensuring that critical
applications (e.g., voice and video) receive preferential treatment and guaranteed bandwidth, while less important
traffic experiences limited bandwidth. QoS helps to manage network congestion and provide a better user
experience for time-sensitive applications.
9. Virtual LAN (VLAN) Support: Many modern routers support VLANs, which allow network administrators to
logically segment a physical network into multiple virtual networks. This segmentation enhances network security,
management, and efficiency.
10. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) Server: Routers can act as DHCP servers, assigning IP
addresses dynamically to devices within the network, simplifying network configuration for end-users.
How Does a Router Work?
Routers function as advanced post offices for the Internet. When you send or request data, the router reads the "address" of
the destination machine and shoots it off into the World Wide Web. The data is sent as a series of small packets, each
bearing the address of where it’s heading.
Data Packet Breakdown
Whenever online activity is initiated - be it sending an email or streaming a video - the information involved is broken
down into 'packets.' Each packet, carrying a specific chunk of data, is tagged with a header. This header holds critical
information, including the source IP address (where it came from), the destination IP address (where it's going), and the
packet's sequence number, among other details.
Packet Direction (Routing)
Having received the data packets, a router then consults its routing table - an efficient data structure that holds details about
paths to other networks. The router studies the destination IP address from the packet header, cross-checks it with the
routing table, and decides where to send the packets. If the router doesn't recognize the address, it may send the packets to
a default pathway. It's worth noting that different packets of data can take separate routes before
reaching the same destination.
Data Packet Transmission and Reassembly
Following the guidance derived from the routing table, the router transmits packets onward towards their destinations.
Upon reaching the destination device, these packets undergo reassembly to reconstruct the original data. The sequence
numbers in the packet headers ensure accurateness in this rebuilding process, facilitating the deliverance of coherent
information to the user.
Collectively, these three mechanisms allow for the smooth and efficient operation of a router, providing internet users with
a seamless online communication experience.
Advantages of Router
Routers offer an array of significant advantages, making them indispensable for networking:
1. Routing and Delivery of Packets: Routers efficiently deliver packets of data between different networks, making
data sharing easier and faster.
2. Optimized Network Performance: Routers often select the best route for packet transmission, improving overall
network performance and reducing congestion.
3. Increased Network Security: Routers can provide an additional layer of security by managing access to a
network and blocking specific types of data.
4. Connectivity Between Different Network Architectures: Routers can bridge network architectures, for example,
Ethernet and Token Ring, which other networking devices cannot do.
Disadvantages of a Router
Despite its numerous benefits, a router has a few setbacks:
1. Complexity: Routers are complex to set up and maintain, especially in large networks.
2. Cost: Routers are generally more expensive than other network devices like switches and bridges.
3. Performance Issues: In some cases, a router may create bottlenecks if it cannot handle the volume of data from a
network, slowing down the network speed.

IP ADDRESS (INTERNET PROTOCOL) DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION

An Internet Protocol (IP) address is the unique identifying number assigned to every device connected to the Internet. An
IP address definition is a numeric label assigned to devices that use the internet to communicate.

IP ADDRESS VERSIONS
There are two versions of IP that currently coexist in the global Internet: IP version 4 (IPv4) and IP version 6 (IPv6).
1. IPv4
IPv4 version addresses are the most common. These IP addresses consist of a 32-bit number, which is made up of four 8-bit
groups separated by dots. Each of the four groups contains a number between 0 and 255. With this structure, IPv4 provides
approximately 4.3 billion unique IP addresses.
Example address: 104.124.145.85
IPv4 still routes the majority of internet traffic today. However, as the internet grows, IPv4 is running out of possible
addresses due to its limited address space and number combinations.
2. IPv6
IPv6 is a newer internet protocol version, standardized in 1998, and its deployment began in the mid-2000s. IPv6 addresses
are made of eight groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by colons, resulting in 128 bits. This allows for the creation
of 2^128 unique IP addresses, 1000 times more than IPv4.
Example address: 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
Apart from many IP address combinations and high scalability, IPv6 provides other advantages. For example, IPv6
enhances security by natively supporting IPSec. It also simplifies routing and reduces network complexity.
TYPES OF IP ADDRESSES
Several factors define the IP address type, including IP version, usage, availability, and the IP address assignment’s
purpose. Generally, IP addresses are divided into private and public, while public IP addresses are subdivided
into static and dynamic IP addresses.
1. Private IP address
Private IP addresses can only be used by devices within the same local network. This allows secure communication
between them and enables data packets to travel without external interference.
A device with a private IP address can’t directly connect to the internet, just like other devices outside the local network
won’t be able to connect to a device with a private IP address. Being limited to a single private network, private IP
addresses are protected from the threats of the public internet.
A private IP address, or internal-facing IP address, is assigned by an office or home intranet (or local area network) to
devices, or by the internet service provider (ISP). The home/office router manages the private IP addresses to the devices
that connect to it from within that local network. Network devices are thus mapped from their private IP addresses to public
IP addresses by the router.
2. Public IP address
Public IP addresses provide global identification for hardware like computers, routers, and servers, allowing them
to communicate directly with other devices and services over the internet.
As public IP addresses are the foundation of online communication, you need one for all online activities, such
as browsing the web, streaming media, accessing online services, etc.
Your ISP (Internet Service Provider) assigns a public IP address to your router. All devices that connect to a router
communicate with other IP addresses using the router’s IP address. That’s why all devices you connect to the same
network will have the same public IP address.
3. Dynamic IP address
A dynamic IP address is a temporary, ISP-assigned address that changes every time you connect to the internet.
Dynamic IP addresses are commonly used by small businesses and most users at home for computers and mobile
devices.
ISPs have a pool of IP addresses and usually employ Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) to assign IP
addresses to devices automatically. This client-server protocol ensures smooth IP management and prevents address
conflicts.
Because of their ever-changing nature, dynamic IP addresses make tracking a specific device or user more difficult,
providing better anonymity and security. On the other hand, because of the same reason, you may experience
temporary connectivity disruptions when the address changes.
4. Static IP address
Opposite to dynamic IPs, static IP addresses are fixed and never change. They are usually used for activities that
need a consistent IP address — hosting servers and websites, running VPNs (Virtual Private Networks) or FTP
(File Transfer Protocol) servers, port forwarding, or remote access to networks and devices. Static IPs ensure
stability, but because they never change, they are more open to security threats and make it easier for your identity
to get disclosed.
Typically, ISPs assign static IP addresses at an additional cost.
Other IP address types
In addition to the main types of IP addresses, there are other types that have specific purposes in network
communications and make gaming, streaming, and data-sharing processes easier.
Loopback IP address
Loopback IP addresses range from 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255, with 127.0.0.1 used the most. This type of IP
address routes outgoing IP packets back to the same device for testing and diagnostic purposes.
When used in testing and development, loopback addresses help verify that a device’s network stack is operating
properly and isolate issues within the device. Loopback IP addresses also help during software testing, as they can
simulate network communication within the same device.
Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA)
APIPA is a feature available on Microsoft Windows operating systems. In case the DHCP server isn’t available,
APIPA acts as a failover and automatically assigns a private IP address (169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255) to a
device.
Automatic private IP addressing ensures communication between devices on the same network, even without a
DHCP server. APIPA also doesn’t require manual configuration, making it very convenient for small networks.
Multicast IP address
Multicast IP addresses (ranging from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255) are used to simultaneously send the same
data to a group of devices, thus reducing network traffic. This type of IP address is perfect for online gaming, live
video streaming, and other real-time applications.
Broadcast IP address
Broadcast IP addresses are special IP addresses used when data has to be sent to all devices on a network.
Usually, this type of IP address is used for network management purposes, like service discovery (e.g., locating
network printers) or sending out configuration updates.
Default gateway IP address
A default gateway IP address is your router’s (or other gateway device’s) IP address. This is the IP address
that connects your network to the internet.
Default gateway IP addresses are essential for network communications — when a device on your network wants to
communicate with a device or a service on an external network (such as the internet), it will send the data to the
default gateway, which will forward it to the appropriate destination.
IP ADDRESS CLASSES
In the IPv4 IP address space, there are five classes: A, B, C, D and E. Each class has a specific range of IP addresses
(and ultimately dictates the number of devices you can have on your network). Primarily, class A, B, and C are used
by the majority of devices on the Internet. Class D and class E are for special uses.
The list below shows the five available IP classes, along with the number of networks each can support and the
maximum number of hosts (devices) that can be on each of those networks. The four octets that make up an IPv4
address are conventionally represented by a.b.c.d - such as 127.10.20.30.
1. Class A
Class A addresses are for networks with large number of total hosts. Class A allows for 126 networks by using the
first octet for the network ID. The first bit in this octet, is always zero. The remaining seven bits in this octet
complete the network ID. The 24 bits in the remaining three octets represent the hosts ID and allows for
approximately 17 million hosts per network. Class A network number values begin at 1 and end at 127.
 Public IP Range: 1.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.0
 o First octet value ranges from 1 to 127
 Private IP Range: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
 Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0 (8 bits)
 Number of Networks: 126
 Number of Hosts per Network: 16,777,214
Class B
Class B addresses are for medium to large sized networks. Class B allows for 16,384 networks by using the first
two octets for the network ID. The first two bits in the first octet are always 1 0. The remaining six bits, together
with the second octet, complete the network ID. The 16 bits in the third and fourth octet represent host ID and
allows for approximately 65,000 hosts per network. Class B network number values begin at 128 and end at 191.
 Public IP Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0
o First octet value range from 128 to 191
 Private IP Range: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0 (16 bits)
 Number of Networks: 16,382
 Number of Hosts per Network: 65,534
Class C
Class C addresses are used in small local area networks (LANs). Class C allows for approximately 2 million
networks by using the first three octets for the network ID. In a class C IP address, the first three bits of the first
octet are always 1 1 0. And the remaining 21 bits of first three octets complete the network ID. The last octet (8
bits) represent the host ID and allows for 254 hosts per network. Class C network number values begins at 192
and end at 223.
 Public IP Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0
o First octet value range from 192 to 223
 Private IP Range: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
 Special IP Range: 127.0.0.1 to 127.255.255.255
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0 (24 bits)
 Number of Networks: 2,097,150
 Number of Hosts per Network: 254
Class D
Class D IP addresses are not allocated to hosts and are used for multicasting. Multicasting allows a single host to
send a single stream of data to thousands of hosts across the Internet at the same time. It is often used for audio
and video streaming, such as IP-based cable TV networks. Another example is the delivery of real-time stock
market data from one source to many brokerage companies.
 Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
o First octet value range from 224 to 239
 Number of Networks: N/A
 Number of Hosts per Network: Multicasting
Class E
Class E IP addresses are not allocated to hosts and are not available for general use. These are reserved for
research purposes.
 Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
o First octet value range from 240 to 255
 Number of Networks: N/A
 Number of Hosts per Network: Research/Reserved/Experimental
Special IP Addresses
IP Range: 127.0.0.1 to 127.255.255.255 are network testing addresses (also referred to as loop-back addresses).
These are virtual IP address, in that they cannot be assigned to a device. Specifically, the IP 127.0.0.1 is often
used to troubleshoot network connectivity issues using the ping command. Specifically, it tests a computer's
TCP/IP network software driver to ensure it is working properly.