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Fourth Edition

Data Structures
and Algorithm
Analysis in

C ++
This page intentionally left blank
Fourth Edition

Data Structures
and Algorithm
Analysis in

C ++
Mark Allen Weiss
Florida International University

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Weiss, Mark Allen.

Data structures and algorithm analysis in C++ / Mark Allen Weiss, Florida International University. — Fourth
edition.
pages cm
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-284737-7 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-13-284737-X (alk. paper)
1. C++ (Computer program language) 2. Data structures (Computer science) 3. Computer algorithms. I. Title.
QA76.73.C153W46 2014
005.7 3—dc23
2013011064

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-10: 0-13-284737-X
www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN-13: 978-0-13-284737-7
To my kind, brilliant, and inspiring Sara.
This page intentionally left blank
 CO NTE NTS

Preface xv

Chapter 1 Programming: A General Overview 1

1.1 What’s This Book About? 1
1.2 Mathematics Review 2
1.2.1 Exponents 3
1.2.2 Logarithms 3
1.2.3 Series 4
1.2.4 Modular Arithmetic 5
1.2.5 The P Word 6
1.3 A Brief Introduction to Recursion 8
1.4 C++ Classes 12
1.4.1 Basic class Syntax 12
1.4.2 Extra Constructor Syntax and Accessors 13
1.4.3 Separation of Interface and Implementation 16
1.4.4 vector and string 19
1.5 C++ Details 21
1.5.1 Pointers 21
1.5.2 Lvalues, Rvalues, and References 23
1.5.3 Parameter Passing 25
1.5.4 Return Passing 27
1.5.5 std::swap and std::move 29
1.5.6 The Big-Five: Destructor, Copy Constructor, Move Constructor, Copy
Assignment operator=, Move Assignment operator= 30
1.5.7 C-style Arrays and Strings 35
1.6 Templates 36
1.6.1 Function Templates 37
1.6.2 Class Templates 38
1.6.3 Object, Comparable, and an Example 39
1.6.4 Function Objects 41
1.6.5 Separate Compilation of Class Templates 44
1.7 Using Matrices 44
1.7.1 The Data Members, Constructor, and Basic Accessors 44
1.7.2 operator[] 45
vii
viii Contents

1.7.3 Big-Five 46
Summary 46
Exercises 46
References 48

Chapter 2 Algorithm Analysis 51

2.1 Mathematical Background 51
2.2 Model 54
2.3 What to Analyze 54
2.4 Running-Time Calculations 57
2.4.1 A Simple Example 58
2.4.2 General Rules 58
2.4.3 Solutions for the Maximum Subsequence
Sum Problem 60
2.4.4 Logarithms in the Running Time 66
2.4.5 Limitations of Worst-Case Analysis 70
Summary 70
Exercises 71
References 76

Chapter 3 Lists, Stacks, and Queues 77

3.1 Abstract Data Types (ADTs) 77
3.2 The List ADT 78
3.2.1 Simple Array Implementation of Lists 78
3.2.2 Simple Linked Lists 79
3.3 vector and list in the STL 80
3.3.1 Iterators 82
3.3.2 Example: Using erase on a List 83
3.3.3 const_iterators 84
3.4 Implementation of vector 86
3.5 Implementation of list 91
3.6 The Stack ADT 103
3.6.1 Stack Model 103
3.6.2 Implementation of Stacks 104
3.6.3 Applications 104
3.7 The Queue ADT 112
3.7.1 Queue Model 113
3.7.2 Array Implementation of Queues 113
3.7.3 Applications of Queues 115
Summary 116
Exercises 116
 Contents ix

Chapter 4 Trees 121

4.1 Preliminaries 121
4.1.1 Implementation of Trees 122
4.1.2 Tree Traversals with an Application 123
4.2 Binary Trees 126
4.2.1 Implementation 128
4.2.2 An Example: Expression Trees 128
4.3 The Search Tree ADT—Binary Search Trees 132
4.3.1 contains 134
4.3.2 findMin and findMax 135
4.3.3 insert 136
4.3.4 remove 139
4.3.5 Destructor and Copy Constructor 141
4.3.6 Average-Case Analysis 141
4.4 AVL Trees 144
4.4.1 Single Rotation 147
4.4.2 Double Rotation 149
4.5 Splay Trees 158
4.5.1 A Simple Idea (That Does Not Work) 158
4.5.2 Splaying 160
4.6 Tree Traversals (Revisited) 166
4.7 B-Trees 168
4.8 Sets and Maps in the Standard Library 173
4.8.1 Sets 173
4.8.2 Maps 174
4.8.3 Implementation of set and map 175
4.8.4 An Example That Uses Several Maps 176
Summary 181
Exercises 182
References 189

Chapter 5 Hashing 193

5.1 General Idea 193
5.2 Hash Function 194
5.3 Separate Chaining 196
5.4 Hash Tables without Linked Lists 201
5.4.1 Linear Probing 201
5.4.2 Quadratic Probing 202
5.4.3 Double Hashing 207
5.5 Rehashing 208
5.6 Hash Tables in the Standard Library 210
x Contents

5.7 Hash Tables with Worst-Case O(1) Access 212

5.7.1 Perfect Hashing 213
5.7.2 Cuckoo Hashing 215
5.7.3 Hopscotch Hashing 227
5.8 Universal Hashing 230
5.9 Extendible Hashing 233
Summary 236
Exercises 237
References 241

Chapter 6 Priority Queues (Heaps) 245

6.1 Model 245
6.2 Simple Implementations 246
6.3 Binary Heap 247
6.3.1 Structure Property 247
6.3.2 Heap-Order Property 248
6.3.3 Basic Heap Operations 249
6.3.4 Other Heap Operations 252
6.4 Applications of Priority Queues 257
6.4.1 The Selection Problem 258
6.4.2 Event Simulation 259
6.5 d-Heaps 260
6.6 Leftist Heaps 261
6.6.1 Leftist Heap Property 261
6.6.2 Leftist Heap Operations 262
6.7 Skew Heaps 269
6.8 Binomial Queues 271
6.8.1 Binomial Queue Structure 271
6.8.2 Binomial Queue Operations 271
6.8.3 Implementation of Binomial Queues 276
6.9 Priority Queues in the Standard Library 282
Summary 283
Exercises 283
References 288

Chapter 7 Sorting 291

7.1 Preliminaries 291
7.2 Insertion Sort 292
7.2.1 The Algorithm 292
7.2.2 STL Implementation of Insertion Sort 293
7.2.3 Analysis of Insertion Sort 294
7.3 A Lower Bound for Simple Sorting Algorithms 295
 Contents xi

7.4 Shellsort 296

7.4.1 Worst-Case Analysis of Shellsort 297
7.5 Heapsort 300
7.5.1 Analysis of Heapsort 301
7.6 Mergesort 304
7.6.1 Analysis of Mergesort 306
7.7 Quicksort 309
7.7.1 Picking the Pivot 311
7.7.2 Partitioning Strategy 313
7.7.3 Small Arrays 315
7.7.4 Actual Quicksort Routines 315
7.7.5 Analysis of Quicksort 318
7.7.6 A Linear-Expected-Time Algorithm for Selection 321
7.8 A General Lower Bound for Sorting 323
7.8.1 Decision Trees 323
7.9 Decision-Tree Lower Bounds for Selection Problems 325
7.10 Adversary Lower Bounds 328
7.11 Linear-Time Sorts: Bucket Sort and Radix Sort 331
7.12 External Sorting 336
7.12.1 Why We Need New Algorithms 336
7.12.2 Model for External Sorting 336
7.12.3 The Simple Algorithm 337
7.12.4 Multiway Merge 338
7.12.5 Polyphase Merge 339
7.12.6 Replacement Selection 340
Summary 341
Exercises 341
References 347

Chapter 8 The Disjoint Sets Class 351

8.1 Equivalence Relations 351
8.2 The Dynamic Equivalence Problem 352
8.3 Basic Data Structure 353
8.4 Smart Union Algorithms 357
8.5 Path Compression 360
8.6 Worst Case for Union-by-Rank and Path Compression 361
8.6.1 Slowly Growing Functions 362
8.6.2 An Analysis by Recursive Decomposition 362
8.6.3 An O( M log * N ) Bound 369
8.6.4 An O( M α(M, N) ) Bound 370
8.7 An Application 372
xii Contents

Summary 374
Exercises 375
References 376

Chapter 9 Graph Algorithms 379

9.1 Definitions 379
9.1.1 Representation of Graphs 380
9.2 Topological Sort 382
9.3 Shortest-Path Algorithms 386
9.3.1 Unweighted Shortest Paths 387
9.3.2 Dijkstra’s Algorithm 391
9.3.3 Graphs with Negative Edge Costs 400
9.3.4 Acyclic Graphs 400
9.3.5 All-Pairs Shortest Path 404
9.3.6 Shortest Path Example 404
9.4 Network Flow Problems 406
9.4.1 A Simple Maximum-Flow Algorithm 408
9.5 Minimum Spanning Tree 413
9.5.1 Prim’s Algorithm 414
9.5.2 Kruskal’s Algorithm 417
9.6 Applications of Depth-First Search 419
9.6.1 Undirected Graphs 420
9.6.2 Biconnectivity 421
9.6.3 Euler Circuits 425
9.6.4 Directed Graphs 429
9.6.5 Finding Strong Components 431
9.7 Introduction to NP-Completeness 432
9.7.1 Easy vs. Hard 433
9.7.2 The Class NP 434
9.7.3 NP-Complete Problems 434
Summary 437
Exercises 437
References 445

Chapter 10 Algorithm Design Techniques 449

10.1 Greedy Algorithms 449
10.1.1 A Simple Scheduling Problem 450
10.1.2 Huffman Codes 453
10.1.3 Approximate Bin Packing 459
10.2 Divide and Conquer 467
10.2.1 Running Time of Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms 468
10.2.2 Closest-Points Problem 470
 Contents xiii

10.2.3 The Selection Problem 475

10.2.4 Theoretical Improvements for Arithmetic Problems 478
10.3 Dynamic Programming 482
10.3.1 Using a Table Instead of Recursion 483
10.3.2 Ordering Matrix Multiplications 485
10.3.3 Optimal Binary Search Tree 487
10.3.4 All-Pairs Shortest Path 491
10.4 Randomized Algorithms 494
10.4.1 Random-Number Generators 495
10.4.2 Skip Lists 500
10.4.3 Primality Testing 503
10.5 Backtracking Algorithms 506
10.5.1 The Turnpike Reconstruction Problem 506
10.5.2 Games 511
Summary 518
Exercises 518
References 527

Chapter 11 Amortized Analysis 533

11.1 An Unrelated Puzzle 534
11.2 Binomial Queues 534
11.3 Skew Heaps 539
11.4 Fibonacci Heaps 541
11.4.1 Cutting Nodes in Leftist Heaps 542
11.4.2 Lazy Merging for Binomial Queues 544
11.4.3 The Fibonacci Heap Operations 548
11.4.4 Proof of the Time Bound 549
11.5 Splay Trees 551
Summary 555
Exercises 556
References 557

Chapter 12 Advanced Data Structures

and Implementation 559
12.1 Top-Down Splay Trees 559
12.2 Red-Black Trees 566
12.2.1 Bottom-Up Insertion 567
12.2.2 Top-Down Red-Black Trees 568
12.2.3 Top-Down Deletion 570
12.3 Treaps 576
xiv Contents

12.4 Suffix Arrays and Suffix Trees 579

12.4.1 Suffix Arrays 580
12.4.2 Suffix Trees 583
12.4.3 Linear-Time Construction of Suffix Arrays and Suffix Trees 586
12.5 k-d Trees 596
12.6 Pairing Heaps 602
Summary 606
Exercises 608
References 612

Appendix A Separate Compilation of

Class Templates 615
A.1 Everything in the Header 616
A.2 Explicit Instantiation 616

Index 619
Other documents randomly have
different content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Bakhtyār
Nāma: A Persian Romance
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: The Bakhtyār Nāma: A Persian Romance

Translator: William Ouseley

Editor: W. A. Clouston

Release date: September 17, 2019 [eBook #60316]

Most recently updated: October 17, 2024

Language: English

Credits: E-text prepared by Richard Tonsing, Barbara Tozier, Bill

Tozier, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BAKHTYĀR

NĀMA: A PERSIAN ROMANCE ***
The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Bakhtyār Nāma, by Anonymous,
Edited by W. A. Clouston, Translated by Sir William Gore Ouseley

Note: Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive. See
https://archive.org/details/cu31924026907646
 THE
BAKHTYĀR NĀMA:
A PERSIAN ROMANCE.
TRANSLATED FROM A
MANUSCRIPT TEXT,

BY

SIR WILLIAM OUSELEY.

Edited, with Introduction and Notes,

BY

W. A. CLOUSTON,
Editor of “Arabian Poetry for English Readers.”

Each order given by a reigning King

Should after long reflection be expressed;
For it may be that endless woe will spring
From a command he paused not to digest.

Anvār-i Suhailī.

PRIVATELY PRINTED.
MDCCCLXXXIII.
 Edition:

330 Copies, of which 30 are printed on hand-made paper, and

numbered.

WILLIAM BURNS, PRINTER, LARKHALL, LANARKSHIRE.

TO

GENERAL JAMES ABBOTT, C.B.,

MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN

AND IRELAND,

A TRIBUTE OF RESPECT

FROM

THE EDITOR.
 PREFACE.

he Romance which forms the staple of this little volume

is generally considered as belonging to the Sindibād
cycle of tales. It has for ages been popular in the East,
though to the average English reader the very name of
Prince Bakhtyār is unknown. Many years ago the
learned Orientalist Sir W. Ouseley presented his
countrymen with an English translation of this romance,
but copies of his work have now become extremely
scarce. Dr Johnson’s dictum, that the scarcity of a book
is evidence of its worthlessness, otherwise copies of it
would have been multiplied, is (like not a few of his other tea-table
sayings) more specious than true. Many causes, besides that of
uselessness, may render a book scarce. A book may be a very good
book yet lack interest, excepting for only a few readers; and such was
doubtless the case of Sir W. Ouseley’s translation; for, strange to say,
considering our vast Asiatic possessions, the cultivation of Oriental
literature in this country has hitherto met with little or no
encouragement from the English people generally.
But among the more intelligent class of readers there has lately
sprung up considerable interest in the curious migrations and
transformations of popular tales, the tracing of which from country
to country, and from modern to remote times, is not only a
fascinating, but a highly instructive pursuit; and the idea occurred to
me that a reprint of Sir W. Ouseley’s translation of the Romance of
Prince Bakhtyār, together with explanatory and illustrative notes,
and—by way of introduction—such particulars as could be
ascertained regarding its origin and that of similar Oriental fictions,
might now find “readers fit, though few.” My little project has been
supported by members of the Royal Asiatic Society and the Folk-Lore
Society. I have, moreover, been materially assisted by several
eminent scholars: amongst others, by Mr William Platt, to whom I
am indebted for the substance of many of the Notes; and by Dr R.
Rost, who not only very kindly supplied me with scarce and valuable
books and manuscripts from the India Office Library, but also
furnished me with much useful information on Eastern Fiction—a
subject upon which he is one of the highest authorities in this
country.
Of the present collection of Tales it is remarked by a learned and
acute writer that they are, for the most part, well wrought-out,
probable, and without anything magical or supernatural. And those
readers who do not delight in the extravagant creations of Oriental
fancy—enchanted groves and fairy palaces beneath lakes, where
carbuncles of immense size supply the place of the sun—will find
little in this romance to shock their “common sense.” Nor are there—
except one or two expressions in the opening passages—any of those
hyperbolical descriptions of female beauty and the puissance of
monarchs which are so characteristic of most of the fictions of the
East. These Tales are, indeed, singularly free from such
extravagancies, and may be considered as well adapted to check the
often fatal impetuosity of Eastern monarchs, which was doubtless
the purpose of the original author.
The Notes and Illustrations may seem disproportionate in bulk to
that of the text. They are, however, designed, not only to explain and
illustrate allusions to Oriental manners and customs, but also to
supply deficiencies of Sir W. Ouseley’s translation, from a
comparison of other Persian texts, and furnish variants of the several
tales as they are found in other versions of the Romance. And while it
is not impossible that critics whose absurd shibboleth is “originality”
may be disposed to consider my little book as “a thing of mere
industry, without wit or invention—a very toy,” yet I venture to think
that these Notes will prove to most readers not the least interesting
part of the work. In the Introduction will be found some curious
matter regarding this romance and its congeners which has not
before been presented to English readers, the result of much
research; for, however defective my share of the work may be, I have
spared no pains to render it as complete and accurate as I could: in
short, I would fain hope that, as a whole, the volume will be accepted
as a humble contribution to the still unwritten History of Fiction; for
even Dunlop’s meritorious work can now only be regarded as a large
contribution to this “research of olde antiquitie.”
W. A. CLOUSTON.

Glasgow, December, 1882.

 CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION. Page

I—Oriental Fictions—The Arabian Nights—The Book of Sindibād xiii

II—The Bakhtyār Nāma and its Versions xxxi

THE BAKHTYĀR NĀMA.

CHAPTER I.

History of King Āzādbakht and the Vizier’s Daughter 3

CHAPTER II.

Story of the Ill-Fated Merchant and his Adventures 22

CHAPTER III.

Story of the Impatient Prince of Aleppo 33

CHAPTER IV.

Story of Abū Saber; or, The Patient Man 45

CHAPTER V.

Story of the King of Yemen and his Slave Abraha 55

CHAPTER VI.
 Story of King Dādīn and his Two Viziers 62

CHAPTER VII.

Story of the King of Abyssinia; showing the Artifice of Women 73

CHAPTER VIII.

Story of the Jewel-Merchant 86

CHAPTER IX.

Story of Abū Temām 97

CHAPTER X.

Story of the King of Persia 107

Conclusion 115

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Prefatory 121

Chapter I—King Āzādbakht 123

Chapter II—Ill-Fated Merchant 146

Chapter III—Prince of Aleppo 156

Chapter IV—Abū Saber 163

Chapter V—King of Yemen 173

Chapter VI—King Dādīn 181

Chapter VII—King of Abyssinia 195

Chapter VIII—Jewel Merchant 201

Chapter IX—Abū Temām 209

Chapter X—King of Persia 216

Conclusion 227

Additional Notes 228

 INTRODUCTION.

IF THOU PERCEIVEST ERRORS, SUPPLY THE DEFECTS—GLORIOUS

IS HE IN WHOM IS NEITHER FAULT NOR BLEMISH.
INTRODUCTION.
 I—ORIENTAL FICTIONS—THE ARABIAN
NIGHTS—THE BOOK OF SINDIBĀD.

he Persians, like all Eastern nations, remarks Sir John

Malcolm, “delight in Tales, Fables, and Apothegms; the
reason of which appears obvious: for where liberty is
unknown, and where power in all its shapes is despotic,
knowledge must be veiled to be useful.” The ancient
Persians also had their Tales and Romances, the
substance of many of which is probably embodied in the
celebrated Shāh Nāma, or Book of Kings, of Firdausī.
And the fondness of the old pagan Arabs for the same
class of compositions seems to have threatened the
success of Muhammad’s great mission, to win them back
from their vain idolatry to the worship of the ONE God. For an
Arabian merchant having brought from Persia the marvellous stories
of Rustam, Isfendiar, Feridūn, Zohāk, and other famous heroes,
which he recited to the tribe of Kuraysh, they were so delighted with
them, that they plainly told Muhammad that they much preferred
hearing such stories to his legends and moral exhortations; upon
which the Prophet promulgated some new passages of the Kur`ān
(chapter xxx), in which the merchant who had brought the idle tales
and all who listened to them were consigned to perdition. This had
the desired effect: the converts to Islām rejected Tales and Poetry;
and it was not until the brilliant series of Muslim conquests in all
parts of the then known world were almost completed that the Arabs
began to turn their attention to literature and science, and thus
preserved to the world the remains of the learning and philosophy of
antiquity, during the long period of intellectual darkness in Europe.
And it is remarkable that to a people distinguished for nearly two
centuries by their religious bigotry and intolerance, and contempt for
every species of literature outside the Kur`ān, Commentaries, and
Traditions—that to the descendants of the fanatical destroyers of the
library at Alexandria and of the literary treasures of ancient Persia
are we indebted for many of the pleasing fictions which have long
been popular in Europe. For, while India seems to have been the
cradle-land of those folk-tales, yet they came to us chiefly through an
Arabian medium: brought to Europe, among other ways by the
Saracens who settled in Spain in the eighth century, by crusaders and
pilgrims returning from the Holy Land, and also, perhaps, by
Venetian merchants trading in the Levant and the Muslim provinces
of Northern Africa. However this may be, there can be no doubt that,
as Isaac D’Israeli remarks, “tales have wings, whether they come
from the East or the North, and they soon become denizens wherever
they alight. Thus it has happened, that the tale which charmed the
wandering Arab in his tent, or cheered the northern peasant by his
winter’s fireside, alike held on its journey towards England and
Scotland.”
Many of the Fabliaux of the Trouvères of northern France are
evidently of Oriental origin; and their prose imitators, the early
Italian Novelists, also drew much of their material—of course
indirectly—from similar sources. German folk-tales comprise
variants of the ever-charming Arabian story of `Alī Bābā and the
Forty Robbers, as in the tale of “The Dumberg,”[1] and of Aladdin
(`Alā-`u-`d-Dīn) and the Wonderful Lamp, as in the tale of “The
Blue Light.”[2] Norse Tales, too, abound in parallels to stories
common to Arabia, Persia, and India. And some of the incidents in
one of them, “Big Peter and Little Peter,”[3] apparently find their
origin in the Hebrew Talmud. A very considerable proportion of old
European humorous stories ascribed to Arlotto, Tyl Eulenspiegel,
Rabelais, Scogin (Andrew Borde), Skelton, Mother Bunch, George
Peele, Dick Tarlton, etc., have somehow, and at some time or
another, winged their way from the Far East; since they are found,
with little modification save local colouring, in very old Indian works.
Galland, well-nigh two hundred years ago, pointed out that the story
of the fellow in a tavern (according to our version, a blundering
Irishman in a coffee-house), who impudently looked over a
gentleman’s shoulder while he was writing a letter, came from the
East; and a version of it is given in Gladwin’s Persian Moonshee. The
prototype of the popular Scottish song, “The Barrin’ o’ the Door,” is
an Arabian anecdote. The jest of the Irishman who dreamt that he
was invited to drink punch, but awoke before it was prepared, is
identical with a Chinese anecdote translated by M. Stanislas Julien in
vol. iv of the Journal Asiatique, and bears a close resemblance to one
of the Turkish jests ascribed to Khōja Nasru-`d-Dīn Efendī.[4] Of
stories of simpletons, such as the one last cited, perhaps the largest
and oldest collection extant is contained in a section of that vast
storehouse of tales and apologues, aptly entitled, Kathá Sarit
Ságara, Ocean of the Rivers of Story, where may be found parallels
to the famous—the truly admirable!—exploits of the Wise Men of
Gotham, and to a similar class of stories of fools and their follies
referred to in Mr Ralston’s Russian Folk-Tales. The story of “The
Elves and the Envious Neighbour,” in Mr Mitford’s Tales of Old
Japan, is practically identical with a fairy tale of a hunchbacked
minstrel in Mr Thoms’ Lays and Legends of France. In the Arabian
Nights (Story of Abou Neeut and Abou Neeuteen, vol. vi of Jonathan
Scott’s edition) and in the Persian romance of the Seven Faces (Heft
Paykar), by Nizāmī, the reader will find parallels to the “Three
Crows” in Grimm’s German popular tales. Our favourite nursery
story of Whittington and his Cat (also common to the folk-tales of
Scandinavia and Russia, Italy and Spain) is related by the Persian
historian Wasāf in his “Events of Ages and Fates of Cities,” written
A.H. 699 (A.D. 1299). The original of the Goose that laid Eggs of Gold
is a legend in the great Indian epic, Mahábharata, and variants exist
in other Hindū works; but this may be a “primitive myth,” common
to the whole Aryan race. Largely, indeed, are popular European tales
indebted to Eastern sources.
For several centuries previous to the publication of the first
professed translation of a work of Eastern fiction into a European
language, there existed two celebrated collections of Tales, written in
Latin, mainly derived from Oriental sources, to which may be traced
many of the popular fictions of Europe; these are, the Clericali
Disciplina of Peter Alfonsus, a Spanish Jew, who was baptized in the
twelfth century; and the Gesta Romanorum, the authorship of which
is doubtful, but it is believed to have been composed in the 14th
century. The latter work greatly influenced the compositions of the
early Italian Novelists, and its effect on English Poetry is at least
equally marked. It furnished to Gower and Chaucer their history of
Constance; to Shakspeare his King Lear, and his Merchant of
Venice, which is an Eastern story; to Parnell the subject of his
Hermit—primarily a Talmudic legend, afterwards adopted in the
Kur’ān. The Clericali Disciplina, professedly a compilation from
Eastern sources, contains a number of stories of undoubted Indian
origin, which Alfonsus must have obtained through an Arabian
medium in Spain, however they may have come thither. These
fictions of Oriental birth were, of course, filtered through the clerical
mind of mediæval Europe, and in the process they lost all their
native flavour. But on the publication of Galland’s Les Mille et Une
Nuits, the Thousand and One Nights, in the beginning of last
century, garbled and Frenchified as was his translation, the richness
of the Eastern fancy, as exhibited in these pleasing fictions, was at
once recognised, and, as the learned Baron de Sacy has remarked, in
the course of a few years this work filled Europe with its fame. And
its success has continued to increase, so that there is perhaps no
work of fiction, whether native or exotic, which is at the present day
so universally popular throughout Europe: it is at once the delight of
the school-boy and the recreation of the sage. Shortly after its
appearance in a French dress, Addison introduced it to English
readers in the Spectator, where he presented a translation—or
adaptation—of the now famous story of Alnaschar (according to
Galland’s French transliteration of the name) and his basket of
brittle wares: a story which is not only calculated to please the “rising
generation,” but may also instruct “children of larger growth.”
When this work was first published in England it seems to have
made its way very rapidly into public favour; and Weber, in his
Introduction to the Tales of the East, relates, as follows, a singular
instance of the effects they produced soon after their first
appearance: “Sir James Stewart, Lord Advocate for Scotland, having
one Saturday evening found his daughters employed in reading the
volumes, he seized them, with a rebuke for spending the evening
before the Sabbath in such worldly amusements; but the grave
advocate himself became a prey to the fascination of these tales,
being found on the morning of the Sabbath itself employed upon
their perusal, from which he had not risen during the whole night!”
The popularity of the Arabian Nights is due, no doubt, to the
peculiar charm of its descriptions of scenes and incidents which the
reader is well aware could only exist and occur in the imagination;
but we like to be taken away from our hard, matter-of-fact
surroundings—away into a world where, if we cannot ourselves
become endowed with supernatural powers, at least we may
summon mighty spirits to do our will, to transport us whither we
please, to bring us in an instant the choicest fruits from the most
distant regions, to construct for us palaces of gold and silver, and
precious gems, to supply us with dainties in dishes made of single
diamonds and rubies. In this very outraging of probability, and even
possibility, lies the strange fascination which some of these Tales
exercise over the reader’s mind. He surrenders his judgment to the
author, and such is the force of the spell, that even when it has been
partly removed by closing the book, he will gravely ask himself: “And
why may not such things be?” It has been justly observed by Lord
Bacon, that, “as the active world is inferior to the rational soul, so
Fiction gives to mankind what History denies, and in some measure
satisfies the mind with shadows when it cannot enjoy the substance.”
This famous work is, of course, a compilation, and not by a single
hand and at one time, or from a particular source, but from a variety
of sources. Many of the Tales are found in the oldest Indian
collections; probably the witty and humorous are purely Arabian,
while the tender and sentimental love-tales are derived from the
Persian. The origin of the Arabian Tales has long been (and perhaps
needlessly) a vexed question among the learned. Baron De Sacy has
stoutly contended with M. Langles and M. Von Hammer, on the
questions of whether the work was a mere translation or adaptation
of an old Persian collection, entitled the “Thousand Days,” and when
and where it was composed. But the general opinion of scholars at
the present day is that the work was probably compiled by different
hands, in Egypt, about the 15th or 16th centuries, though it is very
probable that many additions were made at a later date, by the
insertion of romances, which formed no part of the original
collection, as we shall presently see.[5]
A peculiarity of most collections of Eastern fictions is their being
enclosed within a frame, so to say, or leading story; as in the Arabian
Nights: a plan which appears to have been introduced into Europe by
a Latin translation of a romance of Indian origin, known in this
country by the title of The Seven Sages, and which was first adopted
by Boccaccio in his celebrated Decameron, where it is represented
that a party of ladies and gentlemen, during the prevalence of the
great plague in Florence, retire for safety to a mansion at some
distance from the city, and there amuse themselves by relating
stories. And our English poet Chaucer, after the same fashion, in his
Canterbury Tales, represents a number of pilgrims, of different
classes, as bound for the shrine of Thomas à Becket, and, to alleviate
the tediousness of the journey, reciting stories of varied character.
But although this plan of making a number of stories all subordinate
to a leading story was introduced into Europe in the 13th century,
when the Latin version of the “Seven Sages” was published, yet in the
East it had been in vogue many centuries previously.
The oldest extant collection of Fables and Tales (excepting the
Buddhist Birth-Stories, recently made known to English readers by
Mr T. W. Rhys Davids’ translation of a portion) is that called in
Europe The Fables of Pilpay, or Bidpai, of which the Sanskrit
prototype is entitled Panchatantra, or Five Sections, with its
abridgment, Hitopadésa, or Friendly Instruction. This work, or one
very similar, existed in India and in the Sanskrit language as early at
least as the 6th century of our era, when it was translated into
Pahlavi, the ancient language of Persia, during the reign of
Nushīrvān, surnamed the Just (A.D. 531–579). This Pahlavi version—
though no longer extant—escaped the general wreck of Persian
literature on the conquest of the country by the Arabs, and was
translated, during the reign of the Khalīf Mansur (A.D. 753–774), into
Arabic, from which several versions were made in modern Persian,
and also translations into Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and most of the
European languages. Perhaps no book of mere human composition
ever had such a remarkable literary history and enduring popularity.
These Fables, although arranged in sections, are sphered one within
another in a rather bewildering manner, yet all are subordinated to a
leading story or general frame.[6] It is worthy of note that, while there
is no proof that this work, in its present form, existed before the sixth
century, yet many, if not all, of the Fables themselves have been
discovered in Buddhistic works which were certainly written about or
before the commencement of our era. Their translation from the Pali,
which the learned Benfey seems to have conclusively proved, and
their arrangement in the form in which they exist in Sanskrit, may
have been done any time between the first and the sixth centuries.
But there was another Indian work, now apparently lost, formed
on the same plan, which, if we may credit El-Mas’ūdī, the Arabian
historian, who lived in the tenth century, certainly dates before our
era; namely, the Book of Sindibād, of which there have been so many
translations and imitations in Asiatic and European languages, and
to which the Persian romance reproduced in the present volume is
considered to bear some relation. El-Mas’ūdi, in his famous
historical work, “Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems,” states very
plainly that “in the reign of Khūrūsh (Cyrus) lived Es-Sondbād, who
was the author of the Book of the Seven Viziers, the Teacher, the Boy,
and the Wife of the King.” According to another Arabian writer,
Sindibād was an Indian philosopher who lived about a hundred years
B.C. El-Mas’ūdī does not mention the version through which the
work was known in his time, but it was probably either in Arabic or
Persian. The oldest version known to exist is in Hebrew, and is
entitled Mishlī Sindabar, Parables of Sindabar; the change of the
name from Sindibād to Sindibar, Deslongchamps conjectures to be a
mistake of the copyist, the Hebrew letters D and R being very similar
in form. This Hebrew version has been proved to date as far back as
the end of the twelfth century. Under the title of Historia Septem
Sapientum Romæ, a Latin translation was made—from the Hebrew,
it is supposed—by Dam Jehans, a monk of the abbey of Haute Selve,
in the diocese of Nancy, early in the 13th century. A Greek version,
entitled Syntipas, the date of which is not known, was made by a
Christian named Andreopulus, who states in his prologue that he
translated it from the Syriac. Notwithstanding this very distinct
statement, several learned scholars—Senglemann, among others—
have contended that the Syntipas was made from the Hebrew
version; of late years, however, a unique but unfortunately mutilated
manuscript of the Syriac version, transcribed about the year 1560,
was discovered by Rödiger, and reproduced in his Syriac
Chrestomathie, in 1868; and a year later Baethgens published, at
Leipsic, this text, together with a German translation, under the title
of Sindban, oder die Sieben wiesen Meister, from which it appears
certain that the Greek version of Andreopulus was made from the
Syriac, the order of the stories being the same in both. Besides the
Hebrew and Syriac versions of the Book of Sindibād, there exist
translations or adaptations in at least two other Oriental languages,
the Arabic and the Persian. The Arabian version (to which perhaps
El-Mas’ūdī alluded in his mention of the work, as above) now forms
one of the romances comprised in the Book of the Thousand Nights
and One Night (the “Arabian Nights’ Entertainments”), under the
title of “The Story of the King, his Son, his Concubine, and his Seven
Viziers;” and an English translation of it was published, in 1800, by
Dr Jonathan Scott, in his Tales, Anecdotes, and Letters, from the
Arabic and Persian.[7] Two poetical versions have been composed in
Persian; one of which, entitled Sindibād Nama,[8] by Azraki, who
died, at Herat, A.H. 527 (A.D. 1132–3), is mentioned by Daulet-Shāh,
in his life of Azraki, in these terms: “And they say the Book of
Sindibād, on precepts of practical philosophy, is one of his
compositions.”[9] The other Persian version is known in Europe, I
believe, only through Professor Forbes Falconer’s excellent
analysis[10] of a unique manuscript, entitled Sindibād Nāma,
composed A.H. 776 (A.D. 1374).
It was through the Latin version, Historia Septem Sapientum
Romæ, that this very remarkable work was communicated to nearly
all the languages of Western Europe; Herbers, or Hebers, an
ecclesiastic of the 13th century, made a translation, or rather
imitation, of it in French verse, under the title of Dolopatos. Many
imitations in French prose subsequently appeared, and from one of
these the work was rendered into English, under the title of The
Sevyn Sages, and The Seven Wise Masters, one of which is among
the reprints for the Percy Society, and of the other Ellis gives an
analysis, with specimens in his Early English Metrical Romances. In
1516 an Italian version, entitled “The History of Prince Erastus,” was
published, which was afterwards translated into French.
In all these works, a young prince is falsely accused by his step-
mother of having attempted to violate her, and the King, his father,
condemns him to death, but is induced to defer the execution of the
sentence from day to day, during seven days, by one of his seven
counsellors, viziers, or wise men, relating to the King one or more
stories, designed to caution him against the wicked wiles of women;
while the Queen, every night, urges the King to put his son to death,
and, in her turn, tells him a story, intended to show that men are
faithless and treacherous, and that fathers must not expect gratitude
or consideration from their sons. In the sequel, the innocence of the
Prince is established, and the wicked step-mother is duly punished
for her gross iniquity. This is the leading story of most of the
romances which have been derived, or imitated, from the Book of
Sindibād; but the subordinate Tales vary materially in the several
translations or versions.
Dunlop, in his History of Fiction, remarks that “the leading
incident of a disappointed woman accusing the object of her passion
is as old as the story of Joseph, and may thence be traced through the
fables of mythology to the Italian novelists.” But surely there was
nothing so very peculiar in the conduct of Zulaykha (as Muslims
name the wife of Potiphar)—nothing very different from human (or
woman) nature in general, that should lead us to conclude, with
Dunlop, that all the numerous stories based upon a similar incident
had their common origin in the celebrated tale of Joseph and
Potiphar’s wife. We have no reason to suppose a Hebrew origin for
the well-known classical legend of Phædra, who was enamoured of
Hippolytus, and, unable to suppress her passion, made overtures to
him, which were disdainfully rejected; upon which Phædra accused
Hippolytus to her husband Theseus of attempting to dishonour her.
And although the work ascribed to the Indian sage Sindibād now
appears to be lost, yet this “leading incident” of works of the
Sindibād-cycle forms the subject of several Indian romances, one of
which is a story in verse of a Prince named Sárangdhara, whose step-
mother Chitrángí falls in love with him. He rejects her advances, on
which she accuses him to the King of attempting to violate her, and
the King orders him to have his feet cut off and to be exposed to wild
beasts in the forest. The innocence of the Prince is afterwards
proved, and the wicked Queen is put to death.
There is yet another work usually considered as belonging to the
Sindibād class of romances, namely, the Turkish Tales of the Forty
Viziers, which is said to have been composed, during the reign of
Sultān Murād II, in 1421, after an Arabian romance entitled “Tales of
the Forty Mornings and Forty Evenings,” composed by Shaikh Zāda.
But the author of this work, as M. Deslongchamps has justly
remarked, has borrowed little from the Book of Sindibād besides the
frame. The tales—which are eighty in number, forty of which are told
by the Viziers, and forty by the Queen—are quite different from, yet
no whit inferior to, those of any version of the King and his Seven
Counsellors. M. Petit de Lacroix, last century, made a French
translation of this work as far as the story of the Tenth Vizier, which
was soon afterwards rendered into English, but divested of much of
the Oriental costume and colour. In 1851 Behrnauer issued a German
rendering of the Turkish text. And it may interest some readers to
know that Mr E. J. W. Gibb—whose recently published translations
of Ottoman Poems, with Introduction, Biographical Notices, and
Notes, have received the approbation of competent judges—is at
present engaged on a complete English translation of this highly
entertaining romance.
 II—THE BAKHTYĀR NĀMA AND ITS
VERSIONS.

aving in the preceding section glanced at the various

works of fiction in different languages which have been
derived or imitated from the Book of Sindibād, let us
now proceed to examine the degree of relationship
which the Bakhtyār Nāma bears to the same work. The
learned writer of an able and interesting analysis, in the
Asiatic Journal, vol. xxx, 1839, of two different
manuscripts of the Thousand and One Nights,
preserved in the British Museum, has fallen into a
singular mistake when he says: “It is curious enough that in each of
the two MSS. a tale is interpolated on the plan of the Bakhtyār
Nāma. A King wishes to destroy his son, and his Viziers relate stories
to prove the malice of women, alternately with the King’s concubine,
who has falsely accused the young man, and who tells stories of the
subtlety of men.” This is the frame of the Sindibād Nāma, not that of
the Bakhtyār Nāma, since in the former the Viziers are the
defenders of the innocent, and relate stories on his behalf; while the
case is precisely reversed in the Bakhytār Nāma, where the Viziers
are the accusers, eager for the death of the innocent young man, and
it is the accused youth himself who relates the stories. The only
resemblance which the Romance of Prince Bakhtyār bears to the
leading story of the Book of Sindibād (and its offspring) is the
incident of a youth being falsely accused of attempting to violate the
Queen, as will be seen from the following outline of the Bakhtyār
Story.
A King, flying from his own kingdom, with his Queen, is obliged to
abandon in the desert a new-born male infant, close to a well. This
infant is discovered by a band of robbers, the chief of whom, struck
with his beauty and the richness of his clothes, carries him to his
house, adopts him as his own son and gives him an excellent
education. At the age of fifteen years the youth accompanies all the
banditti on a plundering expedition, in which they attack a caravan,
but are defeated, and many of their number, including the adopted
son of their chief, are taken prisoners and brought before the King—
the father of the youth, who had in the meanwhile recovered his
kingdom. The young man’s grace and beauty so win the King’s heart,
that he not only pardons the whole company, but takes the youth
into his service, changing his name from Khudādād (God-given) to
Bakhtyār (Befriended by Fortune). Bakhtyār acquits himself of his
new duties so well that the King promotes him to a more important
position—that of keeper of the royal treasury, and his own intimate
friend and counsellor. These distinguished favours excite the envy of
the King’s Ten Viziers, who become eager for some opportunity of
bringing the favourite to disgrace and ruin. And it so chances, one
evening, that Bakhtyār, being muddled with wine, straggles into one
of the chambers of the harem, and throws himself upon the royal
couch, where he falls asleep. Shortly afterwards, the King enters,
and, discovering his favourite in the forbidden part of the palace, his
jealousy is aroused, and he orders the attendants to seize the
unhappy young man, then sends for the Queen, and accuses her of
having introduced Bakhtyār into the harem. The Queen protests that
she is entirely innocent of the charge, and at her suggestion the King
causes them both to be confined for that night in separate
apartments, resolving to investigate the affair in the morning. Next
day, the first of the Viziers, waiting on the King, is informed of the
supposed violation of the harem by Bakhtyār, upon which the Vizier
obtains leave to visit the Queen, and ascertain from her the
particulars of the affair. The Queen, on being questioned by the
Vizier, denies all knowledge of Bakhtyār’s presence in the King’s
chamber (it does not appear, indeed, that she had ever seen him
before); but the Vizier assures her that the King would not credit her
assertion, and counsels her, if she would save her own life, to accuse
Bakhtyār to the King of having presumed to make dishonourable
proposals to her, which she had, of course, rejected with indignation.
After much persuasion, she at length consents, and accordingly
accuses the young man of this capital offence. The King immediately
commands Bakhtyār to be brought before him, and after bitterly
reproaching him with ingratitude for the many and unprecedented
favours which he had bestowed upon him, in the meantime sends
him back to prison. On the following day, the second Vizier urges the
King to put him to death; and the King causes him to be brought into
his presence, and tells him that he must forfeit his life. Bakhtyār,
however, in eloquent terms, protests that he is perfectly innocent of
the crime of which he is accused, but expresses his submission to the
will of Providence, like a certain unlucky merchant, with whom no
affair prospered. This arouses the King’s curiosity, and Bakhtyār is
permitted to relate the story, after which the King sends him back to
prison for that day. Every morning of the eight following days one of
the Viziers, in turn, presents himself before the King, and urges that
Bakhtyār’s execution should be no longer delayed; but when the
youth is brought into the King’s presence, as on the first day, he
pleads his own cause so well, and excites the King’s curiosity by
reference to some remarkable story, which he is allowed to relate,
that his execution is deferred from day to day, until at length the
King is reluctantly compelled by the Viziers’ complaints to give
orders for the public execution of the young man. It happens,
however, that the robber-chief who had found the royal infant at the
well, and brought him up, is, with a party of his men, among the
crowd assembled round the scaffold, and recognising in Bakhtyār his
adopted son, rescues him from the guard, and hastens to the palace,
where, obtaining audience of the King, the secret of Bakhtyār’s birth
is discovered; and the King resigns the throne in favour of his son,
and causes the Ten envious Viziers to be put to death.
Such is the frame within which nine different stories are inserted;
and although it was doubtless imitated from, it has but a faint
likeness to, that of the Book of Sindibād. The work which appears
most closely to resemble the Romance of Prince Bakhtyār, in the
frame, is a collection of Tales in the Tamul language, entitled,
Alakeswara Kathá, in which four ministers of the King of Alakapur
are falsely accused of violating the King’s private apartments, and
vindicate their innocence, and disarm the King’s wrath, by relating a
number of stories.[11]
According to M. Deslongchamps, in his learned and elaborate
Essai sur les Fables Indiennes, there exist in Oriental languages
three versions of the Bakhtyār Nāma—Persian, Arabic, and Turkī
(i.e., Eastern Turkish—Uygur). Of the Persian version it is said there
are numerous manuscripts in the great libraries of England and
France; and besides the printed text appended to Sir William
Ouseley’s English translation, published in 1800, a lithographed text
was issued, at Paris, in 1839, probably from a manuscript in the
Royal Library. The Arabian version, under the title of “The History of
the Ten Viziers,” forms part of the text of the Thousand and One
Nights, in 12 volumes, of which Dr Maximilian Habicht edited vols. 1
to 8, published at uncertain intervals, at Breslau, from 1825 to 1838
inclusive, when the work was stopped by Habicht’s death. In 1842–3
Professor H. L. Fleischer issued the remaining vols., 9 to 12. The
same year when Habicht began the publication of his Arabian text he
issued a complete German translation, also at Breslau, in 15 small
square volumes, under the title of Tausend und Eine Nacht:
Arabische Erzählungen. Zum erstenmal aus einer Tunesischen
Handschrift, ergänzt und vollständig übersetzt, von Max. Habicht,
F. H. Von der Hagen, und Karl Schall.[12] But both the number and
the order of the tales of our romance are quite different in the
translation and the text: the sixth volume of the latter, which
contains the romance, was not published till 1834, or nine years after
the first issue of the translation; and it would seem that Habicht, in
editing his Tunisian manuscript, compared it with other texts, and
made very considerable changes. The romance is found in a
dislocated form in a work, published at Paris in 1788, entitled,
Nouveaux Contes Arabice, ou Supplement aux Mille et Une Nuits,
&c., par M. l’Abbè * * * In this book (which is of little or no value) the
several tales are not placed within the frame, or leading story, which,
however, appears in connection with one of them. It is also included
in the French Continuation of the Thousand and One Nights,
translated by Dom Chavis and edited by M. Cazotte,[13] “but
singularly disfigured,” says Deslongchamps, “like the other Oriental
Tales published by Cazotte;” in Caussin de Perceval’s excellent
edition of the Nights, published, at Paris, in 1806, vol. viii, and in
Gauttier’s edition, vol. vi. The learned Swede Gustav Knös published,
at Gœtingen, in 1806, a dissertation on the Romance of Prince
Bakhtyār, and the year following the Arabic text, with a Latin
translation, under the title of Historia Decem Vizirorum et filii Regis
Azād-bacht. He also issued a translation in the Swedish language, at
Upsal, in two parts, the second of which appeared in 1814. Of the
Turkī version M. Amédée Jaubert has furnished, in the Journal
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