STUDY MATERIAL SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS II PU

Chapter 14:
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
The branch of physics which deals about semiconductors and its devices
is called solid state electronics. The electron mechanics is called electronics.

Explain briefly the concepts of energy bands:

According Neils Bohr atomic model, in an isolated atom the energy of any
of its electrons is decided by the orbit in which it revolves. In solids the atoms
are closely packed. There is an interaction between neighbouring atoms. So the
outer energy levels of electrons from neighbouring atoms would come very close
or could even overlap.
The group of energy levels with continuous energy variation is called energy
band.

The energy band which includes the energy levels of valence electrons is called
the valence band.
Valence band is occupied by valence electrons.
The energy band above the valence band is called the conduction band.
Normally the conduction band is empty or occupied by free electrons.

The lowest energy level in the conduction band is shown as ‘Ec’ and the highest
energy level in the valence band is show as ‘Ev’.

The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction
band is called energy band gap.
‘Eg’ (Energy band gap) may be large small or zero depending upon the
material.

Note: When the valence electron gets sufficient energy, they get excited to
conduction band.

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Explain with a sketch classification of solids on the basis of energy bands

(Distinguish between conductors, semiconductors and insulators on the
basis of band theory):
There are three types.
i) Conductors, ii) Semiconductors, iii) Insulators

i) Conductors:

In a conductor, the valence band and conduction band are overlapped,

i.e. energy gap, Eg=0. Therefore electrons from valence band can easily move
into the conduction band. Therefore the conduction band is completely filled by
free electrons. As a result the resistance of conductor is low and the
conductivity is high. The resistance and resistivity increases with increase in
temperature.
Ex: All metals (Al, Cu, Fe, Au, etc)

ii) Semiconductors:

In semiconductor, the valence band conduction band are separated by a

small energy gap. i.e., Eg<3eV. Because of the small band gap, at room
temperature some electrons from valence band can acquire enough energy to
cross the energy gap and enter the conduction band. Therefore conduction
band is partially filled with free electrons at room temperature. As a result the
semiconductor conducts the current at room temperature.
The resistance and resistivity decreases with increase in temperature.
Ex: silicon, germanium, carbon. For silicon Eg=1.1eV, for germanium
Eg=0.7eV.

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iii) Insulators:

In insulators, the valence band and conduction band are separated by a

large energy gap, i.e. Eg>3eV. Note that the energy gap is so large, the
electrons cannot be excited from the valence band to the conduction band by
thermal excitation. Therefore the conduction band is completely empty, so no
electrical conduction is possible at room temperature.
Ex: plastic, wood, glass.

Classification of solids (Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators) on

the basis of resitivity and conductivity:
On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity () or
 1
resistivity ()  i.e.,  =  , the solids are broadly classified as
 

i) Metals (Conductors): Metals are substances which easily allow the passage
of electric current through them. These are having large number of free
electrons. They possess very low resistivity () and high conductivity ().
 ~ 10-2 to 10-8  m,  ~ 102 to 108 S m-1 or Siemens/m. Ex: Copper,
Aluminium etc.

ii) Semiconductors: It is a substance which has few number of electrons at

room temperatrure and the resistivity () of a semiconductor is less than
insulator, but more than conductors. It has negative temperature co-efficient of
1
resistance. i.e., R  .
T
Ex: Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si) etc.
 ~ 10-5 to 106  m
 ~ 105 to 10-6 Sm-1

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iii) Insulators: It is also a substance which has practically no free electrons

and it does not allow the electric current through it and it has high resistivity
or low conductivity.
Ex: Glass, Rubber, PVC etc.
 ~ 1011 to 1019  m
 ~ 10-11 to 10-19 Sm-1
Note-1:
i) Elemental semiconductors : Si and Ge
ii) Compound semiconductor: Example:
a) Inorganic: CdS, GaAS, CdSe, InP, etc
b) Organic : Anthracene, doped pthalocyanines, etc
c) Organic polymers: Polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene, etc.
Note-2: Structure of Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge):
Atomic Number of Si= 14 Atomic Number of Ge= 32
1s , 2s , 2p , 3s , 3p
2 2 6 2 2 1s , 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p2
2

Si Ge

Si Si Si Ge Ge Ge

Si Ge

Note-3: Concepts of holes:

C.B. = Free electrons

1ev

    V.B.  = holes
The Si and Ge are tetravalent. Each Si and Ge atom can form four
covalent bonds with the neighbour atoms. At absolute zero, (0K) all the valence
electrons form covalent bonds. The conduction band is completely empty.
Thus semiconductors behave as an insulator at 0K. If the temperature
increases, the electrons get sufficient energy and jump to conduction band
creating a vacancy for electron in the valence band. The vacancy can be filled
by free electrons. The vacancy is called a hole.

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Note-4:

Note-5: The creation of electron-hole pair due to thermal energy is called

thermal generation.
Note-6: In thermal generation number of holes is equal to number of free
electrons.
Note-7: In semiconductor both electrons and holes are charge carriers.

Define hole: The vacancy in the valance band which can be occupied by
electron is called hole. The hole carries positive charge.
Types of semiconductor: There are two types 1) Intrinsic semiconductor and
2) Extrensic semiconductor.
Intrinsic semiconductor: A semiconductor in a extremely pure form is known
as an instrinsic semiconductor. Ex: pure silicon and germanium.
In instrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons (ne) is equal to
the number of holes (nh). That is ne=nh=ni.
Where ‘ni’ is called instrinsic carrier concentration.
Expression for total current in an intrinsic semiconductor:
1) In intrinsic semiconductor, free electron moves completely independently as
conduction electron and gives rise to an electron current ‘Ie’ under an
applied electric field. Remember that the motion of hole is only a convenient
way of describing the actual motion of bound electrons, Whenever there is
an empty bond anywhere in the crystal. Under the action of an electric field,
these holes moves towards the negative potential giving the hole current (Ih).
The total current ‘I’ is thus the sum of electron current ‘Ie’ and the hole
current ‘Ih’
I=Ie+Ih
It may be noted that apart from the process of generation of conduction
of electrons and holes, a simultaneous process of recombination occurs in
which the electrons recombine with holes. The recombination occurs due to an
electron colliding with a hole. At equilibrium the rate of generation is equal to
the rate of recombination of charge carriers.

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Write a note on Instrinsic Semiconductor with variation in temperature

shown with energy band diagram:

An intrinsic semiconductor will behave like an insulator at T=OK as

shown in figure (a). It is the thermal energy at higher temperatures (T>OK),
which excites some electrons from the valence band to the conduction band.
These thermally excited electrons at T>OK, partially occupy conduction band,
therefore the energy band diagram of a intrinsic semiconductor as shown in
figure (b). Here, some electrons shown in the conduction band, these have
come from the valence band leaving equal number of holes there.

Doping: The process of adding impurity to pure semiconductor is called

Doping.
Dopant: The impurity added to pure semiconductor is called Dopant or Doping
agent.
There are two types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent Si or Ge
Ex: Pentavalent impurities: Phosphorous (p), Antimony (Sb) and Arsenic (As).

Trivalent impurities: Aluminium(Al), Boron(B), Indium(In), Gallium(Ga)

Note: We shall now discuss how the doping changes the number of charge
carriers (and hence the conductivity) of semiconductors Si or Ge belongs to
fourth group in the periodic table and therefore we choose the dopant element
from nearby fifth (5th) or third (3rd) group. Expecting and taking care that the
size of the dopant atom is nearly the same as that of Si or Ge. Interestingly the
pentavalent and trivalent dopants in Si or Ge give two entirely different types of
semiconductors as discussed below.

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Extrinsic Semiconductor: The doped semiconductors are called extrinsic

semiconductors.

Types of extrinsic semiconductors:

Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors
are classified into
i) n-type semiconductor and ii) p-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor: The n-type semiconductor is obtained when a

pentavalent impurity is added to pure semiconductor. The pentavalent
impurity like phosphorus has five valence electrons. Four of them form
covalent bonds with four neighbouring atoms leaving a free electron. Thus
every pentavalent impurity atom donates one free electron for conduction.
Hence pentavalent impurity atom is called donar impurity. The free electrons
donated by donar impurity are available for conduction even at 0K. In n-type,
number of free electrons are greater than number of holes. Therefore majority
charge carries are free electrons and minority charge carriers are holes.

Si Si

Si P Si Si B Si

Si Si

n-type p-type
p -type semiconductor: The p-type semiconductor is obtained when a
trivalent impurity is added to pure semiconductor. The trivalent impurity like
aluminium has three valence electrons. The three valence electrons form
covalent bonds with the neighbouring atoms leaving a hole. Thus every
trivalent impurity atom donates one hole for conduction. Hence trivalent
impurity atom is called acceptor impurity. The holes created by acceptor
impurity are available for the conduction even at 0K. In p-type, number of
holes are greater than number of free electrons. Therefore majority charge
carries are holes and minority charge carriers are free electrons.

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Explain n-type semiconductor on the basis of energy band diagram:

In the energy band diagram of n-type Si semiconductor, the donor
energy level ED is slightly below the bottom E C of the conduction band and
electrons from this level move into the conduction band with very small
supply of energy. At room temperature, most of the donor atoms get ionized
but very few (~10-12) atoms of Si get ionized. So the conduction band will
have most electrons coming from the donor impurities as shown in fig.

Explain p-type semiconductor on the basis of energy band diagram:

In the energy band diagram of p-type semiconductor, the acceptor
energy level EA is slightly above the top E V of the valence band as shown in
fig.

With very small supply of energy an electron from the valence band
can jump to the level E n and ionize the acceptor negatively (i.e. hole from
level Ea sinks down into the valence band. Electrons rise up and holes fall
down when they gain external energy).

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At room temperature, most of the acceptor atoms get ionized leaving holes in
the valence band. Thus the density of holes in the valence band is
predominantly due to impurity in the extrinsic semiconductor. The electron
and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given
by
n e n h = n i2

Note-1: for n-type semiconductors, we have

ne>>nh
Electron density n=ND-NA, so electrons are majority carriers
n i2
Hole density P = , so holes are minority carriers
n
Where, ND = Donor density, NA= Acceptor density

Note-2: For p-type semiconducotrs nh>>ne.

The electron hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is
given by nenh=ni2
Hole density, P=NA−ND, so holes are the majority carriers.
n i2
Electron density, n = , so electrons are the minority carriers.
P
Note-3:
➢ Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors are electrically neutral.
➢ In p-type, the ‘p’ means positive, i.e. the majority charge carriers are
positive charge carriers i.e. holes.
➢ In n-type, the ‘n’ means negative, i.e. the majority charge carriers are
negative charge carriers i.e. electrons.
What is p-n junction?
A single piece of pure semiconductor with one half doped with trivalent
impurity to obtain the p-type and other half doped with pentavalent impurity to
obtain the n-type. This is called p-n junction.
Explain the formation of p-n junction:
Junction potential difference

o o o - + • • •
p - + n
o o o - + • • •
o o o - + • • •
Depletion region

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A single piece of pure semiconductor with one half doped with trivalent
impurity to obtain the p-type and other half doped with pentavalent impurity to
obtain the n-type. This is called p-n junction.
The holes are majority charge carriers in p-type and free electrons are
majority charge carriers in n-type. The holes carry positive charge and
electrons carry negative charge. Some holes diffuse from p-type to n-type
through the junction and some free electrons diffuse from n-type to p-type. A
layer of positive and negative immobile charges is formed across the junction.
As a result the potential difference is set up across the junction called potential
barrier. This stops the further diffusion of immobile charges. The free electrons
and holes are absent around the junction. The region around the junction free
from mobile charge carrier is called depletion region or depletion layer. The
thickness of depletion region is about 1 micron or 10-6m. The thickness
depends on the concentration of doping. The thickness of depletion layer
decreases with increase in impurity concentration. The junction potential
difference increases with increase in impurity concentration.

Important terms related to semiconductor diode:

Potential barrier (Junction potential difference): The potential difference
across the junction which prevents the further diffusion of holes and free
electrons is called potential barrier.

Depletion region (depletion layer): The region around the junction free from
mobile charge carrier is called depletion region or depletion layer.

Diffusion current: It is the current due to the concentration difference in the

majority charge carriers when the p-n junction is formed.

Drift current: It is the current due to minority charge carriers when electric
field is setup by the immobile ions in the depletion region.

Drift : The motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift.
Note-1: The p-n junction is commercially called semiconductor diode. For
silicon diode junction potential difference is 0.7V. For germanium diode is
0.38V at room temperature.
Note-2: The symbol of semiconducting diode is
p n
The arrow points from p-side to n-side. The arrow indicates the direction of
conventional current.

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Biasing: When no external potential difference is applied across the p-n

junction, it is said to be unbiased. When the p-n junction is connected to an
external potential difference, it is said to be Biased. The p-n junction can be
biased in 2 ways. The Forward Bias and Reverse Bias

What is forward bias?

A p-n junction is said to be forward Biased, if p-type is connected to positive
terminal and n-type is connected to negative terminal of the battery.

Explain how a P-n junction diode behaves under ‘FORWARD BIAS”

condition.

In forward bias P-side is connected to positive terminal of the battery and

n-side to the negative terminal. The direction of applied voltage (V) is opposite
to the built in potential ‘V0’. As a result, the depletion layer width decreases
and the barrier height is reduced as shown in (b). The effective barrier height
under bias is (V0 − V). Now junction resistance becomes almost negligible and
thus diode permits the current (order of mA) to flow through it.

Explain with the circuit diagram the working of diode in forward bias
characteristic:

In forward bias, positive terminal of a battery is connected to p-type and

negative terminal is connected to n-type. During forward Bias the applied
voltage opposes the junction voltage, i.e. applied voltage cancels the potential
barrier. The junction resistance decreases. The majority charge carries holes
and free electrons can cross the junction easily. The current flows through the

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junction. This current is called forward current. The forward current increases
with increases in applied voltage.
The applied voltage at which the forward current increase rapidly is
called Knee voltage (VK). After Knee voltage the forward bias characteristic is
almost linear. The forward bias resistance is very low. For an ideal diode, the
forward bias resistance is zero (Rf= 0). During forward bias the diode conducts
the current to flow through it. The graph of forward current verses forward
voltage is called forward bias characteristic.

Define Cut in voltage or threshold voltage (knee voltage): It is the minimum

forward voltage in which the diode goes to on state (conducting state) with
increase in current.
Cut in voltage: For Ge→0.2 to 0.3V, Si→0.6 to 0.7V.

What is reverse bias?

A p-n junction is said to be reverse biased, if p-type is connected to
negative terminal and n-type is connected to positive terminal of the battery.

Explain how p-n junction diode behaves under “REVERSE BIAS”

condition:

In reverse bias n-side is connected to positive terminal and P – side is

connected to negative terminal of the battery. The direction of applied voltage is
same as the direction of barrier potential. As a result, the barrier height
increases and the depletion region widens, a high resistance path is
established. The effective barrier height under reverse bias is (V0 + V) as shown
in fig (b). This suppresses the flow of electrons from n→p and holes from p→n.
Thus, diffusion current, decreases enormously compared to the diode under
forward bias.
The current under reverse bias is essentially voltage independent up to a
critical reverse bias voltage, known as breakdown voltage (Vbr) when V = Vbr,
the diode current increases sharply is of the order of micro – amperes (few A).

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Explain with circuit diagram the working of reverse biased characteristic:

In reverse bias positive terminal of a battery is connected to n-type and

negative terminal is connected to p-type. During reverse bias the applied
voltage adds to the junction voltage. The majority charge carries holes and free
electrons cannot cross the junction. However a small current flows through the
junction due to minority charge carriers. This current is called reverse current
or leakage current. At a particular applied voltage the reverse current
suddenly becomes maximum, this reverse voltage is called break down voltage
(Vb). The reverse resistance is very high. For an ideal diode, the reverse bias
resistance is infinity. (Rr= ) The diode does not conducts during reverse bias.
The graph of reverse current verses reverse voltage is called reverse bias
characteristic.
Reverse saturation current: It is the reverse current which remains constant
with increase in reverse bias voltage. It is of the order of 10-6A.
Break down voltage (VB) : It is the reverse bias voltage at which the reverse
current increases sharply.
Dynamic resistance: It is the ratio of small change in voltage V to a small
V
change in current I. i.e. rd = .
I
Note:
1. The diode characteristic is not a straight line, therefore diode is a non-ohmic
device.
2. At breakdown voltage the current is maximum is due to breakdown of
covalent bonds. A large number of electron-hole pairs are formed. The high
reverse current may damage the junction.
3. The reverse bias resistance is very much greater than forward bias
resistance.

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Note-4: Junction diode as a rectifier: From the V-I characteristics of a

junction diode we see that it allows current to pass only when it is forward
biased. So, if an alternating voltage is applied across a diode the current flows
only in the part of the cycle when the diode is forward biased. This property is
used to rectify alternating voltages and the circuit used for this purpose is
called a rectifier. A device that passes current only in the forward direction and
can therefore be used as an a.c. to d.c. converter.

Rectification: The process of converting AC to DC is called rectification.

The device which converts AC to DC is called rectifier.

Principle of rectification: Semiconductor diode conducts the current during

forward bias and did not conduct the current during reverse bias. i.e. diode has
unidirectional conducting property. This is the principle of rectification.

What is half wave rectifier?

The rectifier which converts only half cycles of AC into DC is called half wave
rectifier.
Explain with circuit diagram of half-wave rectifier:

The circuit diagram is as shown in the figure. The AC to be converted in

to DC is fed to the primary (p) of the transformer. A diode (D) and load resistor
(RL) are connected to secondary (S) of the transformer. During positive half
cycle of AC, the point A is positive potential with respect to point B. then diode
is forward biased and it conducts the current, the output is obtained across
the load resistance. During the negative half cycles of AC, the point A is
negative potential with respect to B. then the diode is reveres biased and it
does not conduct the current, the output is not obtained across the load
resistance. We get the output only during one-half cycles. Thus it is called half
wave rectifier. The graph of input AC and output DC is shown in the figure.

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What is full wave rectifier?

The rectifier which converts both the half cycles of AC into DC is called full
wave rectifier.
Explain with a circuit diagram the working of full wave rectifier:

The circuit diagram is as shown in the figure. The AC to be converted

into DC is fed to the primary (p) of the transformer. Two diodes D1, D2 and load
resistance R L are connected to secondary (S) of the centre tapped transformer.
During positive half cycles of AC, the point A is positive w.r.t. B, then
the diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased. The diode D1
conducts the current and diode D2 does not conducts the current. The output
is obtained across the load resistance RL due to diode D1. During negative half
cycles of AC, the point A is negative w.r.t. B. then the diode D1 is reverse biased
and diode D2 is forward biased. The diode D1 doesn’t conduct and the diode D2
conducts the current. The output is obtained across the load resistance RL due
to diode D2. The output is obtained during both half cycles of AC. Thus it is
called full wave rectifier. A graph of input ‘AC’ and output ‘DC’ is as shown in
the figure.
What is the necessity of using filter circuits in a rectifiers?
The rectified voltage is in the form of pulses of the shape of harmonics.
Though it is unidirectional it does not have a steady value. To get steady d.c.
output from the pulsating voltage normally a capacitor is connected across the
output terminals (parallel to the load RL) one can also use an inductor in series
with ‘RL’ for the same purpose. Since these addition circuits appear to filter out
the a.c. ripple and give a pure d.c. voltage, so they are called filters.

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Note-1: Ripple factor: An alternating current component superimposed on a

direct current (d.c.) component resulting in the instantaneous value of a
unidirectional current or voltage. The term is particularly applied to the output
of a rectifier.
The frequency of the a.c. component is the ripple frequency. For a full
wave rectifier it is twice the frequency of the input signal.

Note-2: Ripple factor (r) is defined as :

r.m.s. value of a.c. components
r=
d.c. value of the wave
Vr ( rms ) I r( rms )
r= OR r =
Vd.c. Id.c.
For a H.W.R., ripple factor is 1.21
For a FWR, Ripple factor is 0.48

Explain with a neat sketch of an full wave rectifier with capacitor filter:

The above circuit shall discuss the role of capacitor in filtering. When the
voltage across the capacitor is rising, it gets charged. If there is no external
load, it remains charged to the peak voltage of the rectified output. When there
is a load, it gets discharged through the load and the voltage across it begins to
fall. In the next half cycle of rectified output it again gets charged to the peak
value. This concept of charging and discharging depends on the values of ‘RC’
elements. i.e. =RC seconds.

Note: Capacitor blocks DC and allows AC.

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What is Zener diode?

A zener diode is a silicon junction diode which is operated under reverse
bias and arranged to breakdown when a specific reverse bias voltage applied to
it.
It is a special purpose semiconductor diode, named after its inventor C-
Zener. Due to its reverse breakdown it is used as a voltage regulator.
The symbol of zener diode is as shown.

Note: Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping the both p and n sides of the
junction. Due to this, depletion region is very thin (<10-6m) and consequently
the breakdown of the junction will occur at very low reverse voltage on the
other hand, a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown voltage.

Draw I-V characteristics of zener diode:

The I-V characteristics of a zener diode is
shown in figure (b). It is seen that when the
applied reverse bias voltage (V) reaches the
breakdown voltage ‘Vz’ of the zener diode, there
is a large change in current. In otherwards,
zener voltage remain constant, even though
the current through the zener diode varies over
a wide range. This property of the zener diode
is used for regulating supply voltages so that
they are constant.

Internal field emission or field ionisation:

The emission of electrons from the host atoms due to the high electric field is
known as internal field emission or field ionisation.
The Electric field required for field ionisation is of the order of 106 Vm-1

Note: As the reverse bias voltage is increased, the electric field at the junction
becomes significant. When the reverse bias voltage V=Vz, then the electric field
strength is high enough to pull valence electrons from the host atoms on the p-
side which are accelerated to n-side., These account for high current observed
at the breakdown.

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Explain with a circuit diagram how zener diode acts as a voltage

regulator?
The circuit diagram of a voltage
regulator using a zener diode as shown in +
figure.
The unregulated d.c. voltage is
connected to the zener diode through a series
resistance ‘Rs’ such that the zener diode is
revere biased. If the input voltage increases,
the current through ‘Rs’ and zener diode also −
increases. This increases the voltage drop
across ‘Rs’ but voltage drop across the zener
diode remains constant. (This is because in the breakdown region, zener
voltage remains constant even though the current through the zener diode
changes.) Similarly if the input voltage decreases, the current through the ‘Rs’
and zener diode also decreases. This decreases voltage drop across ‘Rs’ but the
voltage across the zener diode remains constant. Thus any increase or decrease
in the input voltage results in, increase or decrease of voltage drop across ‘Rs’
without any change in the voltage across the zener diode. Thus zener diode
acts as a voltage regulator.

Note: We have to select the Zener diode according to the required output
voltage and according the series resistance ‘Rs’.

Optoelectronics Junction Devices:

The semiconductor diodes in which charge carriers are generated by
photons (photo-excitation) are called optoelectronic devices.

We shall study the functioning of the following optoelectronic devices.

i) Light Emitting Diode (LED).
ii) Photodiode.
iii) Solar Cells (Photovoltaic devices).

Light emitting diode(LED): It is a semiconductor diode which emits light

when it is forward biased. It is represented as

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Function (Working principle of LED): When the diode is

forward biased, electrons are sent from n→p and holes are
sent from p→n. At the junction boundary the
concentration of minority carriers increases compared to
the equilibrium concentration and these carriers
recombine with majority carriers. On recombination, the energy is released
in the form of photons. Photons with energy equal to or slightly less than the
band gap are emitted. When the forward current of the diode is small, the
intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward current increases, intensity
of light increases and reaches a maximum. Further increase in the forward
current results in decrease of light intensity.
LED’s are biased such that the light emitting efficiency is maximum.
Note: Energy gap= light energy emitted.
hC
Eg=h =

hC
 = Where, h= Planck’s constant, C= Velocity of light, = wavelength of
Eg
emitted light
Applications of LED:
1. It is used in indicator lamp.
2. It is used in remote control for T.V.
3. It is used in traffic signals.
4. It is used in optical fibre communication devices.
5. It is used in calculators, watches.
6. Burglar alarm system.
7. White LED can be used for lighting purpose.
Note-1: LED’s that can emit red, yellow, orange, green and blue light are
commercially available.
The semiconductor used for fabrication of visible LED must at least have a
band gap of 1.8eV.
Spectral range of visible light is from about 0.4m to 0.7m i.e., from about
3eV to 1.8eV.
The semiconductor materials used for making LED’s are Ga As (Gallium
Arsenide), Gallium arsenide phosphide (Ga As P), or Gallium Phosphide (Ga
P)
LED’s made from Ga As emit infrared (invisible) radiation (Eg ~1.4eV).
LED’s made from Ga As P provides either red light or yellow light (Eg
~1.9eV).
While red or green emission can be produced by using Ga P.

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Note-2: To make LED’s, Ge and Si semiconductor material are not used

because they are poor emitter of light

Note-3: Reverse breakdown voltages of LED’s are very low, typically around 5V.

Advantages of LED over incandescent lamps:

LED’s have the following advantages over conventional incandescent low power
lamps:
i) Low operational voltage or less power.
ii) Fast action and no warm-up time required.
iii) Long life and ruggedness.
iv) Fast on-off switching capability
v) Emitted light is monochromatic (band width is 100Å to 500 Å)

Note: Semiconductor Laser diode (SLD): It is specific type of LED which

emits coherent light as in laser. It works on the principle of laser.
Photo diode: It is a semiconductor diode which produce electric current when
light is incident on it. It is represented as

Photo diode is operated in reverse biased condition.

Function (Working principle of photodiode):
When the photodiode is illuminated with light (photons) with energy
(h) greater than the energy gap (Eg) of the semiconductor, then electron –
hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of photons. The diode is
fabricated such that the generation of electron-hole pairs takes place in or
near the depletion region of the diode. Due to electric filed of the junction,
electrons and holes are separated before they recombine. Electrons are
collected on n-side and holes are collected on p-side giving rise to an emf.
When an external load is connected, current flows. The magnitude of the
photocurrent depends on the intensity of incident light. I-V characteristics of
a photo diode for illumination intensity is as shown.

Note: Photo electric current is directly proportional to intensity of light.

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Applications:
1) It is used to detect both visible, invisible light and detect optical signals.
2) It is used in logic circuits.
3) It is used to measure intensity of light.
4) It is used as light meter in camera.
5) It is used in optical fibre communication.

Solar cell:
i) Solar Cell: A solar cell is basically a P-n junction which generates
e.m.f. when solar radiation falls on the P-n junction.

A circuit symbol of solar cell is

Working principle of solar cell:

It works on the principle of photovoltaic effect and bias is not applied.

When radiation of suitable energy falls on the diode, the electron-hole pairs are
generated. The free electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front
contact and holes reaching P-side are collected by the back contact. Thus P-
side becomes positive and n-side becomes negative giving rise to photo voltage.
When an external load is connected as shown in figure a photo current I flows
through the load resistance R. I-V characteristics of solar cell is a shown.

Uses: Solar cells are used in satellites and space vehicles and also power
supply to some calculators, other domestic purposes, used to charging storage
batteries, etc.

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The important criteria for the selection of a material for solar cell
fabrication:
(i) Band gap (~1.0 to 1.8eV) (ii) high optical absorption (~10 4cm-1) (iii)
electrical conductivity, (iv) Availability of the raw material and (v) cost.
Note: Sunlight is not always required for a solar cell. Any light with photon
energies greater than the bandgap will do.

Note: Solar cells are made with semiconductors like Si (Eg  1.1eV), Ga As (Eg
 1.43eV), Cd Te (Eg :  1.45eV), CuInSe2 (Eg=1.04eV) etc.

What is a transistor?
Transistor is a three terminal (Emitter base and collector), three layer
and two p-n junctions semiconductor device.
Classification of transistor into two types:
1) N-P-N transistor and 2) P-N-P transistor
1) N-P-N transistor: Here two segments of n-type semiconductor (emitter and
collector) are separated by a segment of p-type semiconductor (termed as base)
as shown in figure.

2) P-N-P transistor: Here two segments p-type semiconductor (termed as

emitter and collector) are separated by a segment of n-type semiconductor
(termed as base) as shown in figure.

How in a transistor i.e., E, B, and C are doped and also differs in their size
of the segments?
a) Emitter: It has a moderate size and heavily doped. It supplies a large
number of majority carriers for the current flow through the transistor.
b) Base: This is the central segment. It is very thin and lightly doped. It
transfers majority charge carriers from emitter to collector.

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c) Collector: The collector is moderately doped and larger in size as compared

to the emitter. The collector collects a major portion of a majority carriers
supplied by the emitter.

Doping level: Emitter  collector >Base.

Thickness: Collector > Emitter > Base

Note: In normal mode of operation of transistors, emitter-base region is

forward bias and collector-base region is reverse biased.

Explain with a neat sketch the working principle of an n-p-n transistor?

In normal mode of operation
of transistors, emitter-base region
is forward bias and collector-base
region is reverse biased. The
electrons are majority charge
carriers in n-type and holes are
majority charge carriers in p-type.
The emitter injects free electrons
into the base. This constitutes
emitter current (IE). A few free electrons (about 5%) undergo recombination
with holes in the base region. This constitutes base current (IB). The remaining
free electrons (about 95%) move towards collector and they are collected by
collector.
This constitutes collector current (IC).
 IE = IB + IC
But IB is very small because base is lightly doped. Therefore IE is nearly
equal to IC.
Thus a transistor transfers current from forward biased region to reverse
bias region without much difference, i.e from low resistance region to high
resistance region without much difference. This is the action of transistor

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Explain with a neat sketch the working principle of p-n-p transistor:

In normal mode of operation of
transistors, emitter-base region is
forward biased and collector-base
region is reverse biased. The electrons
are majority charge carriers in n-type
and holes are majority charge carriers
in p-type. The emitter injects holes
into the base. This constitutes emitter
current (IE). A few holes (about 5%)
undergo recombination with free
electrons in the base region. This
constitutes base current (IB). The
remaining holes (about 95%) move
towards collector and they are collected by collector. This constitutes collector
current (IC).
 IE = IB + IC
But IB is very small because base is lightly doped. Therefore IE is nearly
equal to IC.
Thus a transistor transfers current from forward biased region to reverse
bias region without much difference, i.e from low resistance region to high
resistance region without much difference. This is the action of transistor.

Note:
1. In npn-transistor free electrons are majority charge carrier
2. In pnp-transistor holes are majority charge carriers.

List out the basic transistor circuit configurations:

In a transistor, only three terminals are available, i.e. emitter (E), base
(B) and collector (C), therefore in a circuit the input and output connections
have to be such that one of these (E, B or C) is common to both input and the
output. Accordingly, the transistor can be connected in either of the following
three configurations.
1) Common emitter configuration (CE-mode)
2) Common base configuration (CB-mode) and
3) Common collector configuration (CC-mode)

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Note: The transistor is most used in the ‘CE’ configuration and we are
restricted our discussion to only this configuration. Since more commonly used
transistors are n-p-n transistors, we shall confine our discussion to such
transistors only. With p-n-p transistors the polarities of the external power
supplies are to be inverted.
Explain with circuit diagram to plot input and output characteristics in
common emitter (CE) mode configuration:
When a transistor is used in CE
configuration the input is between the base
and the emitter and the output is between
the collector and the emitter. The variation
of the base current ‘IB’ with the base
emitter voltage ‘VBE’ is called the input
characteristic.
Similarly, the variation of the
collector current ‘IC’ with the collector –emitter voltage ‘VCE’ is called the output
characteristic.

Input characteristic of a transistor in CE-mode: It is a graph between base

current ‘IB’ and base to emitter voltage (VBE) at constant collector to emitter
voltage ‘VCE’.

Note:
1. For Si-transistor ‘VBE’ is 0.6 to 0.7 volts, ‘VCE’ must be sufficiently larger
than 0.7 volts.
2. In ‘CE’ arrangement the emitter is common to both input and output
circuits.

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The output characteristics of a transistor in CE mode:

It is graph of collector current (IC) and collector to emitter voltage (VCE) at
constant base current (IB).

Define the terms w.r.t. CE-mode:

i) Input resistance (ri): It is the ratio of change in base to emitter voltage
(VBE) to the change in base current (IB) at constant collector to emitter
voltage (VCE).
 V 
 ri =  BE  VCE constant
 IB 
The value of ‘ri’ can be anything from a few hundreds to a few thousand
ohms.

ii) Output resistance (ro): It is the ratio change in collector to emitter voltage
VCE to the change in collector current ‘IC’ at constant base current ‘IB’.
 V 
 ro =  CE 
 IC IB constant
iii) Current amplification factor () [Current gain]: The ratio of change in the
collector current (IC) to the change in the base current (IB) at a constant ‘VCE’,
when the transistor is in active state.
 I 
 ac =  C  VCE Constant
 IB 
I
& dc = C
IB

Note: ac is called small signal current gain.

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Explain with a circuit diagram how transistor works as a switching

device?

We shall try to understand the operation of the transistor as a switch by

analysing the behaviour of the base biased transistor in CE configuration as
shown in figure.
Applying Kirchoff’s voltage rule to the input and output sides of this
circuit, we get
VBB = IBR B + VBE ---------- (1) (input side)
And
VCC = IC R C + VCE
VCE = VCC − IC R C ---------- (2) (output side)
We shall treat ‘VBB’ as the d.c. input voltage ‘Vi’ and ‘VCE’ as the d.c. output
voltage ‘Vo’
i.e. Vi=VBB and Vo=VCE
then, equation (1) and (2) becomes
Vi = IBR B + VBE and
Vo = VCC − IC R C
Let us see how ‘Vo’ changes with ‘Vi’ increases from zero onwards. In the
cases of silicon transistor, as long as input ‘Vi’ is less than 0.6 volts, the
transistor will be in cut off state and current ‘IC’ will be zero.
i.e. Vo = VCC − IC R C  Vi  0.6V, IC = 0
then Vo = VCC → in this condition the transistor is switched off,
If, Vi>0.6V, IC>0, then
Vo=0 → in this condition the transistor is in on state. i.e.
saturation region.

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Note-1: A transistor can be used as a switch if it is operated between cut off

state and saturation region.
Note-2: Let us see now how the
transistor is operated as a switch.
As long as ‘Vi’ is low and unable to
forward bias the transistor, ‘V0’ is
high (at VCC). If ‘Vi’ is high enough
to drive the transistor into
saturation, then ‘V0’ is low, very
near to zero. When the transistor is
non-conducting it is said to be
switched off and when it is driven
into saturation it is said to be switched ‘ON’. Thus low input switches the
transistor off and a high input switches it on.
Note-3: A low input to the transistor gives a high output and a high input gives
a low output.
Explain with circuit diagram the working of transistor as an Amplifier in
CE-configuration:
In general, amplifiers are used to amplify alternating signals. Now let us
superimpose an a.c. input signal (Vi) to be amplified on the bias VBB (d.c.) as
shown in figure. The output is taken between the collector and the ground.

The working of an amplifier can be easily understood, if we first assume that Vi

= 0.
Then applying kirchoff’s law to the output loop, we get.
VCC = VCE + IC RC ------------ (1)

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Like that, the input loop gives

VBB = VBE + IBR B
When Vi is not zero, we get
VBB + Vi = VBE + IBR B + IB ( R B + ri )
Vi = IB ( R B + ri )
Vi = rI B ( r = R B + ri )
Vi
 I B =
r
The change in IB causes a change in IC, we define a parameter ac, which is
similar to the dC, defined in previous section as
i c
ac =
i b
ic = ac i b
The change in ‘IC’ due to a change in IB causes a change in VCE
These changes can be given by equation (1) as

VCC = VCE + RC ic

But VCC=0 Because VCC is fixed
 0=VCE + RC ic
VCE = - RC ic
But VCE=V0
Then V0 = −RC ac ib.
The voltage gain of the amplifier is
VO
AV =
Vi
−ac I B R C
AV =
r I B
−ac R C
AV =
r
The negative sign represents that output voltage is opposite with phase with
the input voltage.
We know that current gain (ac ) and voltage gain (AV). Therefore power gain ‘AP’
can be expressed as the product of the current gain and voltage gain.
Mathematically AP = ac  AV
Since ac and AV are greater than ‘1’, we get a.c. power gain.

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Oscillator: It is a device used to reduce undamped electromagnetic

oscillations.
The block diagram of principle of transistor amplifier with positive
feedback as an oscillator:

Explain the principle of transistor amplifier with positive feedback as an

oscillator:
In transistor oscillator, a portion of the output is returned back to the
input in phase with the input power. This process is called as positive
feedback. Thus a transistor is regarded as a self sustained transistor amplifier
oscillator with a positive feedback.
Explain with a circuit diagram of transistor oscillator using feedback
amplifier or Tuned collector oscillator?

The figure shows the circuit of tuned collector oscillator. It contains L1 and C in
the collector. The frequency of oscillations depends upon the values of L1 and C
and is given by
1
f= ⎯→ (1)
2 LC
The feedback coil L2 in the base circuit is magnetically coupled to the tank
circuit coil L1. In practice L1 and L2 form the primary and secondary of the
transformer.

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Circuit operation: When the switch ‘S1’ is closed, collector current starts
increasing and charges the capacitor ‘C’. When this capacitor is fully charged,
it discharges through coil L1, setting up oscillations of frequency given by
equation (1). These oscillations induce some voltage in the coil L2 by mutual
induction. The frequency of voltage in the coil L2 is same as that of tank circuit
but its magnitude depends up on the number of turns L2 and coupling between
L2 and L1.
A phase shift of 1800 is created between voltages of L1(T2) and L2(T1) due
to transformer action. A further phase shift of 1800 takes place between base-
emitter and collector circuit due to transistor properties. As a result, energy
feedback to the tank circuit is in phase with generated oscillations.
Note:
1) An Amplifier uses negative feedback
2) An Oscillator uses positive feedback
3) LC circuit is called tank or tuned circuit.
4) Tuned circuit is connected in the
collector side, hence it is called tuned
collector oscillator.
Digital electronics and Logic gates:
Analogue signal: The signal which has
continuous, time varying VOLTAGE or Current is
called analogue signal.
Ex: Voice Signal.
Digital Signal: The signal which has discrete
values of voltage or current w.r.t. time is called
digital signal.
Ex: Square wave or Pulse wave form.
The figure below shows pulse wave form
in which only discrete values of voltage is
possible.
It is convenient to use binary numbers to
represent such signals. A binary number has
only two digits ‘0’ (say ‘0’ volts) and ‘1’ (say +5volts). In digital electronics, we
use only two levels of voltage as shown in figure (b) such signals are called
digital signals. In digital circuits only two values (represented by ‘0’ or ‘1’) of the
input and output voltage are permissible.
Digital electronics: The branch of physics which deals about digital circuits
and digital signals is called digital electronics.

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Note: There are two levels in digital circuit. They are 0 and 1 or OFF and ON or
low and high. George Boole developed the algebra for the working of digital
circuits called Boolean algebra. It is based on binary system. It uses two digits
0 and 1. The three basic operations in Boolean algebra are OR, AND and NOT.
Logic Gates: A logic gate is a digital circuit that follows certain logical
relationship between the input and output voltages.
Logic gates are used in calculators, digital watches, computers, robots,
Industrial control systems, in telecommunications etc.,
Types of Basic gates: There are three basic logic gates. They are
1) OR-gate, 2) AND-gate and 3) NOT-gate.

Note: Logic gate has two or more inputs and only one output (except for a
NOT-GATE- it has only one input and a output). Therefore, they are generally
known as logic gates.
Truth table: It is a list of all the possible input logic level combinations with
their respective output logic levels.
i) NOT-GATE (INVERTER): The logic gate which produces the output 1 if the
input is 0 and vice-versa.
That is, it produces an inverted version of the input at its output. This is
why it is also known as an inverter. This is the most basic
gate, with one input and output.

Symbol of NOT- GATE:

Boolean equation for NOT-gate is Y = A ,

(it is read as Y= NOT A) Truth table
where, A=input, Y=output.
ii) OR-GATE: The logic gate in which the output is 1when any one of the
input or both the inputs are 1’s is called OR-Gate.
An OR-Gate has two or more inputs with one output.
Symbol of OR-GATE: Truth table:

Boolean equation of OR-Gate is Y=A+B, (it is read as, Y=A OR B)

where, A & B=inputs, Y=output.

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iii) AND GATE: The logic gate in which output is 1 when all the inputs
are 1.
An AND-GATE has two or more inputs and one output.
Symbol of AND-GATE: Truth table:

Boolean equation of AND gate is Y=AB, (it is read as, Y=A AND B)
where, A & B=inputs, Y=output.
iv) NAND-GATE: The NAND-Gate is an AND-gate followed by a NOT-gate.
If inputs ‘A’ and ‘B’ are both 1 (high) the output is 0 (low)
Symbol of NAND-GATE: Truth table:

Boolean equation of NAND-Gate is Y = A  B , (it is read as Y=Not A

and B)
where, A & B=inputs, Y=output.
NAND- gates are also called universal gates since by using these
gates you can realise other basic gates like AND, OR, NOT gates etc.
v) NOR-gate: NOR-Gate is an OR-gate followed by NOT-gate. Its output
is 1(high) only when both inputs ‘A’ and ‘B’ are 0 (low) and when any
one of the input is 1 (high) then output is 0 (low). It has two or more
inputs and one output.
Symbol of NOR-GATE: Truth table:

Boolean equation of NOR-Gate is Y = A + B , (it is read as Y=Not A or B)

NOR-gates are considered as universal gates because you can

obtain all the gates like AND, OR, NOT gates etc using only NOR-gates.

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INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (‘IC’):

The fabrication of an
entire circuit (Consisting of
many passive components
like ‘R’ and ‘C’ and active
devices like diodes and
transistors) on a small single
block or chip of a
semiconductor using
photographic techniques is
known as integrated circuit
(IC).
The most widely used technology is the Monolithic IC. The word
monolithic is a combination of two Greek words, monos means single and
lithos means stone. This in effect means that the entire circuit is formed on a
single silicon crystal (or chip). The chip dimensions are as small as 1mm 
1mm or it could even be smaller.

IC’s can be grouped in two categories:

i) Linear or Analogue IC’s : The linear IC’s process analogue singals i.e., it
varies linearly with the input.
One of the most linear IC’s the operational amplifier (OPAMP)
ii) The digital IC’s process the digital signals that have only two values. They
contain circuits such as logic gates.

Classification of Integrations on the basis of number of circuit

components or Logic gates:
a) Small scale Integration (SSI)  10 logic gates per chip.
b) Medium scale integration (MSI)  100 gates per chip
c) Large scale integration (LSI)  1000 gates per chip and
d) Very large scale integration (VLSI) > 1000 gates per chip.

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