Multiple Access Protocols in Computer

Network
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The Data Link Layer is responsible for transmission of data between

two nodes. Its main functions are-
 Data Link Control
 Multiple Access Control

Data Link control –

The data link control is responsible for reliable transmission of
message over transmission channel by using techniques like framing,
error control and flow control. For Data link control refer to – Stop and
Wait ARQ
Multiple Access Control –
If there is a dedicated link between the sender and the receiver then
data link control layer is sufficient, however if there is no dedicated link
present then multiple stations can access the channel simultaneously.
Hence multiple access protocols are required to decrease collision and
avoid crosstalk. For example, in a classroom full of students, when a
teacher asks a question and all the students (or stations) start
answering simultaneously (send data at same time) then a lot of chaos
is created( data overlap or data lost) then it is the job of the teacher
(multiple access protocols) to manage the students and make them
answer one at a time.

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Thus, protocols are required for sharing data on non dedicated
channels. Multiple access protocols can be subdivided further as –
1. Random Access Protocol: In this, all stations have same
superiority that is no station has more priority than another station.
Any station can send data depending on medium’s state( idle or busy).
It has two features:
1. There is no fixed time for sending data
2. There is no fixed sequence of stations sending data
The Random access protocols are further subdivided as:
(a) ALOHA – It was designed for wireless LAN but is also applicable for
shared medium. In this, multiple stations can transmit data at the
same time and can hence lead to collision and data being garbled.
 Pure Aloha:
When a station sends data it waits for an acknowledgement. If the
acknowledgement doesn’t come within the allotted time then the
station waits for a random amount of time called back-off time (Tb)
and re-sends the data. Since different stations wait for different
amount of time, the probability of further collision decreases.
Vulnerable Time = 2* Frame transmission time
Throughput = G exp{-2*G}
Maximum throughput = 0.184 for G=0.5
 Slotted Aloha:
It is similar to pure aloha, except that we divide time into slots and
sending of data is allowed only at the beginning of these slots. If a
station misses out the allowed time, it must wait for the next slot.
This reduces the probability of collision.
Vulnerable Time = Frame transmission time
Throughput = G exp{-*G}
Maximum throughput = 0.368 for G=1
For more information on ALOHA refer – LAN Technologies
(b) CSMA – Carrier Sense Multiple Access ensures fewer collisions as
the station is required to first sense the medium (for idle or busy)
before transmitting data. If it is idle then it sends data, otherwise it
waits till the channel becomes idle. However there is still chance of
collision in CSMA due to propagation delay. For example, if station A
wants to send data, it will first sense the medium.If it finds the channel
idle, it will start sending data. However, by the time the first bit of data
is transmitted (delayed due to propagation delay) from station A, if
station B requests to send data and senses the medium it will also find
it idle and will also send data. This will result in collision of data from
station A and B.
CSMA access modes-
 1-persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the
data, otherwise it continuously keeps on checking the medium for
being idle and transmits unconditionally(with 1 probability) as soon
as the channel gets idle.
 Non-Persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the
data, otherwise it checks the medium after a random amount of
time (not continuously) and transmits when found idle.
 P-persistent: The node senses the medium, if idle it sends the
data with p probability. If the data is not transmitted ((1-p)
probability) then it waits for some time and checks the medium
again, now if it is found idle then it send with p probability. This
repeat continues until the frame is sent. It is used in Wifi and packet
radio systems.
 O-persistent: Superiority of nodes is decided beforehand and
transmission occurs in that order. If the medium is idle, node waits
for its time slot to send data.
(c) CSMA/CD – Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection.
Stations can terminate transmission of data if collision is detected. For
more details refer – Efficiency of CSMA/CD
(d) CSMA/CA – Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance.
The process of collisions detection involves sender receiving
acknowledgement signals. If there is just one signal(its own) then the
data is successfully sent but if there are two signals(its own and the
one with which it has collided) then it means a collision has occurred.
To distinguish between these two cases, collision must have a lot of
impact on received signal. However it is not so in wired networks, so
CSMA/CA is used in this case.
CSMA/CA avoids collision by:
1. Interframe space – Station waits for medium to become idle and if
found idle it does not immediately send data (to avoid collision due
to propagation delay) rather it waits for a period of time called
Interframe space or IFS. After this time it again checks the medium
for being idle. The IFS duration depends on the priority of station.
2. Contention Window – It is the amount of time divided into slots. If
the sender is ready to send data, it chooses a random number of
slots as wait time which doubles every time medium is not found
idle. If the medium is found busy it does not restart the entire
process, rather it restarts the timer when the channel is found idle
again.
3. Acknowledgement – The sender re-transmits the data if
acknowledgement is not received before time-out.
2. Controlled Access:
In this, the data is sent by that station which is approved by all other
stations. For further details refer – Controlled Access Protocols
3. Channelization:
In this, the available bandwidth of the link is shared in time, frequency
and code to multiple stations to access channel simultaneously.
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) – The available
bandwidth is divided into equal bands so that each station can be
allocated its own band. Guard bands are also added so that no two
bands overlap to avoid crosstalk and noise.
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) – In this, the bandwidth is
shared between multiple stations. To avoid collision time is divided
into slots and stations are allotted these slots to transmit data.
However there is a overhead of synchronization as each station
needs to know its time slot. This is resolved by adding
synchronization bits to each slot. Another issue with TDMA is
propagation delay which is resolved by addition of guard bands.
For more details refer – Circuit Switching
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) – One channel carries all
transmissions simultaneously. There is neither division of bandwidth
nor division of time. For example, if there are many people in a
room all speaking at the same time, then also perfect reception of
data is possible if only two person speak the same language.
Similarly, data from different stations can be transmitted
simultaneously in different code languages.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) – In
OFDMA the available bandwidth is divided into small subcarriers in
order to increase the overall performance, Now the data is
transmitted through these small subcarriers. it is widely used in the
5G technology.
Advantages:
 Increase in efficiency
 High data rates
 Good for multimedia traffic
Disadvantages:
 Complex to implement
 High peak to power ratio

 Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA) – SDMA uses multiple

antennas at the transmitter and receiver to separate the signals of
 multiple users that are located in different spatial directions. This
technique is commonly used in MIMO (Multiple-Input, Multiple-
Output) wireless communication systems.
Advantages :
 Frequency band uses effectively
 The overall signal quality will be improved
 The overall data rate will be increased

Disadvantages :
 It is complex to implement
 It require the accurate information about the channel

Features of multiple access protocols:

Contention-based access: Multiple access protocols are typically

contention-based, meaning that multiple devices compete for access
to the communication channel. This can lead to collisions if two or
more devices transmit at the same time, which can result in data loss
and decreased network performance.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): CSMA is a widely used
multiple access protocol in which devices listen for carrier signals on
the communication channel before transmitting. If a carrier signal is
detected, the device waits for a random amount of time before
attempting to transmit to reduce the likelihood of collisions.
Collision Detection (CD): CD is a feature of some multiple access
protocols that allows devices to detect when a collision has occurred
and take appropriate action, such as backing off and retrying the
transmission.
Collision Avoidance (CA): CA is a feature of some multiple access
protocols that attempts to avoid collisions by assigning time slots to
devices for transmission.
Token passing: Token passing is a multiple access protocol in which
devices pass a special token between each other to gain access to the
communication channel. Devices can only transmit data when they
hold the token, which ensures that only one device can transmit at a
time.
Bandwidth utilization: Multiple access protocols can affect the
overall bandwidth utilization of a network. For example, contention-
based protocols may result in lower bandwidth utilization due to
collisions, while token passing protocols may result in higher
 bandwidth utilization due to the controlled access to the
communication channel.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
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This method was developed to decrease the chances of collisions when

two or more stations start sending their signals over the data link
layer. Carrier Sense multiple access requires that each station first
check the state of the medium before sending.
Prerequisite - Multiple Access Protocols
Vulnerable Time:
Vulnerable time = Propagation time (Tp)

The persistence methods can be applied to help the station take action
when the channel is busy/idle.

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1. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

(CSMA/CD):

In this method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to

see if the transmission was successful. If successful, the transmission
is finished, if not, the frame is sent again.

In the diagram, starts sending the first bit of its frame at t1 and since C
sees the channel idle at t2, starts sending its frame at t2. C detects A’s
frame at t3 and aborts transmission. A detects C’s frame at t4 and
aborts its transmission. Transmission time for C’s frame is,
therefore, t3-t2 and for A’s frame is t4-t1
So, the frame transmission time (Tfr) should be at least twice
the maximum propagation time (Tp). This can be deduced when
the two stations involved in a collision are a maximum distance apart.
Process: The entire process of collision detection can be explained as
follows:

Throughput and Efficiency: The throughput of CSMA/CD is much

greater than pure or slotted ALOHA.
 For the 1-persistent method, throughput is 50% when G=1.
 For the non-persistent method, throughput can go up to 90%.

2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision

Avoidance (CSMA/CA) –

The basic idea behind CSMA/CA is that the station should be able to
receive while transmitting to detect a collision from different stations.
In wired networks, if a collision has occurred then the energy of the
received signal almost doubles, and the station can sense the
possibility of collision. In the case of wireless networks, most of the
energy is used for transmission, and the energy of the received signal
increases by only 5-10% if a collision occurs. It can’t be used by the
station to sense collision. Therefore CSMA/CA has been specially
designed for wireless networks.
These are three types of strategies:
1. InterFrame Space (IFS): When a station finds the channel busy it
senses the channel again, when the station finds a channel to be
idle it waits for a period of time called IFS time. IFS can also be
used to define the priority of a station or a frame. Higher the IFS
lower is the priority.
2. Contention Window: It is the amount of time divided into slots. A
station that is ready to send frames chooses a random number of
slots as wait time.
3. Acknowledgments: The positive acknowledgments and time-out
timer can help guarantee a successful transmission of the frame.

Characteristics of CSMA/CA :
1. Carrier Sense: The device listens to the channel before
transmitting, to ensure that it is not currently in use by another
device.
2. Multiple Access: Multiple devices share the same channel and can
transmit simultaneously.
3. Collision Avoidance: If two or more devices attempt to transmit at
the same time, a collision occurs. CSMA/CA uses random backoff
time intervals to avoid collisions.
4. Acknowledgment (ACK): After successful transmission, the
receiving device sends an ACK to confirm receipt.
5. Fairness: The protocol ensures that all devices have equal access
to the channel and no single device monopolizes it.
6. Binary Exponential Backoff: If a collision occurs, the device waits
for a random period of time before attempting to retransmit. The
backoff time increases exponentially with each retransmission
attempt.
7. Interframe Spacing: The protocol requires a minimum amount of
time between transmissions to allow the channel to be clear and
reduce the likelihood of collisions.
8. RTS/CTS Handshake: In some implementations, a Request-To-
Send (RTS) and Clear-To-Send (CTS) handshake is used to reserve
the channel before transmission. This reduces the chance of
collisions and increases efficiency.
9. Wireless Network Quality: The performance of CSMA/CA is
greatly influenced by the quality of the wireless network, such as
the strength of the signal, interference, and network congestion.
10. Adaptive Behavior: CSMA/CA can dynamically adjust its
behavior in response to changes in network conditions, ensuring the
efficient use of the channel and avoiding congestion.
Overall, CSMA/CA balances the need for efficient use of the shared
channel with the need to avoid collisions, leading to reliable and fair
communication in a wireless network.
Process: The entire process of collision avoidance can be explained as
follows:

Types of CSMA Access Modes:

There are 4 types of access modes available in CSMA. It is also referred
as 4 different types of CSMA protocols which decide the time to start
sending data across shared media.
1. 1-Persistent: It senses the shared channel first and delivers the
data right away if the channel is idle. If not, it must wait
and continuously track for the channel to become idle and then
broadcast the frame without condition as soon as it does. It is an
aggressive transmission algorithm.
2. Non-Persistent: It first assesses the channel before transmitting
data; if the channel is idle, the node transmits data right away. If
not, the station must wait for an arbitrary amount of time (not
continuously), and when it discovers the channel is empty, it
sends the frames.
3. P-Persistent: It consists of the 1-Persistent and Non-Persistent
modes combined. Each node observes the channel in the
1Persistent mode, and if the channel is idle, it sends a frame with a
P probability. If the data is not transferred, the frame restarts with
the following time slot after waiting for a (q = 1-p probability)
random period.
4. O-Persistent: A supervisory node gives each node a transmission
order. Nodes wait for their time slot according to their allocated
transmission sequence when the transmission medium is idle.

Advantages of CSMA:

1. Increased efficiency: CSMA ensures that only one device

communicates on the network at a time, reducing collisions and
improving network efficiency.
2. Simplicity: CSMA is a simple protocol that is easy to implement
and does not require complex hardware or software.
3. Flexibility: CSMA is a flexible protocol that can be used in a wide
range of network environments, including wired and wireless
networks.
4. Low cost: CSMA does not require expensive hardware or software,
making it a cost-effective solution for network communication.

Disadvantages of CSMA:

1. Limited scalability: CSMA is not a scalable protocol and can

become inefficient as the number of devices on the network
increases.
2. Delay: In busy networks, the requirement to sense the medium and
wait for an available channel can result in delays and increased
latency.
 3. Limited reliability: CSMA can be affected by interference, noise,
and other factors, resulting in unreliable communication.
4. Vulnerability to attacks: CSMA can be vulnerable to certain types
of attacks, such as jamming and denial-of-service attacks, which can
disrupt network communication.

Comparisonof various protocols:

Transmission Collision
Protocol Efficiency Use cases
behavior detection method

Low-traffic
Pure Sends frames No collision
Low networks
ALOHA immediately detection

Better than Low-traffic

Slotted Sends frames at No collision
pure networks
ALOHA specific time slots detection
ALOHA

Monitors medium Wired

Collision detection
after sending a networks with
CSMA/CD by monitoring High
frame, retransmits if moderate to
transmissions
necessary high traffic

Wireless
Monitors medium Collision
networks with
while transmitting, avoidance through
CSMA/CA High moderate to
adjusts behavior to random backoff
high traffic and
avoid collisions time intervals
high error rates

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Collision Detection in CSMA/CD
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CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection) is a

media access control method that was widely used in Early Ethernet
technology/LANs when there used to be shared Bus Topology and each
node ( Computers) were connected By Coaxial Cables. Now a Days
Ethernet is Full Duplex and Topology is either Star (connected via
Switch or Router) or Point to Point ( Direct Connection). Hence
CSMA/CD is not used but they are still supported though.
Consider a scenario where there are ‘n’ stations on a link and all are
waiting to transfer data through that channel. In this case, all ‘n’
stations would want to access the link/channel to transfer their own
data. The problem arises when more than one station transmits the
data at the moment. In this case, there will be collisions in the data
from different stations.
CSMA/CD is one such technique where different stations that follow this
protocol agree on some terms and collision detection measures for
effective transmission. This protocol decides which station will transmit
when so that data reaches the destination without corruption.
How CSMA/CD works?

 Step 1: Check if the sender is ready for transmitting data packets.

 Step 2: Check if the transmission link is idle.
Sender has to keep on checking if the transmission link/medium is
idle. For this, it continuously senses transmissions from other nodes.
Sender sends dummy data on the link. If it does not receive any
collision signal, this means the link is idle at the moment. If it senses
that the carrier is free and there are no collisions, it sends the data.
Otherwise, it refrains from sending data.
 Step 3: Transmit the data & check for collisions.
Sender transmits its data on the link. CSMA/CD does not use an
‘acknowledgment’ system. It checks for successful and unsuccessful
transmissions through collision signals. During transmission, if a
collision signal is received by the node, transmission is stopped. The
station then transmits a jam signal onto the link and waits for
random time intervals before it resends the frame. After some
random time, it again attempts to transfer the data and repeats the
above process.
 Step 4: If no collision was detected in propagation, the sender
completes its frame transmission and resets the counters.
How does a station know if its data collide?

Consider the above situation. Two stations, A & B.

Propagation Time: Tp = 1 hr ( Signal takes 1 hr to go from A to B)
At time t=0, A transmits its data.
t= 30 mins : Collision occurs.
After the collision occurs, a collision signal is generated and sent to
both A & B to inform the stations about the collision. Since the collision
happened midway, the collision signal also takes 30 minutes to reach A
& B.
Therefore, t=1 hr: A & B receive collision signals.
This collision signal is received by all the stations on that link. Then,
How to ensure that it is our station’s data that collided?
For this, Transmission time (Tt) > Propagation Time (Tp) [Rough
bound]
This is because we want that before we transmit the last bit of our data
from our station, we should at least be sure that some of the bits have
already reached their destination. This ensures that the link is not busy
and collisions will not occur.
But, above is a loose bound. We have not taken the time taken by the
collision signal to travel back to us. For this consider the worst-case
scenario.
Consider the above system again.

At time t=0, A transmits its data.

t= 59:59 mins : Collision occurs
This collision occurs just before the data reaches B. Now the collision
signal takes 59:59 minutes again to reach A. Hence, A receives the
collision information approximately after 2 hours, that is, after 2 * Tp.
Hence, to ensure tighter bound, to detect the collision
completely,
Tt > >= 2 * Tp
This is the maximum collision time that a system can take to detect if
the collision was of its own data.
What should be the minimum length of the packet to be
transmitted?
Transmission Time = Tt = Length of the packet/ Bandwidth of the
link
[Number of bits transmitted by sender per second]
Substituting above, we get,
Length of the packet/ Bandwidth of the link>= 2 * Tp
Length of the packet >= 2 * Tp * Bandwidth of the link
Padding helps in cases where we do not have such long packets. We
can pad extra characters to the end of our data to satisfy the above
condition.

Collision detection in CSMA/CD involves the following

features:

 Carrier sense: Before transmitting data, a device listens to the

network to check if the transmission medium is free. If the medium
is busy, the device waits until it becomes free before transmitting
data.
 Multiple Access: In a CSMA/CD network, multiple devices share
the same transmission medium. Each device has equal access to
the medium, and any device can transmit data when the medium is
free.
 Collision detection: If two or more devices transmit data
simultaneously, a collision occurs. When a device detects a collision,
it immediately stops transmitting and sends a jam signal to inform
all other devices on the network of the collision. The devices then
wait for a random time before attempting to transmit again, to
reduce the chances of another collision.
 Backoff algorithm: In CSMA/CD, a backoff algorithm is used to
determine when a device can retransmit data after a collision. The
algorithm uses a random delay before a device retransmits data, to
reduce the likelihood of another collision occurring.
 Minimum frame size: CSMA/CD requires a minimum frame size to
ensure that all devices have enough time to detect a collision before
the transmission ends. If a frame is too short, a device may not
 detect a collision and continue transmitting, leading to data
corruption on the network.

Advantages of CSMA/CD:

 Simple and widely used: CSMA/CD is a widely used protocol for

Ethernet networks, and its simplicity makes it easy to implement
and use.
Fairness: In a CSMA/CD network, all devices have equal access to
the transmission medium, which ensures fairness in data
transmission.
Efficiency: CSMA/CD allows for efficient use of the transmission
medium by preventing unnecessary collisions and reducing network
congestion.

Disadvantages of CSMA/CD:

 Limited scalability: CSMA/CD has limitations in terms of

scalability, and it may not be suitable for large networks with a high
number of devices.
Vulnerability to collisions: While CSMA/CD can detect collisions,
it cannot prevent them from occurring. Collisions can lead to data
corruption, retransmission delays, and reduced network
performance.
Inefficient use of bandwidth: CSMA/CD uses a random backoff
algorithm that can result in inefficient use of network bandwidth if a
device continually experiences collisions.
Susceptibility to security attacks: CSMA/CD does not provide
any security features, and the protocol is vulnerable to security
attacks such as packet sniffing and spoofing.
Controlled Access Protocols in Computer
Network
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In controlled access, the stations seek information from one another to

find which station has the right to send. It allows only one node to send
at a time, to avoid the collision of messages on a shared medium. The
three controlled-access methods are:
1. Reservation
2. Polling
3. Token Passing
Reservation
 In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation
before sending data.
 The timeline has two kinds of periods:
1. Reservation interval of fixed time length
2. Data transmission period of variable frames.
 If there are M stations, the reservation interval is divided into M
slots, and each station has one slot.
 Suppose if station 1 has a frame to send, it transmits 1 bit during
the slot 1. No other station is allowed to transmit during this slot.
 In general, i th station may announce that it has a frame to send by
inserting a 1 bit into i th slot. After all N slots have been checked,
each station knows which stations wish to transmit.
 The stations which have reserved their slots transfer their frames in
that order.
 After data transmission period, next reservation interval begins.
 Since everyone agrees on who goes next, there will never be any
collisions.
The following figure shows a situation with five stations and a five-slot
reservation frame. In the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 have
made reservations. In the second interval, only station 1 has made a

reservation.
Advantages of Reservation:
 The main advantage of reservation is high rates and low rates of
data accessing time of the respective channel can be predicated
easily. Here time and rates are fixed.
 Priorities can be set to provide speedier access from secondary.
 Predictable network performance: Reservation-based access
methods can provide predictable network performance, which is
important in applications where latency and jitter must be
minimized, such as in real-time video or audio streaming.
 Reduced contention: Reservation-based access methods can
reduce contention for network resources, as access to the network
is pre-allocated based on reservation requests. This can improve
network efficiency and reduce packet loss.
 Quality of Service (QoS) support: Reservation-based access
methods can support QoS requirements, by providing different
 reservation types for different types of traffic, such as voice, video,
or data. This can ensure that high-priority traffic is given preferential
treatment over lower-priority traffic.
 Efficient use of bandwidth: Reservation-based access methods
can enable more efficient use of available bandwidth, as they allow
for time and frequency multiplexing of different reservation
requests on the same channel.
 Support for multimedia applications: Reservation-based access
methods are well-suited to support multimedia applications that
require guaranteed network resources, such as bandwidth and
latency, to ensure high-quality performance.
Disadvantages of Reservation:

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 Highly trust on controlled dependability.
 Decrease in capacity and channel data rate under light loads;
increase in turn-around time.
Polling
 Polling process is similar to the roll-call performed in class. Just like
the teacher, a controller sends a message to each node in turn.
 In this, one acts as a primary station(controller) and the others are
secondary stations. All data exchanges must be made through the
controller.
 The message sent by the controller contains the address of the
node being selected for granting access.
 Although all nodes receive the message the addressed one
responds to it and sends data if any. If there is no data, usually a
“poll reject”(NAK) message is sent back.
 Problems include high overhead of the polling messages and high
dependence on the reliability of the controller.
Advantages of Polling:
 The maximum and minimum access time and data rates on the
channel are fixed predictable.
 It has maximum efficiency.
 It has maximum bandwidth.
 No slot is wasted in polling.
 There is assignment of priority to ensure faster access from some
secondary.
Disadvantages of Polling:
 It consume more time.
 Since every station has an equal chance of winning in every round,
link sharing is biased.
 Only some station might run out of data to send.
 An increase in the turnaround time leads to a drop in the data rates
of the channel under low loads.
Efficiency Let Tpoll be the time for polling and Tt be the time required
for transmission of data. Then,
Efficiency = Tt/(Tt + Tpoll)
Token Passing
 In token passing scheme, the stations are connected logically to
each other in form of ring and access to stations is governed by
tokens.
 A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulate
from one station to the next in some predefined order.
 In Token ring, token is passed from one station to another adjacent
station in the ring whereas incase of Token bus, each station uses
the bus to send the token to the next station in some predefined
order.
 In both cases, token represents permission to send. If a station has
a frame queued for transmission when it receives the token, it can
send that frame before it passes the token to the next station. If it
has no queued frame, it passes the token simply.
 After sending a frame, each station must wait for all N stations
(including itself) to send the token to their neighbours and the other
N – 1 stations to send a frame, if they have one.
 There exists problems like duplication of token or token is lost or
insertion of new station, removal of a station, which need be tackled
for correct and reliable operation of this scheme.

Performance of token ring can be concluded by 2 parameters:-

1. Delay, is a measure of time between when a packet is ready and
when it is delivered. So, the average time (delay) required to send a
token to the next station = a/N.
2. Throughput, which is a measure of successful traffic.
Throughput, S = 1/(1 + a/N) for a<1
and
S = 1/{a(1 + 1/N)} for a>1.
where N = number of stations
a = Tp/Tt
(Tp = propagation delay and Tt = transmission delay)
Advantages of Token passing:
 It may now be applied with routers cabling and includes built-in
debugging features like protective relay and auto reconfiguration.
 It provides good throughput when conditions of high load.
Disadvantages of Token passing:
 Its cost is expensive.
 Topology components are more expensive than those of other, more
widely used standard.
 The hardware element of the token rings are designed to be tricky.
This implies that you should choose on manufacture and use them
exclusively.

Difference between FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA

These are all techniques for data transfer and communication. They are
quite effective, but they are employed in several ways due to their unique
features. In this article, you will learn about the difference
between FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA. But before discussing the
differences, you must know about FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA with their
advantages and disadvantages.

What is FDMA?
FDMA is an abbreviation for "Frequency Division Multiple Access". It
is a form of channelization protocol. In this system, the bandwidth is
separated into different frequency bands. Each station is assigned a band
to transmit data, and that band is always reserved for that station.

A tiny band of unused frequency separates different stations' frequency

bands, and these unused frequency bands are known as guard bands,
which prevent station interference. It is similar to the data link layer
access approach, in which the data link layer at each station instructs the
physical layer to generate a bandpass signal from the data provided to it.
The signal is generated in the assigned band, and no physical multiplexer
is present at the physical layer.

Advantages and Disadvantages of FDMA

There are various advantages and disadvantages of FDMA. Some main
advantages and disadvantages of FDMA are as follows:

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Advantages

1. In terms of hardware resources, it is very simple and easy to use.

2. Because FDMA is efficient, it can manage a smaller user population.
3. The system's complexity is modest.
4. All stations may constantly run for 24 hours without waiting for their
chance.
5. The reduced information bit rate can have a positive impact on
capacity.
6. It reduces inter-symbol interference.

Disadvantages

1. It only works with analogue signals.

2. There isn't much room for flexibility. Therefore, existing traffic
patterns must be slowly changed.
3. The transponders require extensive bandwidth.
4. The traffic's carrying capacity is not very high.
5. RF (Radio Frequency) filters must fulfil stringent adjacent channel
rejection specifications. It can enhance the system's cost.
6. The highest bit rate per channel is small and fixed.
What is TDMA?
TDMA is an abbreviation for "Time Division Multiple Access". It is a
channelization system that divides channel bandwidth into many stations
simultaneously. Each station is assigned a time slot and may only
transmit data during the same time slot. Each station should be aware of
the beginning and location of its time slot. Synchronization between
stations is needed for TDMA. It is a form of data link layer access
mechanism. The data link layer instructs each station to utilize the
assigned time slot.

It is utilized in digital 2G cellular network systems like Personal

Digital Cellular (PDC), GSM, IS-136, and iDEN, and in the Digital
Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) standard for mobile
phones. Western Union's Westar 3 communications satellite was the first
to utilize it in satellite communication networks in 1979. It is commonly
used for upstream traffic from premises to the operator in combat-net
radio systems, satellite communications networks, and a passive optical
network (PON).

TDMA is a form of time-division multiplexing (TDM) in which

numerous transmitters are connected to a single receiver rather than a
single transmitter. The uplink from a cellular phone to a base station is
particularly troublesome because it may move and modify the timing
advance needed to match the transmission gap from its peers.

Advantages and Disadvantages of TDMA

There are various advantages and disadvantages of TDMA. Some main
advantages and disadvantages of TDMA are as follows:

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Advantages

1. As cell sizes reduce, TDMA delivers significant investment dollars in

space, support, and base-station hardware.
2. It may transmit data at speeds ranging from 64 kbps to 120 Mbps.
3. It separates clients based on time guarantees that no interference
from concurrent transmission will occur.
 4. TDMA enables administrators to do administrations such as fax,
voiceband information, SMS, and applications such as mixed media
and video conferencing.
5. It extends the client's battery life by communicating alone for a part
of the time during discussions.
6. TDMA may surely adapt to information transmission and voice
correspondence.

Disadvantages

1. The user won't be connected to a call if all of the time slots in the
current cell and the cell they are entering are already taken
because they have been allotted a specific slot.
2. In TDMA, frequency/slot allocation will be complicated.
3. In TDMA, high data rates needed equalization.
4. Network and spectrum planning is a complex and time-consuming
process requiring great expertise and resources.
5. The focus is on organization and range arranging.

What is CDMA?
CDMA is an abbreviation for "Code Division Multiple Access". It is a
combination of FDMA and TDMA in which resources are allocated based
on frequency and time. FDMA divides the frequency band across several
users for the duration of the session, whereas TDMA permits each user to
utilize the full frequency band for a defined session. On the other hand,
the CDMA system takes advantage of both systems by allowing several
users to simultaneously utilize the same frequency band defined by a
unique code.

These codes are selected in such a way that if the code is utilized for a
second time, the user who knows the code may identify that specific user
among the other users. This method may only be applied to a specific
number of users because each user is a source of noise for the receiver.
As a result, it is highly susceptible to noise. Because as the number of
user numbers increases, the noise also increases. As a result, the system
may collapse.
Advantages and Disadvantages of CDMA
There are various advantages and disadvantages of CDMA. Some main
advantages and disadvantages of CDMA are as follows:

Advantages

1. It has an extremely high spectral capacity to support many users in

MHz of bandwidth.
2. There is no need for synchronization.
3. CDMA channels are difficult to decode, so they enhance cellular
communication security.
4. It offers better secure transmission.
5. Dropouts occur only when the user is twice the distance from the
base station.

Disadvantages

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1. One of the main issues with the CDMA system is channel pollution,
which occurs when a user's phone has two or more cell sites, but
only one of them is powerful.
2. It is not a mature organization because the CDMA is still new
compared to GSM.
3. CDMA needed time synchronization.
4. As the number of users rises, the CDMA system's performance
decreases.
5. It has a high price because of the greater equipment.

Key differences between FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA

Here, you will learn the various key differences between FDMA, CDMA,
and CDMA. Various differences between FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA are as
follows:

1. FDMA distributes a single bandwidth among multiple stations by

dividing it into sub-channels, whereas TDMA only shares the time of
transmission through the satellite, not the channel. On the other
hand, CDMA shares both time and bandwidth among multiple
stations by allocating a unique code to each slot.
2. FDMA only requires the guard bands between adjacent channels,
whereas TDMA requires the guard time of the adjacent slots. On the
other hand, CDMA requires both guard time and guard bands.
3. FDAM has a low data rate, whereas TDMA has a medium data rate.
On the other hand, CDMA has a high data rate.
4. FDMA doesn't need any synchronization, whereas TDMA system
needs synchronization. On the other hand, CDMA doesn't need any
synchronization.
5. FDMA has a very low cell capacity, and TDMA has a very restricted
cell capacity as well. On the other hand, CDMA has no capacity
restriction for a channel, although it is interference-limited.
6. The FDMA does not require a codeword, and neither does the TDMA.
On the other hand, CDMA needs the codeword.
7. FDMA happens by filtration in the frequency domain, while TDMA
involves synchronizing the time domain. In contrast, CDMA happens
through codes and sophisticated receivers.
8. FDMA has little flexibility, but TDMA has moderate flexibility. On the
other hand, CDMA is highly flexible.

Head-to-head comparison between FDMA, TDMA, and

CDMA
Here, you will learn the head-to-head comparisons between FDMA, TDMA,
and CDMA. The main differences between FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA are as
follows:
Features FDMA TDMA CDMA

Full Forms FDMA is an GPRS is an CDMA is an abbreviat

abbreviation for abbreviation for for Code Division Multi
Frequency Division Time Division Access.
Multiple Access. Multiple Access.

Mode of It distributes a It only shares the It shares both time a

Operation single bandwidth time of bandwidth amo
among multiple transmission multiple stations
stations by dividing through the allocating a unique co
it into sub-channels satellite, not the to each slot.
channel.

Flexibility It has a little It has moderate It has high flexibility.

flexible. flexibility.

Codeword It doesn't require a It also doesn't It needs a codeword.

codeword. require a
codeword.

Rate of Data It has a low data It has a medium It has a high data rate.
rate. data rate.

Mode of Data It uses continuous It uses signals in It uses digital signals

transfer signals for data bursts for data data transmission.
transmission. transmission.

Synchronizati It doesn't need any It requires It also doesn't require a

on synchronization. synchronization. synchronization.

Terminals Every terminal has Every terminal on Every terminal m

its own constant the same remain operational at
frequency. frequency is active same time and in
 for just a short same location with
period of time. interruption.

Cells Capacity It has a limited cell It also has a limited It has no capac
capacity. cell capacity. restriction for a chann
although it
interference-limited.

Cost It has a high cost. It has a low cost. Its installation cost
high, but the operatio
cost is low.

Guard times It needed guard It needed guard It needed both gu

and Bands bands. times. times and guard bands.

Fading It doesn't require an It needed an RAKE receiver may

Mitigation equalizer. equalizer possible in CDMA.

Advantages It is a very reliable, It is highly flexible, It is more flexible, nee

well-established, entirely digital, and less frequency planni
and straightforward well-established. and offers a softer sig
protocol. handover.

Disadvantage It is very flexible, It requires guard It works with extrem

s and the frequencies space. complicated receive
are limited. and senders/transmitt
need a more comp
power control method.

Conclusion
FDMA is generally combined with SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)
and TDMA, whereas TDMA holds the standards in fixed networks. Many
mobile networks utilize it in conjunction with SDMA or FDMA. On the other
hand, CDMA continues to face significant challenges, and it is more
complicated and has lower expectations. It will most likely be compatible
with FDMA and TDMA.