SOFTWARE

Software refers to a set of instructions written in computer language that tell a computer to
perform a specific task, like adding a set of numbers. Without software, a computer will be
useless. Software is grouped into systems software and application software. The
diagram below illustrates branches/groups of software:

Systems Software: Refers to programs that control and manages the performance of all
computer systems. Systems software comprises of: (a) operating systems (b) Utility
programs (c) Translators

1) Operating System: - refers to the programs that supervise, control and manage the
performance of the computer hardware and software in accordance with set objectives, for
example, Windows 7. Examples of operating systems include: Windows 95/98/2000/XP/
VISTA/ Windows 7/Windows 8, Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS), Unix, Linux,
OS/2, Ubuntu, etc.
The operating system is loaded onto the computer by the bootstrap loader. Programs
stored on ROM chip runs first and this checks if all hardware components are working
normally. It also checks the CPU and the Basic Input output System (BIOS) for errors. If
there are no errors, the BIOS will activate the disc drive. The operating system is then
found and the computer can boot. Booting refers to the process of loading the Operating
system into memory so that it takes control over hardware and software resources of the
computer.

Functions of the operating systems:

- Controls movement of data to and from peripherals.
- Acts as a background on which application programs can run.
- Device management/Input-Output management: Operating system manages
hardware components of the computer
- Handling of interrupts
- Manage software resources of the computer
- Memory management : Manages memory resources of a computer
- Acts as an interface between the user and the computer.
- Scheduling of tasks
- Loading and running of programs
- Provides a log of users for the computer.

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 - Handling of errors and correcting them where possible. (error handling and
reporting)
- Protect hardware, software and data from improper use.
- Control over the selection and operation of input, output and storage devices of the
computer.
- Used for spooling
- Maintain user accounts
- Booting and properly shutting down the computer.
- File management

NB: Household equipment like refrigerator do not have an operating system since the
processor has one task to perform, no multiple devices and tasks to handle, hence they are
cheap.

Features (characteristics) of operating systems:

- Must be reliable in terms of being free from errors and handling of all jobs.
- Must be efficient, that is should be able to use resources fully ensuring good job
processing, response time, turnaround time, etc.
- Must be maintainable.
- Must be small in terms of storage space on the disk.

*NB: Response time – the time that elapses from the moment an instruction is given to the
computer and the time that instruction is carried out.

Turn around time – the time taken from the moment a document is produced by a
computer and the moment it is used as an input document to that computer again.

Turn Around Document: a document produced by the computer and later used as an
input document to the same computer, e.g. electricity bill

NB. Most operating systems are written in low level language. This is for them to quickly
coordinate computer activities since they will not be converted as they are already in
machine language or less time is needed for conversion if the operating system is written in
assembly language. The following must be considered when buying an operating system:
- Hardware type and computer design e.g. windows operating system works well on
IBM compatible machines.
- Applications intended for the computer e.g. accounting, stock taking, etc.
- Method of communicating with the computer, that is, use of few or many
peripherals and terminals.
- Method of operating the computer e.g. multi-access, multi-programming, etc

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. Single User Operating Systems:

- These are operating systems that allow one computer user at a time in an
interactive mode, for example MS-DOS, CP/M, OS/2, etc.

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Advantages of Single user operating systems are:
- They are cheap to buy.
- They are interactive, that is, they allow a two way communication between the user
and the computer in a conversational mode.
- They ensure better security to data since they only allow one user at a time.
- They provide simple command language.
Disadvantages of Single user operating systems are:
- They are very slow in processing data.
- Most of the computers are dedicated to one task.
- The commands are difficult to learn and to use.
- Commands are difficult to master.
NB- Control Programs: These are programs that monitor hardware operation on the
computer.
- Monitor (supervisor) programs: - These are programs that supervise and manage
hardware and software elements of the computer

2. Time sharing operating systems:

- This type of operating system allows many users to use the same processor at a
time, using the round robin method by use of time slices.
- In Round Robin, each user is given a fraction of a second (time slice) to use the
processor so that all users seem not to be sharing the processor.
*NB: - Time slice: A brief period of time during which a particular task (or computer) is
given control of the microprocessor in a time-sharing multitasking environment.
- A computer's processor is allocated to an application, usually measured in milliseconds.
- Time slice is also called quantum.

2 Multitasking:
- It is the concurrent execution of two or more programs on the same computer by
use of time slices, doing the same job.
- For example, copying a graph from Microsoft Excel to Microsoft Word. Thus the two
programs will be running concurrently, doing a related or same job.

3. Multi Access / Multi user operating systems:

- It is when many online users access one processor at the same time to make use of
multi-programming.

4. Multi-programming:
-This is whereby two or more programs (tasks) are being processed (run) at the
same time on one computer by use of time slices, for example playing music while
typing a document.
-Programs may take turns to make use of the processor, thus when one is using the
CPU, others will be using the peripherals. It uses interrupts to pass control from one
program to another.

5. Multiprocessing: A type of operating system that allows one computer to have two or
more processors but sharing the same memory, e.g. dual core computers.

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 5. Batch Processing System: -
- A system in which data is collected over a long period of time, put in groups and
processed at one go, without user interaction from start to finish, as in payroll
processing.
- Jobs can be entered at a remote terminal, that is, on a terminal far away from the
host computer.
- Thus batch processing promotes Remote Job Entry (RJE): which is the entering of
data into the computer through a terminal far away from the host computer.
- For instance, a central computer can process batches of cheques collected from different
branches, mostly during the night.
- If there are errors, the results will also be wrong.
-Batch processing is very cheap to operate and easy to run. Users can also perform some
other tasks while batch processing takes place.
- In batch processing, there is minimum or no human intervention during data processing
period.
-It is used where large amounts of data is processed and where processing does not need to
be done immediately, e.g. in Payroll processing, water billing, electricity billing, telephone
billing, clearance of cheques, etc).

Advantages of batch processing are as follows:

- It is less expensive to use.
- jobs can be processed when computer resources are less busy (e.g. during the
evening or at night);
- Processing does not need to be done with anyone present.
- Users do not need to be specialists in computers. It allows remote job entry.

Disadvantages of batch processing are as follows:

- Batch processing systems are not interactive.
- Data is processed after a long period of time.
- No action can be taken if anything wrong happens during processing.

b. Translators: - These are programs that convert source code to object code. Translators
are in two forms, which are interpreters , assemblers and compilers. These will be
covered in more detail under Programming Languages.

c. Utility Programs:
These are programs used to perform specific, useful and frequently needed tasks in a
computer system. Utilities include the following:

i. Virus Scan Utility: These are programs that protect computers from virus attacks, for
example Norton Antivirus, AVG, Avast, Esat NOD32, MacAfee, etc.

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ii. Sort Utilities: These are programs used to arrange data, files and records into a specific
ordered sequence, for instance in ascending or descending order of a given key.

iii. Debuggers: These are utilities used for assisting in correcting errors in programs.

iv. Dump Utilities: These are programs that assist in copying data from main storage to
output devices and to other storage devices like the hard drive.

v. Editors: These are programs used to make changes to data already held in the computer.

vi. Peripheral Transfer Utility: These are programs used to transfer data from one
peripheral device to another.

vii. System Status Utilities: These are programs that provide information on the state of
files, memory, users and peripherals.

viii. File Maintenance Utilities: These are programs used to reorganise programs and to
update them.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
This refers to programs and their documentation, designed to perform a specific task for
the user in daily life, like payroll processing, word processing, etc.
Integrated Package (Application suite) - a collection of application programs purchased
as one package, for example Microsoft Office 2010. It is a collection of a word processor,
spreadsheet, database and presentation packages bought as one package, for example,
Microsoft Office 2010.

Advantages of Integrated Packages are:

- It is cheap to buy as compared to buying single application programs at a time.
- Programs have been tried and tested and therefore are free from errors.
- Programs are designed in a similar way, making it easier to learn others if you are
able to use one of them.
- Programs are easier to use and to learn, for example, when designing a database
using Microsoft Access.
- Regular updates are provided on the internet or on disks.

Disadvantages of integrated packages are as follows:

- The user is forced to buy the incorporated packages even if he/she needs only one
of them.
- They are not tailored for individual user requirements.
- Organisations purchasing them have little or no control over their use.
- The packaged programs can only be modified by the programmers (owners).
- Most of the need regular updating, which may be expensive.
- They have many features that the users might never use yet they buy them.

Methods of Acquiring Software

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1. Off-the-Shelf/Generic: This refers to buying generalised software like Microsoft Word
from software vendors. Generalised (generic) software refers to application programs
designed for use in a number of organisations without problems, for example Microsoft
Word. A software vendor is an organisation that specialises in selling generic software.
Advantages of generic (Off-the-shelf) software:
- Cheaper than custom written (tailor made) packages as development costs are
spread over many users.
- the package is available immediately – no need to wait for development period
- Allows large scale sales which bring in considerable revenue which can be used to
enable a lot of development to be done.
- They are immediately available in shops.
- They are tried and tested and therefore are free from errors.
- Documentation is always provided in form of manuals, user guides and tutorials that
may be in soft or hardcopy.
- Training courses can be available from other end-users.
- Technical support is always available from other users and from the internet.
- Other users of the package can be consulted before purchasing or when a problem
occurs.
- Upgrades are always available every year or two.
- It is easy to share files produced by the software with others as chances are they
also have the software available to open the file
- sharing of files with other packages is usually easier since they are likely to be
compatible (e.g. Excel and Word)

Disadvantages of Generic Software:

- May not meet the individual needs of an organisation.
- May not run on the organisation’s hardware.
- May not interface with other software already in use in the organisation.
- Organisations purchasing them have little or no control over their usage.
- Organisations purchasing them have no right to modify them.
- The software can be very sophisticated and will usually include large sections that
you will never use (e.g. Excel or Word)
- may be very complex to learn because of the complexity caused through having
unwanted features

2. Tailor-made Software (bespoke/user application software): These are programs

specifically designed to meet the unique needs of only one organisation, for example a
bank. The organisation would employ or hire an analyst / programmer who will first asses
the needs of the organisation before designing a program that will solve the problems of
the organisation.
Advantages of Tailor-made software
- Easier and more intuitive to use.
- Much better customer support since they will be in direct contact with the software
designers.

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 - Specifically designed for the application and therefore more efficient and will only
contain the features wanted by the user.
- can be customised to interface with all other software within the company thus
preventing software clashes
- easier to use since very specific and the writers of the software can also be involved
in the training of staff which will be geared towards their requirements
- can be modified/updated as the company’s requirements change

Disadvantages of Tailor-made software:

- It is very expensive to develop.
- They take too long to develop and to implement.
- If you pick the wrong developer you could end up with an application that is
unstable, unreliable and full of bugs
- very dependent on the suppliers of the software; if they go out of business there will
be little or no support if problems occur
- less likely to be as well developed/tested as off-the-shelf software
- difficult to tell how good the final software package will be

*NB: A programmer is a person who specialises in designing, coding and testing computer
programs.
Software House is an organisation that specialises is developing software; this includes
both generic and tailor-made.
Special Purpose Application Software: - These are programs designed for one specific
business purpose, for example Pastel for accounting purposes.

Advantages of Off-the-Shelf Software Over tailor-made software:

- Off - the - self software is cheaper to buy while tailor-made software is expensive.
- Off-the-Shelf software has been tried and tested hence free from errors while tailor-
made software may have some errors.
- Off-the-Shelf software is easier and faster to implement while tailor made software
takes long to implement.
- Off-the-Shelf software is used by many organisations; therefore users can share
information on its usage while tailor-made software is only used by one
organisation.
- Off-the-Shelf software has regular updates available for download on the internet
while tailor-made software does not.

Advantages of tailor made software as compared to Generic Software:

- Tailor-made software is designed to meet the requirements of an organisation while
Off-the-Shelf software might not meet the needs of an individual company.
- Organisations have full control over tailor-made software as compared to off-the-
shelf software which is controlled by the programmers.

TYPES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE:

These include:

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1. Word Processing Packages:
These are application packages used for creating, editing and formatting text documents
like letters and reports. Examples of Word Processing packages include Microsoft Office
Word, WordPerfect, WordPro, Notepad, etc. Word processing packages have the following
advantages over the typewriter:
- Produces more attractive documents.
- Word processors are less noise than typewriters.
- Documents can be edited and formatted before printing, which reduces spelling and
other typing mistakes on printed documents.
- Typed documents can be stored in the computer for future use.
- Document layout can be viewed on the screen before printing and can be changed
easily.
- A word processed document can be printed more than once.
- Other text and diagrams can be added without the need to retype the document.
- Word processors can move some parts of text to another part of the document
easily (using copy/cut and Paste feature).
- They have the ability to delete words, sentences and paragraphs neatly.
- They are less manual than typewriters.

Features of Word processing Packages

- ability to set the page size and page orientation (portrait/landscape)
- ability to change font style and font size (e.g. arial, courier, times new roman, etc.)
- ability to change margins (top, bottom and sides)
- page format (e.g. paragraphs, columns, etc.)
- importing text, graphics and pictures into the document body from other packages like
Microsoft PowerPoint and Excel.
- inserting and deleting text
- cut and paste/copy and paste (to prevent the need to re-type sections of text or to
move/remove text)
- search and replace words
- word wrap (e.g. auto adjust a line to fit into paragraph alignment such as straight
- file management (create/delete/move/search for files)
- headers and footers and the automatic numbering of pages
- graphics (embed drawings and graphs into the document)
- use macros
- merge (merge text files from one file into another e.g. mail merge)
- ability to send documents to a printer
- carry out a word count on the document
- add and manipulate tables in the main body of the document
- windows (edit 2 or more documents at the same time)
- WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) – preview document to see how it will look
when printed
- spell checkers, language check and thesaurus
- Simple translation from one language to another; for example, from English to French.

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*NB: Editing: the process of correcting mistakes in a document, for example, spelling
mistakes.
Formatting: making a document look more attractive by bolding, underlining, inserting
borders, etc

2. Spreadsheet Packages: These are application programs used to manage and analyse
statistical, numeric and financial data, for example Microsoft Office Excel, Lotus 1-2-3,
SuperCalc, etc. The structure of a spreadsheet is as follows:

Features of Spreadsheet packages

- Can format text (Bold, underline, …)
- Can change font size and font type
- Uses functions/ formulae to make calculations on data. The functions can be user-
defined or in-built functions
- Ability to inset boards on cells
- Can import and export text
- Can create graphs on given data, e.g. column graphs, pie charts, etc
- it is made up of columns and rows; each row is identified by a number and each
column is identified with a letter (or letters)
- can use Autofill feature
- Each cell is identified by its column id and row id e.g. A4, ET300 etc. Cells can be
given as cell ranges, e.g A4: G4.
- a cell may contain a label (text entry such as Surname, Date Of Birth,..) or a value
(which can be a number, a date, a formula, result of a calculation, or currency)
- the cursor identifies the current cell selected; it is possible to click on to a cell and a
“+” sign appears in the bottom right hand corner; by dragging the formula down it is
possible to replicate it in other cells
- etc……

Problems Associated With Spreadsheets:

- capacity (i.e. maximum number of rows and columns) can be limiting when dealing
with large data sets

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 - security issues in some spreadsheets (i.e. if you can open a spreadsheet you can also
change any part of it; this can lead to fraud
- lack of concurrency; usually only one person can work on a spreadsheet at any given
time (databases are better in this aspect since they can usually be opened by more
than one user at a time)
- because of their structure it is easy to enter an error (whether on purpose or by
mistake) by entering data in the wrong cells or dependencies among cells
incorrectly applied

3. Presentation Packages:
- These are programs used for designing slides for a presentation to an audience, for
example Microsoft Office PowerPoint, Lotus Smart Suite, etc.
- Presentation packages include text, pictures, sound, animation, graphics and tables,
thus being multimedia.
- Presentations are colourful and attractive.
- Speakers and projectors are needed.
- Presentation packages have the following features:
 Have Clip art. Can accommodate images and graphics.
 Can use sound, video and animation.
 Incorporate Word Art.
 Have facility to insert charts and graphs.
*NB: Animation: - Creating illusion of moving sequence using a series of still images as
done in movies and cartoons.

4. Database Packages (DBMS): Refers to programs used to create and maintain databases
for a specific application area.
They are used for maintaining and providing interface been users and the database and to
interface the database and other application programs.
Examples of database packages include Microsoft Office Access, Oracle, Dbase IV, MySQL,
etc

Properties/features of databases
Most database packages have the following features:
(a) Tables: These are equivalent to files and therefore are used to store data. The
data is stored in rows and columns. Each row in a table is called a record which is
made up of a number of fields (columns in the table). The data type in the fields
is usually either text, numeric or date/time. Most databases contain a number of
tables which are usually linked together in some way.
(b) Forms: Forms are commonly called data entry screens since they are the user
interface which allows data in the tables to be viewed, entered or edited. Forms
permit the control of how other users interact with the information in the
database e.g. only allow certain fields to be seen or only allow certain operations
to be carried out . This subsequently helps the protection of the information and
also ensures it is entered correctly
(c) Reports: Reports are produced as a result of questions such as
“date>=01/01/1975”. The data on report is extracted from queries or tables as

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 per user requirement. They display certain required data as needed by the user,
e.g. after searching or filtering of data. Reports can be printed out as hardcopy,
or viewed on the screen or exported (e.g. to a word processor, an email message,
etc.).
(d) Queries: Queries are questions that request certain data from tables, e.g,
Amount <200. It can also be an instruction to search data which meets a certain
criteria from table and display it on the screen in form of another table created
from the original table. Most commonly allow information to be retrieved from
tables. They also allow filtering so only the records required are seen.
(e) Macros
A macro is a name or key that represents a series of commands or key strokes.
Many applications allow single word or single nominated key on a keyboard to
perform a whole series of actions. Macros can be either written as required and
then stored or stored in a library for future use. Macros can be very
sophisticated and save the operator a lot of time. For example, the name and
address in a word processor could be set up by pressing key F1 and the system
brings information from a related database

5. Graphics Packages: Refers to programs used to create and edit graphs, diagrams,
drawings, charts and plans for buildings, for example Microsoft Paint, Harvard Graphics,
Corel Draw, Real Draw, etc. Computer graphics are images designed for logos, commercial
and news inserts during television advertisements or transmission.

6. Communication Software: These are programs that allow users to communicate on

networked computers and to log on to the internet, for example TCP/IP software, Client –
server software, e-mails, etc.
*NB: - Log On: to provide a username and password for the user to gain access to a
computer or computer network.

7. Desktop Publishing (DTP) Packages: It is an extension of word processors that

incorporates images and text for creation of attractive and professional documents for
publication purposes. Examples of DTP packages include Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker
and QuarkXPress. DTP is used to create brochures, magazines, wedding cards and
newsletters.
Features of DTP include:
- They have a graphic program for inserting graphics in the document.
- They have a page composition program.
- They incorporate columns on one page.
- They have frames for positioning texts and graphics.
- They have templates used for recording document properties like page size,
margins, etc.
- They have style sheets used for making consistent main texts, headings and
subheadings.

Requirements for DTP:

(a) A Scanner: - for capturing images or hand drawings on paper, for example photographs

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(b) High Resolution Monitor with graphics capabilities: - For viewing publication during
design stage.
(c) Colour Printer: For printing high quality and colourful documents.
(d) Digital camera/webcam/cell-phone with a camera: - for taking and storage of
photographs that will be incorporated into the computer.
(e) Keyboard: For typing in text
(f) Mouse: - For adjusting size of pictures and for drawing purposes.
(g) Desktop Publishing (DTP) software.

Advantages of Desktop Publishing:

- Users have more control over text layout compared to word processors especially
over formatting and layout of text and images.
- Lots of different files can be brought together on the same document.
- Produces colourful and attractive documents for commercial purposes like
brochures.

Differences Between DTP and Word Processors

- most word processors force users to work on a document in a linear fashion (i.e.
paragraph by paragraph and page by page); with DTP it is possible to place
elements on the page and then move them around as you wish to create the desired
product.
- elements repeated throughout a document (e.g. a company logo) can be placed in
master pages rather than setting up each page individually as would be the case with
a word processor.
- Text is usually imported from a word processor or is typed into the document
directly using a frame. This allows you to create the layout first, link the frames
together and add the text into the frames later (e.g. in newsletters and magazines
where layouts are created before any of the actual text becomes available).

8. Authoring Packages (Authorware): Software that can be used to write interactive,

hypertext or multimedia computer programs without the technically demanding task of
computer programming. Also used in multimedia presentations. These programs can be
used for developing databases and material for Computer Aided Instruction (CAI).
Authoring tools require less technical knowledge to master and are usually used for
applications that present a mixture of text, graphics, and audio/music files. Authoring tools
usually allow the creation of the actual required application by linking together objects
which can be text, graphics, music file, etc. By defining the relationship between objects it is
possible to produce very useful and eye catching applications.

(9) Web Browsers: Software used to open web pages on the internet, examples are:
Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Internet Explorer, Safari, Opera, etc.

(10) Search Engines: These are packages used for searching data for the user from the
internet, e.g. google, yahoo, etc.

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*NB: - Specialist Packages for Business: These are packages for use in a specific business
environment, for example, Pastel for accounting purposes.
*NB: - Install: - to add programs to the computer. Therefore to uninstall is to remove
programs from the computer.

Factors to consider when purchasing an application package:

- Application intended for.
- Easiness of installation.
- Mode of processing (single user, multi user, etc).
- User friendliness.
- Availability of support personnel.
- Availability, readability and clarity of documentation.
- Memory requirements.
- Hardware requirements.

TYPES OF SYSTEMS
1. Real Time Processing System:
- An online system in which individual, discrete transactions are processed as they occur to
influence the activity currently taking place, as in airline reservation.
-Results of the process are produced immediately.
-The system response quickly and give feedback of a request.
-Thus the system is interactive in nature.
-Such systems include airline reservation systems, hotel reservations, stock control, etc.

Real Time Processing System can also be called Transaction Processing System (or
Real Time Transaction Processing Systems):
- this is a real-time (or pseudo-real-time) transaction processing system whereby
only individual items of data need immediate processing e.g., airline reservation,
balance enquiry at an ATM, etc.
- Response to a query needs to be very fast and once a seat is booked it needs to
marked as “not available” immediately to avoid any risk of double booking.
Using this example of booking seats on a flight, the following sequence of events would take
place:
- customer/travel agent contacts the airline
- the customer/travel agents types in the day/time of flight and number of travellers
- the customer/travel agent types in the departure airport and the destination airport
- the airline database is searched and availability of seats checked
- if seats are available on the required day/time then a booking is made
- the database/file is updated immediately to indicate that these seats are no longer
available and prevents double booking from occurring
- if no seats are available a message is sent back to the customer/travel agent
- this uses real time (transaction) processing since the files are updated in real time;
interrogation of files will have access to totally updated information

Transaction processing’s requirements include:

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 - A large quantity of hardware support.
- Large and fast main storage, over 1 GB.
- Large and fast backing storage like hard drives of about 300 GB.
- Efficient communication equipment like fibre optics, satellites, etc. Efficient, secure
and reliable operating systems.
- However, transaction processing systems are very expensive to run.

2. Real time process control

- This is a real-time system which uses sensors and feedback loops (i.e. the output can
influence the next input to the system.).
-It uses actuators, sensors, DAC, ADC to continuously and automatically monitor physical
quantities like temperature in a system.
-It differs with real time (transaction) processing system in that: In real time (transaction)
processing system, files are often updated in real time (e.g. when booking flights on an
airplane); but in real time process control, physical quantities (such as temperature) are
continuously monitored and the input is processed sufficiently quickly to be capable of
influencing the data source

3. On-Line System:
-A system that is directly linked to the host computer for real-time communication and
provides interaction between the user and the job, as in POS terminals in supermarkets.
-In networked computers, the terminals must be directly linked to the host computer.
Examples include ATM systems in banks, airline reservation systems.
-Online systems can just be for information retrieval.
- Information retrieval systems are there for users to access certain information promptly
as on the internet. In contrast, offline systems are computer systems that work without
being directly connected to the host computer.

4. Network Systems:
- A system in which processing is carried out independently in more than one location but
with shared and controlled access to some common facilities like file storage.

5. Control System:
- A system in which one or more computers are used to monitor the operations of some
non-computer equipment like in oil refineries.
-Control systems involve monitoring and logging of physical quantities, provide an analysis
of performance and allows some user interaction.
-Feedback is an essential element as well as timing.
-Most control systems are real-time systems, e.g. oil refining, chemical processing, traffic
control, etc.

6. Automated Systems:
- These are control systems that are dedicated to one particular task and lack the ability to
collect and analyse data as in digital cameras.

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-They do not allow for or act on user interaction, e.g. washing machines, cameras, watches.
-Most control systems have embedded computers systems inside them.

7. Multimedia Systems:
- Are computer systems that enable representation of data in a number of formats like
sound, pictures, films, video, etc.
-Multimedia systems are used in commercial applications (advertising, journalism,
presentations, etc.), entertainment (special effects, video games, fine arts, etc.), education
(CBT training, uses in virtual reality training, etc.).
-A computer that can be referred to be a multimedia system should have at least the
following:
- a CD – ROM/DVD-ROM drive,
- speakers, large RAM size,
- large disk storage space,
- sound card
- video card and
- multimedia software like Windows Media Player and
- other software like sound drivers.

1. Distributed (decentralised) Systems:

-A system whereby processing is done independently in more than one location but
with shared and controlled accessed to common facilities, like file storage as
applied in departmental shops.
- These systems are normally found in departmental shops, bank branches that will
be linked together, etc.

Advantages of distributed systems:

- Users feel more involved and responsible and this increase motivation.
- Systems often meet user specific needs and requests for changes are more readily
met.
- Costs of physical and electronic movement of data are reduced.
- The total breakdown of information processing disappears.

Disadvantages of distributed systems:

- There is often lack of coordination and control.
- It is difficult to impose standardisation, adequate security measures and sharing of
data and know-how.
- Difficult to obtain integrated information for top management. Duplication of data is
rampant.
- Excessive investment in hardware, software and personnel is involved.

2. Centralised systems:
- This is whereby processing is carried out at one central location for an organisation
with a number of branches.
- Users in other locations can view data and utilise it but with limited capabilities.
Centralised processing has the following advantages:

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 - Hardware within the organisation will be compatible and can be linked.
- The organisation gets better deals in terms of maintenance contracts. Employees do
not have to learn new systems when they move from one department (or branch) to
another.
- It is easier to coordinate staff training courses using the same software and
hardware for all departments (or branches).
- There is better control over use of unlicensed software.
- Data can be exchanged easily between similar types of hardware and software
Disadvantages of Centralisation:
- Requires high initial capital investment of sophisticated equipment, operating
systems, well developed communication systems and complex application packages.
- Requires highly qualified and experienced personnel to run it.
- A system failure will paralyse the entire system unless expensive backup system is
provided.
- Users feel not being fully involved and therefore are not motivated.

The choice of processing depends on:

- Cost of hardware: online systems are more expensive to install, including installation of
communication systems like telephones and satellites.
- Volume of data involved: batch processing is appropriate where very large data is
handled.
- Frequency of data change: banks need online systems for customer data changes more
frequently than in payroll processing systems.

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