ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

MODULE 1 PRINCIPLE OF MEASUREMENT 4. The measured signals can be transmitted over long
distances with the help of cables or radio links, without
Measurement any loss of information.
⚫ It is the act, or the result, of a quantitative 5. Many measurements can be carried either
comparison simultaneously or in rapid succession.
between a given quantity and a quantity of the same 6. Electronic circuits can detect and amplify very weak
kind chosen as a unit. The result of the measurement is signals and can measure the events of very short
expressed by a pointer deflection over a predefined scale or duration as well.
a number representing the ratio between the unknown 7. Electronic measurement makes possible to build
quantity and the standard. analog and digital signals. The digital signals are very
much required in computers. The modern
A Standard development in science and technology are totally
⚫ is defined as the physical personification of the unit of based on computers.
measurement or its submultiple or multiple values. The 8. Higher sensitivity, low power consumption and a
device or instrument used for comparing the unknown higher degree of reliability are the important features
quantity with the unit of measurement or a standard of electronic instruments and measurements. But, for
quantity is called a measuring instrument any measurement, a well defined set of standards and
calibration units is essential.
The seven SI base units, which are comprised of:
⚫ Length - meter (m) Functional elements of an instruments:
⚫ Time - second (s) ⚫ A measurement system may be defined as a
⚫ Amount of substance - mole (mole) systematic arrangement for the measurement or
⚫ Electric current - ampere (A) determination of an unknown quantity and analysis
⚫ Temperature - kelvin (K) of instrumentation. Any instrument or a measuring
⚫ Luminous intensity - candela (cd) system can be described in general with the help of a
⚫ Mass - kilogram (kg) block diagram.

Electronic Instrument Primary Sensing Elements

⚫ is the one which is based on electronic or electrical ⚫ The quantity or the variable which is being
principles for its measurement function. The measured makes its first contact with the primary
measurement of any electronic or electrical quantity or sensing element of a measurement system. The
variable is termed as an electronic measurement. measurement is thus first detected by primary sensor
or detector. The measurement is then immediately
⚫ Ammeter - measures current converted into an analogous electrical signal.
⚫ Ohmmeter - measures electrical resistance
⚫ Wattmeter - measures power in a circuit Variable Conversion Element
⚫ Multimeter - general purpose instrument measures ⚫ After passing through the primary sensing element, the
voltage, current and resistance output is in the form of an electrical signal, may be
⚫ Oscilloscope - displays waveform of a signal, allows voltage, current, frequency, which may or may not
measurement of frequency, timing peak, excursion, be accepted to the system. For performing the
offset. desired operation, it may be necessary to convert this
Advantages of Electronic Measurement output to some other suitable form while retaining the
1. Most of the quantities can be converted by transducers information content of the original signal.
into the electrical or electronic signals. A transducer is
an electronic device that converts energy from one Manipulation Elements
form to another. ⚫ Sometimes it is necessary to change the signal level
2. An electrical or electronic signal can be amplified, without changing the information contained in it for
filtered, multiplexed, sampled and measured. the acceptance of the instrument. The function of the
3. The measurement can easily be obtained in or variable manipulation unit is to manipulate the signal
converted into digital form for automatic analysis and presented to it while preserving the original nature of
recording. the signal.
ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Data Transmission Elements Static characteristics of an instrument

⚫ The data transmission elements are required to As mentioned earlier, the static characteristics are defined
transmit the data containing the information of the for the instruments which measure the quantities which do
signal from one system to another. not vary with time. The various static characteristics are
accuracy, precision, resolution, error, sensitivity,
Data Presentation Elements threshold, reproducibility, zero drift, stability and
⚫ The function of the data presentation elements is to linearity.
provide an indication or recording in a form that can MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES
be evaluated by an unaided human sense or by a
controller. The information regarding measurand
(quantity to be measured) is to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring, controlling or analysis purpose. Such a
device may be in the form of analog or digital format.
Direct Comparison Methods
⚫ In direct measurement methods, the unknown quantity
is measured directly.
⚫ In deflection methods, the value of the unknown
quantity is measured by the help of a measuring
instrument having a calibrated scale indicating the ERRORS
quantity under measurement directly, such as ⚫ If we are making physical measurements there is
measurement of current by an ammeter. always error involved
⚫ In comparison methods, the value of the unknown ⚫ denoted by delta ( Δ ) , followed by variable
quantity is determined by direct comparison with a representing the quantity measured.
standard of the given quantity, such as measurement ⚫ -difference
of emf by comparison with the emf of a standard cell.
Calculating the error
Comparison method can be classified as : ⚫ The difference between the true value and
⚫ In null methods of measurement, the action of the approximate value.
unknown quantity upon the instrument is reduced to
zero by the counter action of a known quantity of the
same kind, such as measurement of weight by a
balance, measurement of resistance, capacitance, and TYPES OF ERROR
inductance by bridge circuits. Static error
1. Gross error / human errors
⚫ Differential method
2. Random errors
3. Systematic errors
INDIRECT MEASUREMENT METHODS
⚫ In indirect measurement methods, the comparison is
4. Constant errors
done with a standard through the use of a calibrated
system. It is general practice to establish an empirical 5. Absoulute errors
relation between the actual measured quantity and the 6. Relative errors
desired parameter. 7. Percentage errors

⚫ Parallax error - parallel; level (liquid) (under systematic

CALIBRATION
error)
Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or
marking a scale so that the readings of an instrument agree
GROSS ERROR
with the accepted and the certified standard. The
calibration offers a guarantee to the device or instrument ⚫ caused by human mistakes in reading/using
that it is operating with required accuracy, under the instruments
stipulated environmental conditions.
ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
⚫ may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of the ⚫ Spring balance; over period of time the spring weaken
instrument and computational mistakes and so the poinetr does point to zero.
⚫ cannot be treated mathematically ⚫ top-pan balance ; it has zero error. There is nothing
⚫ cannot eliminate but can minimize on it, but it is not reading zero.
⚫ ammeter
SYSTEMATIC ERROR ( can be predicted) ⚫ voltmeter
⚫ due to shortcomings of the instruments (such as
defective or worn parts, ageing or effects of the CONSTANT ERROR
environment on the instrument) ⚫ results of the observation are in error by the same
amount
⚫ Static (limitation) (kung may sira o wala) ⚫ if a scale of 15 cm actually measures 14.8 cm. Then it is
⚫ Dynamic (not responding very fast; delay)(software) measuring 0. cm for in every observation. This type of
error will be same in all measurements done by the
scale.
THREE TYPES OF SYSTEMATIC ERROR
ABSOLUTE ERROR
INSTRUMENTAL ERROR
⚫ inherent while measuring instrument because of their
mechanical structure
⚫ sira ang device
RELATIVE ERROR ( no unit )
ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR
⚫ due to external condition affecting the measurement 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑋−𝑋′
er = l l=l l
including surrounding area condition such as change in 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑋
temperature, humidity and barometer pressure.
Absolute error
To avoid error: ⚫ The difference between the measured value and
⚫ use air conditioner true value is referred to as the absolute error. Assume
⚫ sealing certain component in the instruments that analysis of an iron ore by some method gave 11.1%
⚫ use magnetic shield while the true value was 12.1% the absolute error is :
11.1%-12.1% = -1.0 %
OBSERVATIONAL ERROR
⚫ introduce by the observer Relative error
⚫ most common : parallax error and estimation (while ⚫ It is the percentage of the absolute error to the true
reading the scale) value. For the argument above we can calculate the
relative error as:
Relative error = ( absolute error / true value) x 100 %
−𝟏.𝟎
RANDOM ERROR =( ) x 100% = - 8.3 %
𝟏𝟐.𝟏
⚫ due to unknown causes ( di alam kung anong
mangyayari) Relative Accuracy
⚫ the important property of random error is that it adds ⚫ The percentage of the quotient of observed result to
variability to the data but does not affect average the true value.
performance for the group.
𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
⚫ can be avoided by: Relative Accuracy = ( ) x 100 %
𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
⚫ increasing number of reading For the above mentioned example:
⚫ use statistical means to obtain best approximation of 𝟏𝟏.𝟏
Relative Accuracy = ( ) x 100% = 91.7 %
true value 𝟏𝟐.𝟏

PERCENTAGE ERROR is defined as:

ZERO ERROR
𝑋−𝑋′
⚫ does not point to zero ep = 100er = 100 l l
𝑋
Samples:
ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
the time elapsed between the start of the
measurement to the reading taken. This time depends
upon the mechanical moving system, friction, etc.
⚫ Expected value - the design value or the most
probable value that expected to obtain.
⚫ Error - the deviation of the true value from the desired
value

⚫ Given the expected voltage value across a resistor is 80

V. the measurement is 79 V. Calculate,
The absolute error
The % of error
The relative accuracy
The % of accuracy
CLASSIFICATION OF ERROR
1. Consumer Purposes - 5-10% error is acceptable
2. Engineering Purposes - 1% error is acceptable
3. Scientific Purposes - 0.1% error is acceptable

Range of Uncertainty
⚫ Nominal value plus or minus an amount called
tolerance (percent tolerance)

LIMITING ERROR
⚫ Value of magnitude based on the scale then based on
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
limited scale (solution)
⚫ Accuracy - the degree of exactness (closeness) of
⚫ Accuracy of measuring instrument is guaranteed
measurement compared to expected (desire) value
within a certain percentage of full scale reading.
⚫ Resolution - the smallest change in a measurement
SAMPLE:
variable to which an instrument will respond
Given a 600 V voltmeter with accuracy of ± 2 full scale.
⚫ Precision - a measure of consistency or repeatability of
Calculate the limiting error when the instrument is used to
measurement, I.e successive reading do not differ .
measure a voltage of 250 V?
⚫ Sensitivity - ratio of change in the output response of
instrument to a change of input or measured variable
Magnitude of limiting error, 0.02 x 600 = 12 V
⚫ Speed Response - The quickness of an instrument to
Therefore, the limiting error of 250 V = 12/250 x 100 = 4.8%
read the measurand variable is called the speed of
response. Alternately, speed of response is defined as
ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
Given a certain measurement, a limiting error for voltmeter
at 70 V is 2.143% and a limiting error for ammeter at 80 mA
is 2.813%. determine the limiting error of the power.

The limiting error for the power = 2.143% + 2.813% = 4.956%

What is the relative error in the approximation X = 2.0 to X
= 1.98
𝑋 2
Relative Error = -1= - 1 = 0.01010 ( to 5 d.p.)
𝑥 1.98

SYSTEM UNITS OF MEASUREMENT AND STANDARD

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
STANDARDS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATIONS
ESTIMATION ⚫ A standard of measurement is a physical
⚫ Using knowledge of something similar size or amount representation of unit of measurement. A unit is
in order to determine the size of the new object realized by reference to an arbitrary material standard
or to natural phenomena including physical and atomic
SI UNIT - INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS constants. The term ‘standard’ is applied to a piece of
⚫ typically used by scientist equipment having a known measure of physical
⚫ based on the number 10 quantity.
⚫ measurements are easy to convert that English unit
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
BASIC TYPES OF MEASUREMENT ⚫ are defined by international agreement. They represent
⚫ Length - measures distance between objects certain units of measurement to the closest possible
⚫ Volume - measure the amount of space something accuracy that production and measurement technology
takes up allow. International standards are periodically checked
⚫ Mass - measures the amount of matter in an object and evaluated by absolute measurements in terms of
the fundamental units.
Other types of measurement include: ⚫ SI UNITS
⚫ Time ⚫ -known by the whole world
⚫ Temperature - is a measure of the kinetic energy of
the atoms in an object
⚫ Density - is how much matter is in something (mass)
compared to the amount of space it takes up (volume)
⚫ pH

PRIMARY STANDARDS ( Master Standards / Reference

Standard)
⚫ maintained by national standards laboratories
⚫ One of the main functions of primary standards is the
verification and calibration of secondary standards.
⚫ The primary standards, again representing the
fundamental units and some of the derived mechanical
and electrical units, are independently calibrated by
absolute measurements at each of the national
laboratories.

Secondary Standards (Calibration Standards)

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
⚫ Secondary standards are the basic reference standards electronics, biomedical and health care, learning
used in the industrial measurement laboratories. technology, information technology and robotics,
These standards are maintained by the particular telecommunication and home automation,
involved industry and are checked locally against other transportation, nanotechnology, information assurance,
reference standards in the area. and many more.

Working Standards Module 2 : Analog and Digital Instruments for

Measuring Basic Parameters
⚫ Working standards are the principle tools of a Analogue instruments
measurement laboratory.They are used to check and
calibrate general laboratory instruments for accuracy ANALOGUE INSTRUMENTS - continuous
and performance or to perform comparison ⚫ An analog device is one in which the output or
measurements in industrial applications. display is a continuous function of time and bears a
constant relation to its input. Measuring instruments
Current Standard are classified according to both the quantity measured
⚫ The fundamental unit of electric current (Ampere) is by the instrument and the principle of operation. Three
defined by the International System of Units (SI) as general principles of operation are available:
the constant current which, if maintained in two ⚫ electromagnetic, which utilizes the magnetic effects of
straight parallel conductors of infinite length and electric currents;
negligible circular cross section placed 1 meter apart in ⚫ electrostatic, which utilizes the forces between
vacuum, will produce between these conductors a electrically charged conductors;
force equal to 2 × 10-7 newton per meter length. ⚫ electro-thermal, which utilizes the heating effect.

Voltage Standard PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ( analog instruments)

⚫ In early times, the standard volt was based on an 1. Magnetic effect – ammeters , voltmeters , wattmeters ,
electrochemical cell called the saturated standard cell integrating meters etc. ( moving coil,moving iron)
or simply standard cell. 2. Heating effect – hot wire instrument
⚫ How the unit becomes volts 3. Electrostatic effect – Voltmeters
Resistance Standard 4. Electromagnetic effect – wattmeters , energy meters
⚫ In the SI system, the absolute value of ohm is defined
in terms of the fundamental units of length, mass and All analogue electrical indicating instruments require three
time. essential devices:
⚫ How the unit becomes ohms.
a. A deflecting or operating device - A mechanical
Capacitance Standard force is produced by the current or voltage which
⚫ Many electrical and magnetic units may be expressed causes the pointer to deflect from its zero position.
in terms of these voltage and resistance standards Deflection - a turning aside or off course
since the unit of resistance is represented by the
standard resistor and the unit of voltage by standard b. A controlling device.- The controlling force acts in
Weston cell. The unit of capacitance (the farad) can opposition to the deflecting force and ensures that the
be measured with a Maxwell dc commutated bridge, deflection shown on the meter is always the same for a
where the capacitance is computed given measured quantity. It also prevents the pointer
from the resistive bridge arms and the frequency of the dc always going to the maximum deflection.
commutation.
c. A damping device. The damping force ensures that
IEEE Standards the pointer comes to rest in its final position quickly
⚫ The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and without undue oscillation. There are three main
Standards Association (IEEE-SA) is an organization types of damping used — eddy-current damping, air-
within IEEE that develops global standards in a friction damping and fluid-friction damping.
broad range of industries, including: power and
energy, consumer technology and consumer
ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS - by period (time) the measured current exceeds the range of the
TYPES OF SCALE measuring device.
1. LINEAR SCALE - divisions or graduations are evenly
spaced ⚫ In electronics, a shunt is a device that creates a low-
2. Non-linear scale -The scale is cramped at the resistance path for electric current, to allow it to pass
beginning and the graduations are uneven throughout around another point in the circuit. The origin of the
the range. term is in the verb 'to shunt' meaning to turn away or
follow a different path.
MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS
⚫ When current flows in the solenoid, a pivoted soft-iron
disc is attracted towards the solenoid and the
movement causes a pointer to move across a scale.
⚫ Moving iron uses magnetism

REPULTION TYPE MOVING-IRON INSTRUMENT

⚫ Two pieces of iron are placed inside the solenoid, one
being fixed, and the other attached to the spindle
carrying the pointer. When current passes through the
solenoid, the two pieces of iron are magnetized in the
same direction and therefore repel each other. The
pointer thus moves across the scale.

Voltmeters and multimeters: Basic meter:

⚫ A basic d.c. meter uses a motoring principle for its
operation. It states that any current carrying coil placed
in a magnetic field experiences a force, which is
proportional to the magnitude of current passing
through the coil. This movement of coil is called
D'Arsonval movement and basic meter is called
D'Arsonval galvanometer.
⚫ An ammeter, which measures current, has a low
resistance (ideally zero) and must be connected in
series with the circuit.
⚫ A voltmeter, which measures p.d., has a high
resistance (ideally infinite) and must be connected in
parallel with the part of the circuit whose p.d. is
required.
⚫ There is no difference between the basic instrument
used to measure current and voltage since both use a
Milli ammeter as their basic part. This is a sensitive
instrument which gives f.s.d. (full scale deflection) for
currents of only a few milliamperes. When an ammeter
is required to measure currents of larger magnitude, a
proportion of the current is diverted through a low-
value resistance connected in parallel with the meter.
Such a diverting resistor is called a shunt. (another
term for PARALLEL)

⚫ A shunt is a low-ohm resistor that can be used to

measure current. Shunts are always employed when
ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS period of time. The summation, given by such an
instrument, is the product of time and an electrical
quantity under measurement. The ampere-hour meters
and energy meters fall in this class.

(iii) Recording Instruments

⚫ Recording instruments are those which keep a
continuous record of the variation of the magnitude
of an electrical quantity to be observed over a
definite period of time. Such instruments are
generally used in powerhouses where the current,
voltage, power, etc., are to be maintained within certain
acceptable limit.

MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS
⚫ Mechanical instruments are very reliable for static
and stable conditions. They are unable to respond
rapidly to the measurement of dynamic and transient
conditions due to the fact that they have moving parts
that are rigid, heavy and bulky and consequently have
1. ABSOLUTE INSTRUMENTS a large mass. Also, most of the mechanical instruments
⚫ The instruments of this type give the value of the causes noise pollution.
measurand in terms of instrument constant and its
deflection. Such instruments do not require Electrical Instruments
comparison with any other standard. Absolute ⚫ When the instrument pointer deflection is caused by
instruments are mostly used in standard laboratories the action of some electrical methods then it is called
and in similar institutions as standardizing. an electrical instrument. The time of operation of an
2. Secondary Instruments electrical instrument is more rapid than that of a
⚫ These instruments are so constructed that the mechanical instrument. Unfortunately, an electrical
deflection of such instruments gives the magnitude of system normally depends upon a mechanical
the electrical quantity to be measured directly. These measurement as an indicating device.
instruments are required to be calibrated by
comparison with either an absolute instrument or with Electronic Instruments
another secondary instrument, which has already been ⚫ Electronic instruments use semiconductor devices.
calibrated before the use. Most of the scientific and industrial instrumentation
require very fast responses. Such requirements cannot
(i) Indicating Instruments be met with by mechanical and electrical instruments.
⚫ Indicating instruments are those which indicate the
magnitude of an electrical quantity at the time MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC INSTRUMENTS
when it is being measured. The indications are given ⚫ Manual instruments - the service of an operator is
by a pointer moving over a calibrated (pregraduated) required
scale.Ordinary ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, ⚫ Automatic type of instruments - no operator is
frequency meters, power factor meters, etc., fall into required all the time
this category.
SELF-OPERATED AND POWER OPERATED INSTRUMENTS
(ii) Integrating Instruments ⚫ Self-operated instruments are those in which no
⚫ Integrating instruments are those which measure the outside power is required for the operation. The output
total amount of either quantity of electricity energy is supplied wholly or almost wholly by the input
(ampere-hours) or electrical energy supplied over a of measurand. mechanical
ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
k) Has high resolution: can detect very small
⚫ Power-operated instruments are those in which some changes of the order of 0.1% of range.
external power electricity, compressed air, hydraulic l) User friendly - a digital meter performs the
supply is required for operation. The input signal calculation and displays the reading
supplies only a insignificant portion of the output m) Portable size makes it easy to carry anywhere.
power.
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
Deflection and Null Output Instruments OVER ANALOG
Deflection-type instruments, the deflection indicated the
measurement of the unknown quantity. The measurand Although electronics are usually more costly than
quantity produces some physical effect which deflects or electrical instruments but are becoming more and
produces a mechanical displacement in the moving system more popular because of their various advantages
of the instruments. over conventional ones,

⚫ In null-type instruments, a zero or null indication leads Main Advantages of Digital Instruments
to determination of the magnitude of the measurand 1.Detection of Low Level Signals
quantity. 2.High Input Impedance
3.Low Power Consumption
Operation of the Digital Instruments and Basic 4.High Frequency Range
Measurements 5.Better Resolution
Why analog is replaced by digital meters? 6.Storage Facility
1. Accuracy 7. Accuracy
2. Robustness
3. It has moving parts. These can get affected by an Disadvantages of Digital Instruments
accidental drop to floor.
4. It has relatively less input resistance especially in low 1. Effects on noise in more predominant on digital
voltage ranges such as 3V prone to parallax error. instruments than analog instruments. Analog instruments,
due to inertia of its moving parts, normally remain
ADVATANGES OF DIGITAL METERS insensitive to fast varying noise, while digital instruments
a) Output display - it is easy to gauge reading continue to show erratic variations in presence of noise.
through digital multi-meter since the output is 2. Analog instruments have higher overload capacity than
automatically displayed in numbers through seven digital instruments. The sensitive electronic components
segment display. used in digital instruments are more prone to damage in
b) Accuracy - a digital meter takes a precise, case of even momentary overloads.
computer, generated reading and display it on the 3. Digital instruments can sometimes loose its reliability and
screen. tend to indicate erratic values due to faulty electronic circuit
c) Auto polarity - placing the probes into opposite components or damaged display.
polarity will result into negative output. 4. Digital instruments and their internal electronic
d) Stable calibration - we should only have to components are very much sensitive to external
calibrate our digital meter once - when you first atmospheric conditions. In case of high humidity and
turn it on. corrosive atmosphere the internal parts may get damaged
e) Current protection - most of the digital meters and indicate the faulty values.
feature protection from sudden shifts in current.
f) Precision
g) It can hold the reading in memory
h) The reading speed is increased as it is easier to
read
i) With the advent of integrated circuits, the size,
cost and power requirements of digital multi
meters has been drastically reduced.
j) No moving parts, life will be high
ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Firstly, read the main scale. If the zero on the vernier scale is
just past 16 mm on the main scale the our first figure is
16.00 mm.

HOW TO READ A VERNIER CALIPER

- the vernier caliper is used by engineers to give precise
measurements when working to extremely fine tolerances.
- can be used to measure in three different ways: You then need t read the vernier scale and see which line,
External measurements aligns perfectly with one of the lines on the main scale.
Internal measurements
Depth measurements.

In this sample the 2 on the vernier scale aligns perfectly

which means our second figure is 0.020 mm as the vernier
scale is divided into 0.02 mm increments ( always check this
scale as some vernier scales differ)

How to read METRIC vernier caliper

HOW TO READ IMPERICAL VERNIER SCALE

- ensure zero ’ s align exactly before taking any

measurements.
ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION