Slgnals and Classltlcatlon of Slgnals

1.1. A continuous-time signal x( t) is shown in Fig. 1-17. Sketch and label each of the following signals.
(a) x(t- 2); (b) x(2t); (c) x(t/2); (d) x(-t)

x(t)

-2-1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 1-17

(a) x(t - 2) is sketched in Fig . l-18(a).

(b) x(2t) is sketched in Fig. l-18(b).

(c) x(t/2) is sketched in Fig. l-18(c).

(d) x( - t)issketchedinFig. l-18(d).

 x(t - 2) x(2t)

3 3

- 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 - 2- 1 0 1 2 3

(a) (b)

x(t/2) x( - t)

3 3

- 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 - 5 - 4- 3- 2 - 1 0 1 2

(c) (d)

Fig. 1-18

1.2. A discrete-time signal x[n] is shown in Fig. 1-19. Sketch and label each of the following signals.
(a) x[n - 2]; (b) x[2n]; (c) x[-n]; (d) x[-n + 2]

x[n]

- 1 O 1 2 3 4 5 n
Fig. 1-19

(a) x[n - 2] is sketched in Fig . 1-20(a).

(b) x[2n] is sketched in Fig. 1-20(b).
(c) x[ - n] is sketched in Fig. 1-20(c).
(d) x[ - n + 2] is sketched in Fig . 1-20(d).

x[n-2] x[2n]

3 3

01234567 n -1 0 1 2 3 n
(a) (b)
 x[- n] x[- n + 2]

3 3

- 5 - 4 - 3- 2 - 1 0 1 n -3- 2 - 1 0 1 2 n
(c) (d)

Fig. 1-20

1.3. Given the continuous-time signal specified by

x(t) = {1-1 t I -l:5t:5l

0 otherwise

determine the resultant discrete-time sequence obtained by uniform sampling of x(t) with a sampling
interval of (a) 0.25 s, (b) 0.5 s, and (c) 1.0 s.

It is easier to take the graphical approach for this problem. The signalx(t) is plotted in Fig . 1-21(a). Figs. 1-2l(b) to (d)
give plots of the resultant sampled sequences obtained for the three specified sampling intervals.

(a) T, = 0.25 s. From Fig. 1-2l(b) we obtain

x[n] = { .. ., 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 0.75, 0.5, 0.25, 0, .. .}

t
(b) T, = 0 .5 s. From Fig . 1-21(c) we obtain

x[n] = { . . ., 0, 0.5, 1, 0.5, 0, ... }

t
(c) T, = 1 s. From Fig . 1-2l(d) we obtain

x[n] = { .. ., 0, 1, 0, ... } = c5[n]

t

x(t) x[n] = x(n/4)

- 1 0 - 4- 3- 2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 n
(a) (b)

x [n] = x(n/2) x[n] = x(n)

-2 -1 0 2 n - 1 0 n
(c) (d)

Fig. 1-21
1.4. Using the discrete-time signals x 1[n] and x 2 [n] shown in Fig. 1-22, represent each of the following
signals by a graph and by a sequence of numbers.
(a) y 1[n] = x 1[n] + x 2 [n]; (b) y2 [n] = 2x 1[n]; (c) y 3 [n] = x 1[n]x 2 [n]

x 1 [n]

3 3

-2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n -3 n

Fig. 1-22

(a) y 1[n] is sketched in Fig. 1-23(a). From Fig. 1-23(a) we obtain

y 1[n] = { .. . , 0, - 2, - 2, 3, 4, 3, - 2, 0, 2, 2, 0, .. .}
t
(b) y 2[n] is sketched in Fig . 1-23(b). From Fig. 1-23(b) we obtain

y2 [n] = { .. . , 0, 2, 4, 6, 0, 0, 4, 4, 0, .. .}
t
(c) y 3[n] is sketched in Fig . 1-23(c) . From Fig . 1-23(c) we obtain

y 3 [n] = { . . ., 0, 2, 4, 0, ... }
t

y 1 [n] = x 1 [n] + x 2 [n]

6

4 4

2 2
- 2- 1 3
1 2 4 5 6 7 n -2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n
-2

(a) (b)

- 2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n
(c)

Fig. 1-23
1.5. Sketch and label the even and odd components of the signals shown in Fig. 1-24.

Using Eqs . (1.5) and (1.6), the even and odd components of the signals shown in Fig . 1-24 are sketched in Fig. 1-25.

x(t) x(t)

4 4

0 1 2 3 4 5 0

(a) (b)

x[n] x [n]

4 4

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n

(c) (d)

Fig. 1-24

xe(t) x 0 (t)
4 4

-5 0 5

(a)

4 4

(b)
 4 4

2 2

- 5 - 4- 3 - 2- 1
- 5 - 4- 3 - 2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n 2 3 4 5 n
-2

(c)

x0 [n]
4 4

- 4- 3 - 2- 1

- 4- 3 - 2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 n 2 3 4 n
-2

(d)

Fig. 1-25

1.6. Find the even and odd components of x(t) = ei1•

Let x,(t) and x0 (t) be the even and odd components of ei', respectively.

ei' = x,(t) + x.(t)

From Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6) and using Euler's formula, we obtain

1 . .
x (t) = -(e11 +e- Jl) = cost
e 2
x (t) = .!..(e11 - e- 11 ) = 1·sint
0 2

1.7. Show that the product of two even signals or of two odd signals is an even signal and that the product of
an even and an odd signal is an odd signal.

Let x(t) = x 1(t)xz(t). If x 1(t) and xz(t) are both even, then

and x(t) is even. If x 1(t) and xz(t) are both odd, then

and x(t) is even. If x 1(t) is even and xz(t) is odd, then

and x(t) is odd. Note that in the above proof, variable t represents either a continuous or a discrete variable.
1.8. Show that
(a) If x(t) and x[n] are even, then

I a x(t) dt = 2 Jora x(t) dt

-a
(l .75a)

k k
,L x[n] = x[O] + 2 ,L x[n] (l.75b)
n=-k n=I

(b) If x(t) and x[n] are odd, then

x(O) = 0 and x[O] = 0 (l.76)

k
J~a x(t) dt = 0 and ,L x[n] = 0 (l.77)
n=-k

(a) We can write

fa x(t) dt =fa x(t) dt +I: x(t) dt

Letting t = - A in the first integral on the right-hand side, we get

0
I -a x(t)dt= J x(-A.)(-dA.)= Jor x(-A.)dA.
0
a
0

Since x(t) is even, that is, x(-A) = x(A), we have

Hence,
a x(t) dt
I -a = ra x(t) dt + ra x(t) dt = 2 ra x(t) dt
J0 J0 J0

Similarly,
k -I k
~ x[n]= ~ x[n]+x[O] + ~x[n]
n=-k n=-k n=I

Letting n = - m in the first term on the right-hand side, we get

-1 k
~ x[n] = ~ x[-m]
n=-k m=I

Since x[n] is even, that is, x[-m] = x[m], we have

k k k
~x[-m]= ~x[m]= ~x[n]
m=I m=I n=I

Hence,
k k k k
~ x[n]= ~x[n]+x[O]+ ~x[n]=x[0]+2 ~x[n]
n=-k n=I n=I n=I

(b) Since x(t) and x[n] are odd, that is, x (-t) = -x(t) and x[ -n] = -x[n], we have

x(-0) = - x(O) and x[ -0] = - x[O]

 Hence,

x(-0) = x(O) = - x(O) => x(O) = 0

x[ -0] = x[O] = - x[O] => x[O] = 0

Similarly,

I a x(t)dt=f
-a
0 x(t)dt+ rax(t)dt= rax(-A,)dA,+ rax(t)dt
-a J0 J0 J0

=- J:x(A,)d},,+ J:x(t)dt=- J:x(t)dt+ J:x(t)dt= 0

and
k -1 k k k
~ x[n]= ~ x[n]+x[O]+ ~x[n]= ~ x[-m]+x[O]+ ~x[n]
n=-k n=-k n=I m=I n=I
k k k k
=- ~ x[m]+x[O]+ ~x[n]=- ~x[n]+x[O]+ ~x[n]
m=I n=I n=I n=I
=x[O]=O

in view ofEq. (l.76).

1.9. Show that the complex exponential signal

x(t) = ejw,t

is periodic and that its fundamental period is 2:rc/ wo-

By Eq. (1.7), x(t) will be periodic if

Since

we must have

(1.78)

If%= 0, then x(t) = 1, which is periodic for any value of T. If% i= 0, Eq. (l.78) holds if

2:rc
or T=m- m = positive integer
wo

Thus, the fundamental period T0 , the smallest positive T, of x(t) is given by 2:rc/%·

1.10. Show that the sinusoidal signal

x(t) = cos(w 0 t + 8)

is periodic and that its fundamental period is 2:rclw 0 •

The sinusoidal signal x(t) will be periodic if

COS[%(t + T) + 8] = cos(%t + 8)
 We note that

COS[Wo(t + T) + O] = cos[ov + e + %T] = cos(ov + 0)

if
2n
or T=m- m = positive integer
wo

Thus, the fundamental period T0 of x(t) is given by 2n/%·

1.11. Show that the complex exponential sequence

x [n] = ejOon

is periodic only if Q 0 /2Ttis a rational number.

By Eq. (1.9), x[n] will be periodic if

or

(1.79)

Equation (1.79) holds only if

0.Jf= m2n m = positive integer

or
. al numb ers
-Qo = -m = ration
2n N (l.80)

Thus, x[n] is periodic only if Q 0 /2n is a rational number.

1.12. Let x(t) be the complex exponential signal

with radian frequency% and fundamental period T0 = 2Ttl<flo. Consider the discrete-time sequence x[n]
obtained by uniform sampling of x(t) with sampling interval T,. That is,

x[n] = x(nT,) = ejmonTs

Find the condition on the value of T. so that x[n] is periodic.

If x[n] is periodic with fundamental period N0 , then

Thus, we must have

m = positive integer

or
T, m " anum
-=-=ration l ber (1.81)
To No
 Thus, x[n] is periodic if the ratio T,IT0 of the sampling interval and the fundamental period of x(t) is a rational
number.
Note that the above condition is also true for sinusoidal signals x(t) = cos(o1af + (}).

1.13. Consider the sinusoidal signal

x(t) = cos 15t

(a) Find the value of sampling interval T, such that x[n] = x(nT,) is a periodic sequence.
(b) Find the fundamental period of x[n] = x(nT,) if T, = 0.1.ir seconds.

(a) The fundamental period of x(t) is T0 = 2.ir/% = 2.ir/15. By Eq. (l.81),x[n] = x(nT,) is periodic if

T,=~=.!!!... (l.82)
T0 2.ir/15 N0

where m and N0 are positive integers. Thus, the required value of T, is given by
m m 2n
T,=-T0 = - - (1.83)
N0 N 0 15

(b) Substituting T, = O.ln = n/10 in Eq. (1.82), we have

T, = n/10 =~=~
T0 2.ir/15 20 4

Thus, x[n] = x(nT,) is periodic. By Eq. (l.82)

0 T 4
N 0 =m-=m-
T5 3
The smallest positive integer N0 is obtained with m = 3. Thus, the fundamental period of x[n] = x(O.lnn)
isN0 = 4.

1.14. Let x 1(t) and x2(t) be periodic signals with fundamental periods T1 and T2 , respectively. Under what
conditions is the sum x(t) = x 1(t) + x 2(t) periodic, and what is the fundamental period of x(t) if it is
periodic?

Since x 1(t) and xz(t) are periodic with fundamental periods T1 and T2 , respectively, we have

x 1(t) = x 1(t + T1) = x 1(t + mT1) m = positive integer

x 2(t) = xz<t + T2) = xz<t + kT2) k = positive integer

Thus,

In order for x(t) to be periodic with period T, one needs

Thus, we must have

(1.84)

or
T, k . al numb er
ration
- = - = (1.85)
T2 m
 In other words, the sum of two periodic signals is periodic only if the ratio of their respective periods can be
expressed as a rational number. Then the fundamental period is the least common multiple of T1 and T2 , and it is
given by Eq. (1.84) if the integers m and k are relative prime. If the ratio T/T2 is an irrational number, then the
signals x 1(t) and x 2(t) do not have a common period and x(t) cannot be periodic.

1.15. Let x 1[n] and x 2 [n] be periodic sequences with fundamental periods N 1 and N2 , respectively. Under what
conditions is the sum x[n] = x 1[n] + x 2 [n] periodic, and what is the fundamental period of x[n] if it is
periodic?

Since x 1[n] and x 2 [n] are periodic with fundamental periods N 1 and N 2, respectively, we have

x 1[n] = x 1[n + N 1] = x 1[n + mN1] m = positive integer

x2 [n] = x2 [n + N 2] = x 2 [n + kN2] k = positive integer

Thus,

In order for x[n] to be periodic with period N, one needs

Thus, we must have

(l.86)

Since we can always find integers m and k to satisfy Eq. ( 1.86), it follows that the sum of two periodic sequences is
also periodic and its fundamental period is the least common multiple of N 1 and N2 •

1.16. Determine whether or not each of the following signals is periodic. If a signal is periodic, determine its
fundamental period.

(a) x(t) = cos(t + ~) (b) x ( t ) =sm-t

. 2Jl
3
()
(c) x t = cos - t
Jl .Jl
+ sm - t (d) x(t) = cos t + sin .J2 t
3 4
(e) x(t) = sin 2 t (f) x(t) = ej[(,./2)1-11

1
(g) x[n] = ej(Hl4)n (h) x[n] = cos-n
4
(i) x [n] = cos-n
Jl
+ sm-n
.Jl
(j) x[n] = cos 2 !!_n
3 4 8

(a) X(t) = cos(t +~)=cos(OJof + ~ )--+ Wo = 1

x(t) is periodic with fundamental period T0 = 2n I w 0 = 2n.
. 2n 2n
(b) x(t)=sm-t--+w0 =-
3 3
x(t) is periodic with fundamental period T0 = 2n I OJo = 3.

(c) x(t) = cos~t + sin~t = x 1 (t) + x 2 (t)

3 4

where x 1(t) = cos(n/3)t = cos w/ is periodic with T1 = 2n/w 1 = 6 and xp) = sin(n/4)t = sin Wl is periodic
with T2 = 2n/w2 = 8. Since T1 /T2 = ~ = %is a rational number, x(t) is periodic with fundamental period
T0 = 4T1 = 3T2 = 24.
 (d) x(t) =cost+ sin [it= x 1(t) + xz(t)

where x 1(t) =cost= cos w 1t is periodic with T1 = 2n/w 1 = 2nand x2(t) = sin flt= sin w2t is periodic
with T2 = 2n/w2 = f l n. Since T1 /T2 = f l is an irrational number, x(t) is nonperiodic.
(e) Using the trigonometric identity sin2 (} = to - cos 2(}), we can write
x(t) = sin 2 t = .!. - .!.cos 2t = x 1(t) + x 2 (t)
2 2
t
where x 1(t) = is a de signal with an arbitrary period and xz(t) = - cos 2t = - t t cos w 2t is periodic with
T2 = 2n/w2 = n. Thus, x(t) is periodic with fundamental period T0 = n.
(f) x(t) = ej[(ir/2)1-11 = e-jej(Jr/2)1 = e-jejw,1--+ wo = ~

x(t) is periodic with fundamental period T0 = 2n/w 0 = 4.

(g) x[n] = ej(Jrl4)n = ejRon--+ Qo = ~

Since Q0 /2n =t is a rational number, x[n] is periodic, and by Eq. (1.55) the fundamental period is N 0 = 8.
(h) x[n] = cos tn = cos Q n--+ Q = t0 0

Since Q0 /2n = 1/8n is not a rational number, x[n] is nonperiodic.

(i) x[n] = cos j-n + sin ~n = x 1[n] + x 2[n]

where
1r 1r
x 1[n] = cos-n =cos Q 1n--+ Q 1 = -
3 3
x 2 [n] = sin~n =cos Q 2 n--+ Q 2 = ~
4 4

t
Since Q/2n = (= rational number),x 1[n] is periodic with fundamental period N 1 = 6, and since Qz12n = t
(=rational number),x2 [n] is periodic with fundamental periodN2 = 8. Thus, from the result of Prob. 1.15,x[n]
is periodic and its fundamental period is given by the least common multiple of 6 and 8, that is, N0 = 24.
(j) Using the trigonometric identity cos 2 (} = to + cos 2(}), we can write
2:n: 1 1 :n:
x[n] =cos -n = - +-cos -n = x 1[n] + x 2 [n]
8 2 2 4
where x 1[n] = = t t<l)"is periodic with fundamental period N 1 = 1 and x2 [n] = cos(n/4)n = cos t t
t
Q 2n--+ Q 2 = n/4. Since Q 2 /2n = (=rational number), x2 [n] is periodic with fundamental period N2 = 8.
Thus, x[n] is periodic with fundamental period N 0 = 8 (the least common multiple of N 1 and N2).

1.17. Show that if x(t + T) = x(t), then

JaPx(t) dt = Ja+T
13 x(t) dt +T (l.87)

fT fa+T (l.88)
J0 x(t) dt = a x(t) dt

for any real a, {3, and a.

If x(t + T) = x(t), then letting t = r - T, we have

x(r- T + T) = x(r) = x(r - T)

and
fi Ifi+T Ifi+T Ifi+T
I x(t) dt = x(r - T) dr = x( r) dr = x(t) dt
a a+T a+T a+T
 Next, the right-hand side of Eq. (l.88) can be written as

I aa+T x(t)dt= Ioax(t)dt+ Jo

ra+T
x(t)dt

By Eq. (l.87) we have

I aox(t) dt = IT
a+T
x(t) dt

Thus,
I a+T x(t) dt =
IT x(t) dt + ia+T x(t) dt
a a+T 0

= i 0a+T x(t) dt + IT
a+T
x(t) dt = iT x(t) dt
0

1.18. Show that if x(t) is periodic with fundamental period T0 , then the normalized average power P of x(t)
defined by Eq. (1.15) is the same as the average power of x(t) over any interval of length T0 , that is,

1 Ji
P=- I
rTo x(t) 12 dt (l.89)
To o
By Eq. (l.15)
. 1 IT/2 2
P= hm - lx(t)I dt
T-oo T -T/2

Allowing the limit to be taken in a manner such that Tis an integral multiple of the fundamental period,
T = kT0 , the total normalized energy content of x(t) over an interval of length Tis k times the normalized energy
content over one period. Then

I I
rTo x(t) 12 dt ] = 1- J,rTo x(t) 12 dt
. [ -1k J,
P= hm
k-oo kTo o To o

1.19. The following equalities are used on many occasions in this text. Prove their validity.

(a)
N-1,Lan= r-aN
1-a
a;tl
(1.90)
n=O N a=l

"'
(b) ,Lan =-1- lal<l (l.91)
n=O 1-a

00 k
(c) ,Lan=~ lal<l (l.92)
n=k 1-a

00

(d) ,L n a lal<l (l.93)

n=O na = (1- a)2

(a) Let
N-1
~
S =~a=
n 1 +a+a2 +···+aN-1
(1.94)
n=O
Then
N-1
aS = a }: an = a+ a 2 + a 3 + ··· + aN (1.95)
n=O
 Subtracting Eq. (l.95) from Eq. (l.94), we obtain

(1 - a) S = 1 - aN

Hence if a * 1, we have
N-1 N
S= ~an=l-a (l.96)
n=O 1-a
If a= 1, then by Eq. (l.94)
N-1
~an =l+l+l+···+l=N
n=O

(b) For Ia I< 1, lim aN = 0. Then by Eq. (l.96) we obtain

N-oo

"' n . N-I n . 1- aN
~a= hm ~a= hm - - = - -
n=O N-oo n=O N-oo 1-a 1-a

(c) Using Eq. (l.91), we obtain

"'
~an= ak + ak+I + ak+2 + ...
n=k
"' k
k ~ a
=a k(l +a+a 2 +···=a
) ~a
n
=--
n=O 1-a
( d) Taking the derivative of both sides of Eq. ( 1.91) with respect to a, we have

d (f nl
da n=O a =
d ( 1 ) 1
da 1- a = (1- a) 2

and

Hence,
1 "' n 1 ~ a
~ n=O
~ na
n
or ~ na (l-a)2
= (1 - a)2 =
n=O

1.20. Determine whether the following signals are energy signals, power signals, or neither.
(a) x(t) = e- 01u(t), a> 0 (b) x(t) =A cos(aV + (})
(c) x(t) = tu(t) (d) x[n] = (-0.5)nu[n]
(e) x[n] = u[n] (f) x[n] = 2ej 3n

(a) E=f"' lx(t)l 2 dt=

-oo
r"' e- 2at dt=J__<oo
Jo 2a
Thus, x(t) is an energy signal.
(b) The sinusoidal signal x(t) is periodic with T0 = 2:n:/%. Then by the result from Prob. 1.18, the average power
of x(t) is
p= _!_ iTo[x(t)]2 dt = Wo i2nlwo AZ cos2(aJo! + 8)dt
To o 2:n: o
A 2w 2nlwo 1 A2
= __ o r
-[l + cos(20Jot + W)]dt = - < oo
2:n: Jo 2 2

Thus, x(t) is a power signal. Note that periodic signals are, in general, power signals.
 (c) E = Jim
T-oo
J T/2
- T/2
2
lx(t)I dt = Jim
T-oo
JT/2 2
0
(T /2) 3
t dt = Jim - - = oo
T- oo 3

.
P = hm -
1 JT/2 2 .
lx(t)I dt = hm -
1 JT/2 t 2 . 1 (T /2) 3
dt = hm - - - = oo
T- oo T - T/2 T-oo T 0 T-oo T 3

Thus, x(t) is neither an energy signal nor a power signal.

(d) By definition (1.16) and using Eq. (1.91), we obtain

_L 0.25 n = -1- = -<oo

4
00 00
2
E= _L lx[nJI =
n =- oo n =O 1 - 0.25 3

Thus, x[n] is an energy signal.

(e) By definition (1.17)
N
P = Jim _1_ ~ lx[nll2
N-oo 2N + 1 L.,
n =- N
N
= Jim _ l _ ~ 12 = Jim - 1-(N + 1) = .!_< oo
N - oo 2N + 1 L., N -oo 2N + 1 2
n =O

Thus, x[n] is a power signal.

(f) Since lx[n] I = I2ei 3n I = 2 IeJ 3n I = 2,
N N
P = Jim _1_ ~ lx[nJl2 = Jim _1_ ~ 22
N -oo 2N + 1 L., N - oo 2N + 1 L.,
n =- N n =- N

= Jim _ l _ 4(2N + 1) = 4 < oo

N-oo 2N +1

Thus, x[n] is a power signal.

Basic Slgnals

1.21. Show that

u(-t)={~
t>O
(1.97)
t<O

Let -r = - t. Then by definition ( 1.18)

u(- t) = u(-r) = {~ -r>O

-r<O

Since T > 0 and T < 0 imply, respectively, that t < 0 and t > 0, we obtain

u(- t) = {~
t>O
t<O
which is shown in Fig . 1-26.

u(-t)

Fig. 1-26
1.22. A continuous-time signal x( t) is shown in Fig. 1-27. Sketch and label each of the following signals.

(a) x(t)u(l - t); (b) x(t)[u(t) -u(t- l)]; (c) x(t)o(t- ~)

x(t)

-1 0 2

Fig. 1-27

(a) By definition (1.19)

u(l - t) = {~ t<1
t>1

and x(t)u(l - t) is sketched in Fig. 1-28(a).

(b) By definitions (1.18) and (1.19)

{~
O < t~l
u(t) - u(t - 1) =
otherwise

andx(t)[u(t) - u(t - 1)] is sketched in Fig. 1-28(b).

(c) By Eq. (1.26)

which is sketched in Fig . 1-28(c).

x(t)u(1 - t) x(t) [u(t) - u(t - 1)]

- 1 0 0
(a) (b)

x(t)8(t - 3/2)
2

0 2
(c)

Fig. 1-28

1.23. A discrete-time signal x[n] is shown in Fig. 1-29. Sketch and label each of the following signals.

(a) x[n]u[l - n]; (b)x[n]{u[n + 2] - u[n]}; (c)x[n]O[ n - 1]

 x[n]

- 4- 3- 2- 1 O 1 2 3 4 5 n
Fig. 1-29

(a) By definition (1.44)

{~
n~l
u[l - n] =
n>l

and x[n]u[l - n] is sketched in Fig. l-30(a).

(b) By definitions (1.43) and (1.44)

{~
- 2~n<O
u[n + 2] - u[n] =
otherwise

andx[n]{u[n + 2] - u[n]} is sketched in Fig. l-30(b).

(c) By definition (1.48)

x[n]b[n - 1] = x[l]b[n - 1] = b[n - 1] = {~ n= l

w;t 1

which is sketched in Fig. l-30(c).

x[n]u[1 - n] x[n] {u[n + 2]- u[n])

3 3

- 4 - 3- 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 n -3-2- 1 0 1 2 3 n
(a) (b)

x[n] S[n - 1]

- 2- 1 O 1 2 3 4 n
(c)

Fig. 1-30

1.24. The unit step function u(t) can be defined as a generalized function by the following relation:

J~00 <P(t)u(t) dt = J: <P(t) dt (1.98)

u(t) = {~ t<O
 Rewriting Eq. (l.98) as

J~oo i/J(t)u(t) dt = J~oo i/J(t)u(t) dt + J: i/J(t)u(t) dt = J: i/J(t) dt

we obtain

f 00
i/J(t)u(t) dt = J: l/J(t)[l - u(t)] dt

This can be true only if

f 00
i/J(t)u(t) dt = 0 and J; l/J(t)[l - u(t)] dt = 0

These conditions imply that

i/J(t)u(t) = 0, t < 0 and l/J(t)[l - u(t)] = 0, t >0

Since l/J(t) is arbitrary, we have

u(t) = 0, t < 0 and 1- u(t) = 0, t > 0

that is,

{~
t>O
u(t)=
t<O

1.25. Verify Eqs. (1.23) and (1.24); that is,

1
(a) '5(at)=~'5(t); (b) '5(-t)='5(t)

The proof will be based on the following equivalence property:

Let g 1(t) and gif) be generalized functions. Then the equivalence property states that g 1(t) = gz(t) if and
only if

(l.99)

for all suitably defined testing functions i/J(t).

(a) With a change of variable, at= T, and hence t = -r/a, dt = (lla) d-r, we obtain the following equations:

If a> 0,

J~oo i/J(t)()(at) dt .!..J~

a
l/J(~)(j(-r)
=
a
d-r .!..ip(~)I
a a
00
= = -
1
lal l/J(O)
-r=O

If a< 0,

J oo
- 00
i/J(t)()(at) dt = -1
a
J-oo ip (-T
00 a
) ()(-r) d-r = - -1
a
Joo ip (-T
-oo a
) ()(-r) d-r

= - .!..ip(~)I = _1 l/J(O)
a a -r=O Ial
Thus, for any a

Joo ijJ(t)()(at) dt
_ 00
1
= ~l/J(O)
 Now, using Eq. (1.20) for </J(O), we obtain

J oo _ 00
1
</J(t)()(at) dt = ~</J(O) = ~
1 Joo_
00 </J(t)()(t) dt

= J oo </J(t)~(j(t)
-00
1
dt

for any </J(t). Then, by the equivalence property (1.99), we obtain

1
()(at)= ~(j(t)

(b) Setting a= -1 in the above equation, we obtain

which shows that ()(t) is an even function.

1.26. (a) Verify Eq. (1.26):

if x(t) is continuous at t = t0 .
(b) Verify Eq. (l.25):

x(t) b(t) = x(O) b(t)

if x(t) is continuous at t = 0.

(a) If x(t) is continuous at t = t0 , then by definition (1.22) we have

J~00 </J(t)[x(t)(j(t - t0 )] dt = J~)</J(t)x(t)]()(t - t0 ) dt = </J(t0 )x(t0 )

= x(to) J~00 </J(t)()(t- t0 ) dt

= J~00 </J(t)[x(to)(j(t-to)l dt

for all </J(t) which are continuous at t = t 0 • Hence, by the equivalence property (l.99) we conclude that

(b) Setting t0 = 0 in the above expression, we obtain

x(t)()(t) = x(O)()(t)

1.27. Show that

(a) tb(t) = 0
(b) sin tb(t) = 0
(c) cos tb(t - ;r) = -b(t - ;r)

Using Eqs. (1.25) and (1.26), we obtain

(a) t()(t) = (0) ()(t) = 0

(b) sin t()(t) = (sin 0) ()(t) = (0) ()(t) = 0

(c) cos t()(t - :n:) = (cos :n:) ()(t - :n:) = (- l)(j(t - :n:) = -(j(t - :n:)
1.28. Verify Eq. ( 1.30):

du(t)
<5(t) = u'(t) = - -
dt

From Eq. (1.28) we have

J~00 i/J(t)u'(t) dt = - J~00 ijJ'(t)u(t) dt (l.100)

where l/J(t) is a testing function which is continuous at t = 0 and vanishes outside some fixed interval. Thus, ijJ'(t)
exists and is integrable over 0 < t < oo and ijJ(oo) = 0. Then using Eq. (l.98) or definition (l.18), we have

J~00 i/J(t)u'(t) dt = - J: i/J'(t) dt = - l/J(t)I~ = - [ijJ(oo)- l/J(O)]

= l/J(O) = J~00 i/J(t)6(t) dt

Since l/J(t) is arbitrary and by equivalence property (1.99), we conclude that

6(t) = u'(t) = du(t)

dt

1.29. Show that the following properties hold for the derivative of <5(t):

(a) J: </J(t)i5'(t) dt
00
= - </J'(O) where </J'(O) = d</J(t)
dt
I
t=O
(l.101)

(b) ti5'(t) = -<5 (t) (1.102)

(a) Using Eqs. (1.28) and (1.20), we have

J~00 i/J(t)6'(t) dt = - J~00 ijJ'(t)6(t) dt = - l/J'(O)

(b) Using Eqs. (1.101) and (1.20), we have

J oo i/J(t) [t()'(t)] dt Joo_)ti/J(t)]()'(t) dt

_ 00 = = -
d
dt [ti/J(t)] lr=O

= - [i/J(t) + tl/J'(t)Jl1=0 = - l/J(O)

= - J~oo i/J(t)6(t) dt = J:oo l/J(t)[-6(t)] dt

Thus, by the equivalence property (1.99) we conclude that

t6'(t) = -(j(t)

1.30. Evaluate the following integrals:

(a) f 1(3t
2 +1)<5(t)dt

(b) J, (3t
2 2 + 1)<5(t) dt

(c) J:oo (t 2 +cos m)i5(t -1) dt

(d) J: e 00
-t <5(2t - 2) dt

(e) J: e00
-t <5'(t) dt
 (a) By Eq. (l.21), with a = -1 and b = 1, we have

f I (3t 2 + l)c5(t) dt = (3t 2 + l)lt=O = 1

(b) By Eq. (1.21), with a = 1 and b = 2, we have

f,2 (3t 2 + l)c5(t) dt = 0

(c) By Eq. (l.22)

I~"' (t 2 +cos nt)c5(t - 1) dt = (t 2 +cos :rrt) It=!

=l+cos:rr=l-1=0

(d) Using Eqs. (1.22) and (1.23), we have

J~00 e-t c5(2t - 2) dt = J~00 e- 1c5[2(t - l)] dt

= J"' e- __!_c5(t
-oo
1
121
-1) dt = .!.e-
2
11
t=I 2e

(e) By Eq. (l.29)

I "' e- c5'(t)dt=-.!!._(e-
-oo
1
dt
)1 1
t=O
=e-tl
t=O
=l

1.31. Find and sketch the first derivatives of the following signals:
(a) x(t) = u(t) - u(t - a), a> 0
(b) x(t) = t[u(t) - u(t - a)], a >0
t>O
(c) x(t) = sgn t = { 1
-1 t<O

(a) Using Eq. (l.30), we have

u'(t) = c5(t) and u'(t - a) = c5(t - a)

Then
x'(t) = u'(t) - u'(t - a) = c5(t) - c5(t - a)

Signals x(t) and x'(t) are sketched in Fig. l-3l(a).

(b) Using the rule for differentiation of the product of two functions and the result from part (a), we have

x'(t) = [u(t) - u(t - a)] + t[c5(t) - c5(t - a)]

But by Eqs. (l.25) and (l.26)

tc5(t) = (O)c5(t) = 0 and tc5(t - a) = ac5(t - a)

Thus,
x'(t) = u(t) - u(t - a) - ac5 (t - a)

Signals x(t) and x'(t) are sketched in Fig. l-3l(b).

(c) x(t) = sgn t can be rewritten as

x(t) = sgn t = u(t) - u(-t)

Then using Eq. (1.30), we obtain

x'(t) = u'(t) - u'(-t) = c5(t)- [-c5(t)] = 2c5(t)

Signals x(t) and x'(t) are sketched in Fig. 1-3 l(c).

 x(t) x(t) x(t)

0 a 0 a 0
--------l - 1

x' (t)

8(t)

a
x' (t)

t x' (t)

2' (t)

0 O a 0

- 8 (t - a)
- a 8 (t - a)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1-31

Systems and Classltlcatlon of Systems

1.32. Consider the RC circuit shown in Fig. 1-32. Find the relationship between the inputx(t) and the output y(t)
(a) If x(t) = v,(t) and y(t) = v/t).
(b) If x(t) = v,(t) and y(t) = i(t).

+T
v.(t)

~ c

-1
vc(t)

Fig. 1-32 RC circuit.

(a) Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the RC circuit in Fig . 1-32, we obtain

v.(t) = Ri(t) + v/ t) (1.103)

The current i(t) and voltage v/ t) are related by

i(t) = C dvc<t) (1.104)

dt

Letting v.(t) = x (t) and vp) = y (t) and substituting Eq. (1 .04) into Eq. (1.103), we obtain

RC dy(t) + y (t) = x (t)

dt

or
dy (t) 1 1
- - + -y(t) = - x (t) (1.105)
dt RC RC
 Thus, the input-output relationship of the RC circuit is described by a first-order linear differential equation
with constant coefficients.
(b) Integrating Eq. (1.104), we have

vc<t) = -1
c J'- co 1(r)dr
. (1.106)

Substituting Eq. (1.106) into Eq. (1.103) and letting v.(t) = x(t) and i(t) = y(t), we obtain

Ry(t)+-
1
c J'- co y(r)dr = x(t)
or
1
y(t)+-
RC - co
J' 1
y(r)dr = -x(t)
R

Differentiating both sides of the above equation with respect tot, we obtain

dy(t) + _l_y(t) = _!_ dx(t) (1.107)

dt RC R dt

Thus, the input-output relationship is described by another first-order linear differential equation with
constant coefficients.

1.33. Consider the capacitor shown in Fig. 1-33. Let input x(t) = i(t) and output y(t) = v/t).
(a) Find the input-output relationship.
(b) Determine whether the system is (i) memoryless, (iz) causal, (iiz) linear, (iv) time-invariant, or (v) stable.

i(t)

Fig. 1-33

(a) Assume the capacitance C is constant. The output voltage y(t) across the capacitor and the input current x(t)
are related by [Eq. (1.106)]

y(t) = T{x(t)} = -1
c J'-co x(r)dr (1.108)

(b) (i) From Eq. (1.108) it is seen that the output y(t) depends on the past and the present values of the input.
Thus, the system is not memoryless.
(ii) Since the output y(t) does not depend on the future values of the input, the system is causal.
(iii) Let x(t) = a 1x 1(t) + a 2 x 2(t). Then

y(t) = T {x(t)} = _!_J 1

c - co [a1x 1(r) + a 2x 2 (r)] dr
= a1 [z f co x 1(r)dr] + a 2 [z f co x 2 (r)dr]

= a 1y 1(t) + a 2 Yz(t)

Thus, the superposition property (1.68) is satisfied and the system is linear.
 (iv) Let y 1(t) be the output produced by the shifted input current x 1(t) = x(t - t0).
Then
y 1(t) = T{x(t - t0 )} = -1
c f'
-00
x(r - t0 )dr

= -1 fr -to x(J..)d.?.. = y(t - t0 )

c -00

Hence , the system is time-invariant.

(1.109)

where r(t) = tu(t) is known as the unit ramp function (Fig. 1-34). Since y(t) grows linearly in time
without bound, the system is not BIBO stable .

r(t) = tu(t)

0
Fig. 1-34 Unit ramp function .

1.34. Consider the system shown in Fig. 1-35. Determine whether it is (a) memoryless, (b) causal, (c) linear,
(d) time-invariant, or (e) stable.

Multiplier
x(t) y(f) = X(f) COS WC f

Fig. 1-35

(a) From Fig . 1-35 we have

y(t) = T{x(t)} = x(t) cos wet

Since the value of the output y(t) depends on only the present values of the input x(t), the system is memoryless.
(b) Since the output y(t) does not depend on the future values of the input x(t), the system is causal.
(c) Let x(t) = a 1x(t) + a 2 x(t). Then
y(t) = T{x(t)} = [a 1x 1(t) + a 2 x2 (t)] cos wet
= a 1x 1(t) cos wet+ a 2x2 (t) cos wet
= a 1y1(t) + a 2 Yz(t)

Thus, the superposition property (1.68) is satisfied and the system is linear.
 (d) Lety 1(t) be the output produced by the shifted inputx1(t) = x(t- t0 ). Then

But

Hence, the system is not time-invariant.

(e) Since Icos ro/ I ~ 1, we have
ly(t) I = lx(t) cos wet I ~ lx(t) I

Thus, if the input x(t) is bounded, then the output y(t) is also bounded and the system is BIBO stable.

1.35. A system has the input-output relation given by

y = T{x} = x 2 (l.110)

Show that this system is nonlinear.

T{x1 + x2 } = (x1 + x 2)2 = xf + x~ + 2x1x 2

=t-T{xi} + T{x2 } = xf + x~
Thus, the system is nonlinear.

1.36. The discrete-time system shown in Fig. 1-36 is known as the unit delay element. Determine whether the
system is (a) memoryless, (b) causal, (c) linear, (d) time-invariant, or (e) stable.

__x[n]
____,.~ I Unit .ly[n] =x[n-1] .."'
. delay

Fig. 1-36 Unit delay element

(a) The system input-output relation is given by

y[n] = T{x[n]} = x[n - 1] (l.111)

Since the output value at n depends on the input values at n - 1, the system is not memoryless.
(b) Since the output does not depend on the future input values, the system is causal.
(c) Letx[n] = a 1x 1[n] + a 2 x2[n]. Then
y[n] = T{a 1x 1[n] + a zX2[n]} = a 1x 1[n - 1] + azX2[n - 1]

= a1Y1[n]+a2Yz[n]

Thus, the superposition property (1.68) is satisfied and the system is linear.
(d) Let y 1[n] be the response to x 1[n] = x[n - n0]. Then

y 1[n] = T{x1[n]} = x 1[n - l] = x[n - 1 - n0]

and
Hence, the system is time-invariant.
(e) Since

ly[n] I = lx[n - lJ I ~ k if lx[n] I ~ kfor all n

the system is BIBO stable.

1.37. Find the input-output relation of the feedback system shown in Fig. 1-37.

+
x[n] Unit y[n]
delay

Fig. 1-37

From Fig. 1-37 the input to the unit delay element is x[n] - y[n]. Thus , the output y[n] of the unit delay element is
[Eq. (1.111)]

y[n] = x[ n - 1] - y[n - 1]

Rearranging, we obtain

y[n] + y[n - 1] = x[n - 1] (1.112)

Thus, the input-output relation of the system is described by a first-order difference equation with constant
coefficients.

1.38. A system has the input-output relation given by

y[n] = T{x[n]} = nx[n] (1.113)
Determine whether the system is (a) memoryless, (b) causal, (c) linear, (d) time-invariant, or (e) stable.

(a) Since the output value at n depends on only the input value at n, the system is memoryless.
(b) Since the output does not depend on the future input values, the system is causal.
(c) Letx[n] = a 1x 1[n] + a 2x2[n]. Then
y[n] = T{x[n]} = n{a 1x 1[n] + a 2 x 2 [n]}
= a 1nx 1[n] + a 2nx2[n] = a 1y 1[n] + a 2y2[n]

Thus, the superposition property (1.68) is satisfied and the system is linear.
(d) Lety 1[n] be the response tox 1[n] = x[n - n0 ]. Then

y 1[n] = T{x[n - n 0 ]} = nx[n - n 0 ]

But y[n - n0 ] = (n - n0) x[n - n0 ] # y 1[n]

Hence , the system is not time-invariant.

(e) Letx[n] = u[n]. Then y[n] = nu[n]. Thus , the bounded unit step sequence produces an output sequence that
grows without bound (Fig. 1-38) and the system is not BIBO stable .

x[n] = u[n] y[n] = nu[n]

- 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 n - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 n

Fig. 1-38
1.39. A system has the input-output relation given by

y[n] = T{x[n]} = x[k0 n] (1.114)

where k0 is a positive integer. Is the system time-invariant?

Lety 1[n] be the response tox 1[n] = x[n - n0 ]. Then

y 1[n] = T{x 1[n]} = x 1[k0 n] = x[k0 n - n0 ]

But y[n - n0 ] = x[ k0 (n - n0 )] =fa y 1[n]

Hence , the system is not time-invariant unless k0 = 1. Note that the system described by Eq. (1.114) is called a
compressor. It creates the output sequence by selecting every k0th sample of the input sequence . Thus , it is obvious
that this system is time-varying.

1.40. Consider the system whose input-output relation is given by the linear equation

y=ax+b (1.115)

where x and y are the input and output of the system, respectively, and a and bare constants. Is this
system linear?

If b =fa 0, then the system is not linear because x = 0 implies y = b =fa 0. If b = 0 , then the system is linear.

1.41. The system represented by Tin Fig. 1-39 is known to be time-invariant. When the inputs to the system
are x 1[n], x 2 [n], and x 3 [n], the outputs of the system are y 1[n], y 2 [n], and y 3 [n] as shown. Determine
whether the system is linear.

y, [n]

2 2

-2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 n -2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 n

---+0--+ 2

-2 - 1 0 2 3 4 n -2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 n

x3(nj Y3[n]

3
2
---+0--+
-2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 n -2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 n

Fig. 1-39
 From Fig. 1-39 it is seen that

Thus, if Tis linear, then

which is shown in Fig. 1-40. From Figs. 1-39 and 1-40 we see that

Hence , the system is not linear.

2 2 2

+
-2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 n - 2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 n -2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 n

Fig. 1-40

1.42. Give an example of a system that satisfies the condition of additivity ( 1.66) but not the condition of
homogeneity (1.67).

Consider a discrete-time system represented by an operator T such that

y[n] = T{x[n]} = x*[n] (1 .116)

where x*[n] is the complex conjugate of x[n] . Then

Next, if a is any arbitrary complex-valued constant, then

T{ax[n]} = {ax[n]} *= a*x* [n] = a*y[n] =fa ay[n]

Thus, the system is additive but not homogeneous.

1.43. (a) Show that the causality for a continuous-time linear system is equivalent to the following statement:
For any time t0 and any input x(t) with x(t) = 0 fort :5 t0 , the output y(t) is zero fort :5 t0 .
(b) Find a nonlinear system that is causal but does not satisfy this condition.
(c) Find a nonlinear system that satisfies this condition but is not causal.

(a) Since the system is linear, if x(t) = 0 for all t, then y(t) = 0 for all t. Thus, if the system is causal, then
x(t)= 0 fort,;:; t0 implies that y(t) = 0 fort,;:; t0 • This is the necessary condition. That this condition is
 also sufficient is shown as follows: let x 1(t) and x 2(t) be two inputs of the system and let y 1(t) and y 2(t) be
the corresponding outputs. If x 1(t) = x 2(t) fort~ t0 , or x(t) = x 1(t) - xz(t) = 0 fort~ t0 , theny 1(t)= yz(t)
fort~ t 0 , ory(t) = y 1(t) - yz(t) = 0 fort~ t 0 •

(b) Consider the system with the input-output relation

y(t) = x(t) + 1

This system is nonlinear (Prob. 1.40) and causal since the value of y (t) depends on only the present value of
= 0 fort~ t 0 , y(t) = 1 fort~ t 0 •
x(t). But with x(t)

(c) Consider the system with the input-output relation

y (t) = x(t)x(t + 1)

It is obvious that this system is nonlinear (see Prob. 1.35) and noncausal since the value of y(t) at time t depends
on the value of x(t + 1) of the input at time t + 1. Yet x(t) = 0 fort~ t0 implies that y(t) = 0 fort~ t0 •

1.44. Let T represent a continuous-time LTI system. Then show that

(l.117)

where s is a complex variable and/... is a complex constant.

Let y(t) be the output of the system with input x(t) = est. Then

T{est} = y(t)

Since the system is time-invariant, we have

for arbitrary real t0 • Since the system is linear, we have

T{e'(I+ to>} = T{est esto} = estoT{est} = estoy(t)

Hence, y(t + t0) = est'Y(t)

Setting t = 0, we obtain

(l.118)

Since t0 is arbitrary, by changing t0 tot, we can rewrite Eq. (l.118) as

y(t) = y(O) est= /...est

or T{est} = A est
where/... = y(O).

1.45. Let T represent a discrete-time LTI system. Then show that

(1.119)

where z is a complex variable and/... is a complex constant.

Lety[n] be the output of the system with inputx[n] = z" . Then

T{z"} = y[n]

Since the system is time-invariant, we have

for arbitrary integer n0 • Since the system is linear, we have

T{z" +"0 } = T{z"z" 0 } = z"•T{z"} = z"•y[n]

Hence , y[n + n0 ] = z" 0 y[n]
Setting n = 0 , we obtain

y[n0 ] = y[O]z" 0 (1.120)

Since n0 is arbitrary, by changing n0 ton , we can rewrite Eq . (1.120) as

y[n] = y[O]z" = /... z"

or T{z"} = /... z"
where /... = y[O].
In mathematical language, a function x( ·) satisfying the equation

T{x(-)} = f...x(-) (1.121)

is called an eigenfunction (or characteristic function) of the operator T , and the constant /... is called the eigenvalue
(or characteristic value) corresponding to the eigenfunction x(-). Thus , Eqs. (1 .117) and (1.119) indicate that the
complex exponential functions are eigenfunctions of any LTI system.