FIBONACCI SEQUENCE, LUCAS SEQUENCE

AND THEIR PROPERTIES

AND RELATIONS
Usharani Mahanta
(Roll Number: -MTS01K23013)

Department Of Mathematics
Dharanidhar University, Keonjhar
Odisha – 758001
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project has been made by USHARANI MAHANTA, a
P.G. final year student of MASTER OF SCIENCE (MATHEMATICS), DHARANIDHAR
UNIVERSITY, KEONJHAR under my guidance and have been completed it
successfully.

Sign of Internal Examiner Sign of External Examiner

2
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this is a Bonafide record of the work done by me in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE
in MATHEMATICS by the DHARANIDHAR UNIVERSITY, KEONJHAR and this report has
not been submitted to any other University for the award of any degree to the best
of my knowledge and belief.

Name: - Usharani Mahanta

Roll Number: - MTS01K23013

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my profound gratitude to Mrs. Bijaylaxmi Majhi (HOD), of
P.G. department of Mathematics of DHARANIDHAR UNIVERSITY, KEONJHAR for her
contributions to the completion of my project titled FOBONACCI SEQUENCE, LUCAS
SEQUENCE AND THEIR PROPERTIES AND RELATIONS. I would like to express my
special thanks to our mentor for time and efforts he provided throughout the year.
His useful advice and suggestions were really helpful to me during the project’s
completion. In this aspect, I am eternally grateful to you. I would like to
acknowledge that this project was completed entirely by me and not by someone
else.

Signature

Date-

Your Name

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Contents:-

➢ Introduction
➢ Golden Ratio and golden Rectangle
➢ Properties of Fibonacci and Lucas Numbers
➢ Binet’s Formulae for Fibonacci and Lucas
Numbers
➢ Relation Between Fibonacci and Lucas Numbers
➢ Further relation between the Lucas and Fibonacci
Numbers
Introduction

The concept of Fibonacci numbers was first discovered by

Leonardo de Fibonacci de Pisa. the Fibonacci series was derived
from the solution to a problem about rabbits. The problem is:
Suppose there are two new born rabbits, one male and the other
female. Find the number of rabbits produced in a year if

• Each pair takes one month to become mature:

• Each pair produces a mixed pair every month, from the second
month:

• All rabbits are immortal

Suppose, that the original pair of rabbits was born on January 1.

They take a month to become mature, so there is still only one
pair on February 1. On March 1, they are two months old and
produce a new mixed pair, so total is two pair. So, continuing like
this, there will be 3 pairs in April, 5 pairs in May and so on.

The numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, . .. are Fibonacci numbers. They

have a fascinating property: Any Fibonacci number, except the
first two, is the sum of the two immediately preceding Fibonacci
numbers. (At the given rate, there will be 144 pairs rabbit on
December 1)

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 This yeild the following recursive definition of the nth Fibonacci number 𝐹𝑛

𝐹1 = 1

𝐹2 = 1

𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 , 𝑛 ≥ 3

Closely related to Fibonacci numbers are the Lucas numbers 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, . .. named after
Lucas. Lucas numbers 𝐿𝑛 are defined recursively as follows

𝐿1 = 1

𝐿2 = 3

𝐿𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛−1 + 𝐿𝑛−2 , 𝑛 ≥ 3.

There is a huge interest of modern science in the application of the Golden Section and
Fibonacci numbers. The Fibonacci numbers 𝐹𝑛 are the terms of the sequence 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, . . ..
wherein each term is the sum of the two previous terms, beginning with the values 𝐹0 = 0,
and 𝐹1 = 1. On the other hand the ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers converges to
1+√5
Golden mean, or Golden section 𝜙 = , which appers in modern research.
2

Definition 2.4.1. (Fibonacci Numbers) Fibonacci Numbers are the numbers in the integer
sequence defined by the recurrence relation𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 for all 𝑛 ≥ 2 with 𝐹 0 = 0
and 𝐹1 = 1.

Definition 2.4.2. (Lucas Numbers) Lucas Numbers are the numbers in the integer sequence
defined by the recurrence relation 𝐿𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛−1 + 𝐿𝑛−2 for all 𝑛 > 1 and 𝐿0 = 2 and
𝐿1 = 1.

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Golden Ratio and Golden Rectangle

The Golden Ratio denoted by 𝜙 , is an irrational mathematical constant, approximately

1.61803398874989. In mathematics two quantities are in the golden ratio of the sum of
quantities to the larger quantity is equal to the ratio of the larger quantity to the smaller one.
Two quantities a and b are said to be in the golden ratio if

𝑎+𝑏 𝑎
=𝑏=𝜙
𝑎

Then

(𝑎+𝑏) 𝑏 1
=1+ 𝑎 = 1+
𝑎 𝜙

1
1+ = 𝜙
𝜙

𝜙2 = 𝜙 + 1

𝜙2− 𝜙−1=0

(1+√5)
𝜙 = 2

𝜙 = 1.61803398874989

𝜙 ≃ 1.618.

Definition 2.5.1. (Golden Rectangle) A golden rectangle is one whose side lengths are in
1+√5
golden ratio, that is, approximately 1: .
2

Construction of Golden Rectangle A Golden Rectangle can be constructed with only

straightedge and compass by this technique

1. Construct a simple square.

2. Draw a line from the midpoint of one side of the square to an opposite corner.

3. Use the line as radius to draw an arc that defines the height of the rectangle.

4. Complete the golden rectangle.

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Properties of Fibonacci and Lucas Numbers

The Simplest Properties of Fibonacci Numbers

Theorem -1: - The sum of the first n Fibonacci numbers is equal to 𝐹𝑛+2 − 1.

Proof. We have

𝐹 1 = 𝐹3 − 𝐹2 ,

𝐹2 = 𝐹4 − 𝐹3 ,

𝐹𝑛−1 = 𝐹𝑛+1 − 𝐹𝑛 ,

𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛+2 − 𝐹𝑛+1 .

Adding up these equations term by term, we get

𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 +. . . +𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛+2 − 𝐹2 = 𝐹𝑛+2 − 1.

Theorem-2: - The sum of first n Fibonacci with odd suffixes is equal to F2n.

Proof. We know

𝐹1 = 𝐹2 ,

𝐹 3 = 𝐹4 − 𝐹2 ,

𝐹5 = 𝐹6 − 𝐹4 ,

.
.

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 .

𝐹2𝑛−1 = 𝐹2𝑛 − 𝐹2𝑛−2 .

Adding up these equations term by term, we obtain

𝐹1 + 𝐹3 + 𝐹5 + . . . . + 𝐹2𝑛−1 = 𝐹2𝑛 .

Theorem- 3: - 𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + . . . . + 𝐹𝑛2 = 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛+1 .

Proof. We know that

𝐹𝑘 𝐹𝑘+1 − 𝐹𝑘−1 𝐹𝑘 = 𝐹𝑘 (𝐹𝑘+1 − 𝐹𝑘−1 ) = 𝐹𝑘2

𝐹 12 = 𝐹1 𝐹2

𝐹22 = 𝐹2 𝐹3 − 𝐹1 𝐹2

𝐹𝑛2 = 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛+1 − 𝐹𝑛−1 𝐹𝑛 .

Adding up these equations term by term, we get

𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + . . . . + 𝐹𝑛2 = 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛+1.

Theorem -4: 𝑭𝑛 + 𝑚 = 𝐹𝑛−1 𝐹 𝑚 + 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑚+1 .

Proof. We shall prove the theorem by the method of induction on 𝑚. for 𝑚 = 1, we get

𝐹𝑛 +1 = 𝐹𝑛−1 𝐹1 + 𝐹𝑛 𝐹1+1 = 𝐹 𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛 Which is true. Suppose that it is true for 𝑚 = 𝑘

and 𝑚 = 𝑘 + 1, we shall prove it is also true that 𝑚 = 𝑘 + 2. Let

𝐹𝑛 + 𝑘 = 𝐹𝑛−1 𝐹𝑘 + 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑘+1

and

𝐹𝑛+( 𝑘+1) = 𝐹𝑛 −1 𝐹𝑘 +1 + 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑘+2 .

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Adding these two equations, we get

𝐹𝑛+( 𝑘+2) = 𝐹𝑛 −1 𝐹𝑘 +2 + 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑘+3 .

Hence

𝐹𝑛 + 𝑚 = 𝐹𝑛 −1 𝐹𝑚 + 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑚+1 .

2
Theorem -5: -𝐹𝑛+1 = 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛+2 + (−1)𝑛 .

Proof. We shall prove the theorem by induction on n. We have since, 𝐹22 = 𝐹1 𝐹3 − 1 = 1,

the assertion is true for 𝑛 = 1. let us assume that the theorem is true for 𝑛 = 1, 2, . . . , 𝑘.

Then adding 𝐹𝑛+1 𝐹𝑛+2 to both sides, we get

2
𝐹𝑛+1 + 𝐹𝑛+1 𝐹𝑛+2 = 𝐹𝑛+1 𝐹𝑛+2 + 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛+2 + (−1) 𝑛 .

Which implies that 𝐹𝑛+1 (𝐹𝑛+1 + 𝐹𝑛+2 ) = 𝐹𝑛+2 (𝐹𝑛 + 𝐹𝑛+1 ) + (−1)𝑛 . This simplifies

2 2
to 𝐹𝑛 +1 𝐹𝑛 +3 = 𝐹𝑛+2 + (−1) 𝑛 . Finally we have,𝐹𝑛+2 = 𝐹𝑛 + 1 𝐹𝑛 + 2 + (−1)𝑛+1 .

Number-Theoretic Properties of Fibonacci Numbers

Theorem -6: - For the Fibonacci sequence, 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝐹𝑛 , 𝐹𝑛+1 ) = 1 for every 𝑛 ≥ 1.

Proof. Let 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝐹𝑛 , 𝐹𝑛+1 ) = 𝑑 > 1. Then 𝑑|𝐹𝑛 and 𝑑|𝐹𝑛+1 . Then 𝐹𝑛+1 − 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 will

also be divisible by d. Again, we know that 𝐹𝑛 − 𝐹𝑛−1 = 𝐹𝑛−2 . This implies 𝑑|𝐹𝑛−2 . Working

backwards, the same argument shows that 𝑑|𝐹𝑛−3 , 𝑑|𝐹𝑛−4 , . .. and finally that 𝑑|𝐹1 = 1. This

is impossible. Hence 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝐹𝑛 , 𝐹𝑛+1 ) = 1 for every 𝑛 ≥ 1.

Theorem -7: - For 𝑚 ≥ 1, 𝑛 ≥ 1, 𝐹𝑛𝑚 is divisible by 𝐹𝑚 .

Proof. We shall prove the theorem by induction on 𝑛. For 𝑛 = 1 the theorem is true.

Let us assume that 𝐹𝑚 |𝐹𝑛𝑚 , for 𝑛 = 1,2,3, . . . , 𝑘. Now 𝐹𝑚(𝑘+1) = 𝐹𝑚𝑘 + 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑚𝑘−1 𝐹𝑚 =

𝐹𝑚𝑘 𝐹𝑚+1 + 𝐹𝑚 . The right hand site of the equation is divisible by Fm. Hence 𝑑|𝐹𝑚(𝑘+1) .

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Lemma -1: - If 𝑚 = 𝑛𝑞 + 𝑟, then 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝐹𝑚 , 𝐹𝑛 ) = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝐹𝑟 , 𝐹𝑛 ).

Proof. Observe that

gcd(𝐹𝑚 , 𝐹𝑛 ) = gcd(𝐹𝑛𝑞+𝑟 , 𝐹𝑛 ) = gcd(𝐹𝑛𝑞−1 𝐹𝑟 + 𝐹𝑞𝑛 𝐹𝑟+1 , 𝐹𝑛 ) = gcd(𝐹𝑛𝑞−1 𝐹𝑟 , 𝐹𝑛 ). Now

we claim that gcd(𝐹𝑛𝑞−1 , 𝐹 𝑛 ) = 1. Let 𝑑 = gcd(𝐹𝑛𝑞−1 , 𝐹𝑛 ). Then 𝑑|𝐹𝑛𝑞−1 and 𝑑|𝐹𝑛 . Also,

that 𝐹𝑛 |𝐹𝑛𝑞 . Therefore 𝑑|𝐹𝑛𝑞 . This d is the positive common divisor of 𝐹𝑛𝑞 and 𝐹𝑛𝑞−1 . but

gcd(𝐹𝑛𝑞−1 , 𝐹𝑛𝑞 ) = 1. This is an absurd. Hence 𝑑 = 1.

Theorem -8: -The greatest common divisor of two Fibonacci number is again a Fibonacci

number.

Proof. Let 𝐹𝑚 and 𝐹𝑛 be two Fibonacci Number.

Let us assume that 𝑚 ≥ 𝑛 . Then by applying Euclidian Algorithm to 𝑚 and 𝑛 , we get the
following system of equations

𝑚 = 𝑞1 𝑛 + 𝑟1 , 0 ≤ 𝑟1 < 𝑛

𝑛 = 𝑞2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 , 0 ≤ 𝑟2 < 𝑟1

𝑟1 = 𝑞3 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 , 0 ≤ 𝑟3 < 𝑟2 , . ..

𝑟𝑛−2 = 𝑞𝑛 𝑟𝑛−1 + 𝑟𝑛 , 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑛 < 𝑟𝑛−1

𝑟𝑛−1 = 𝑞𝑛+1 𝑟𝑛 + 0

Then from the previous lemma

Gcd(𝐹𝑚 , 𝐹𝑛 ) = gcd(𝐹𝑟1 , 𝐹𝑛 )

= gcd(𝐹𝑟1 , 𝐹𝑟1 )

= gcd(𝐹𝑟𝑛−2 , 𝐹𝑟𝑛 ).

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Since 𝑟𝑛 |𝑟𝑛−1, then 𝐹𝑟𝑛 |𝐹𝑟𝑛−1 . Therefore gcd(𝐹𝑟𝑛−1 , 𝐹𝑟𝑛 ) = 𝐹𝑟𝑛 . But 𝑟𝑛 , being the last non- zero

reminder Euclidian Algorithm for m and n, is equal to gcd(𝑚, 𝑛) . Thus gcd(𝐹𝑚 , 𝐹𝑛 ) = 𝐹𝑑 ,

Where 𝑑 = gcd(𝑚, 𝑛).

Theorem -9: - In the Fibonacci sequence,𝐹𝑚 |𝐹𝑛 if and only if 𝑚|𝑛.

Proof. If𝐹𝑚 |𝐹𝑛 , then gcd(𝐹𝑚 , 𝐹𝑛 ) = 𝐹𝑚 . But we know that gcd(𝐹𝑚 , 𝐹𝑛 ) = 𝐹gcd(𝑚,𝑛) .

This implies that 𝑔𝑐𝑑 (𝑚, 𝑛) = 𝑚. Hence 𝑚|𝑛.

Theorem -10: -The sequence of ratio of successive Fibonacci Numbers 𝐹𝑛+1 |𝐹𝑛 converges to
𝐹𝑛+1
Golden Ratio i.e., 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑛 → ∞ = 𝜙.
𝐹𝑛

𝐹𝑛+1
Proof. We consider the sequence 𝑟𝑛 = , for 𝑛 = 1,2,3, . .. .Then by definition of
𝐹𝑛
𝐹𝑛+1 𝐹𝑛 +𝐹𝑛−1 1
Fibonacci Numbers, we have 𝑟𝑛= = =1+𝑟 .
𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛 𝑛−1

When n → ∞, then we can write the above equation in limits:

1
𝑥 =1+𝑥

𝑥2 = 1 + 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0
1+√5
𝑥= =𝜙
2

Hence,

𝐹𝑛+1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑛 → ∞ = 𝜙.
𝐹𝑛

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Binet’s Formulae for Fibonacci and Lucas Numbers

1+√5 1−√5
Lemma -2: - Let 𝛼 = and 𝛽 = , so that 𝛼 and 𝛽 are both roots of the equation
2 2

𝛼𝑛 −𝛽 𝑛
𝑥 2 = 𝑥 + 1. Then 𝐹𝑛 = , for all 𝑛 ≥ 1.
√5

Proof. When 𝑛 = 1, 𝐹1 = 1 Which is true. Let us assume that it is true for 𝑛 =

1, 2, . . . , 𝑘.

𝛼𝑘−1 −𝛽 𝑘−1 𝛼𝑘 −𝛽 𝑘
Then 𝐹𝑘−1 = and 𝐹𝑘 = . Adding these two equations, we get
√5 √5
𝛼𝑘 𝛽𝑘 𝛼𝑘+1 +𝛽 𝑘+1
𝐹𝑘 + 𝐹𝑘−1 = (1 + 𝛼 −1 ) + (1 + 𝛽 −1 ). Then 𝐹𝑘+1 = .
√5 √5 √5
1+√5 1−√5
Lemma -3: -Let 𝛼 = and 𝛽 = , so that 𝛼 and 𝛽 are both roots of the equation
2 2

𝑥 2 = 𝑥 + 1. Then 𝐿𝑛 = 𝛼 𝑛 + 𝛽 𝑛 , for all 𝑛 ≥ 1.

Proof. For 𝑛 = 1, 𝐿1 = 1. Then the theorem is true for 𝑛 = 1. Let us assume that it is
true for 𝑛 = 1,2, … , 𝑘. We have to prove that it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. Now

𝐿𝑘 + 𝐿𝑘+1 = 𝛼 𝑘 + 𝛼 𝑘−1 + 𝛽 𝑘 + 𝛽 𝑘−1

𝐿𝑘+1 = 𝛼 𝑘 (1 + 𝛼 −1 ) + 𝛽 𝑘 (1 + 𝛽 −1 )

𝐿𝑘+1 = 𝛼 𝑘 (1 + 𝛼 − 1) + 𝛽 𝑘 (1 + 𝛽 − 1)

𝐿𝑘+1 = 𝛼 𝑘+1 + 𝛽 𝑘+1

14
Relation Between Fibonacci and Lucas Numbers

Theorem -11: - 𝐿𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛+1, for 𝑛 > 1.

Proof. We know that

𝐿𝑘+1 = 𝐿𝑘 + 𝐿𝑘−1

𝐿𝑘+1 = (𝐹𝑘−1 + 𝐹𝑘+1 ) + (𝐹𝑘−2 + 𝐹𝑘 )

𝐿𝑘+1 = (𝐹𝑘−1 + 𝐹𝑘−2 ) + (𝐹𝑘 + 𝐹𝑘+1 )𝐿𝑘+1 = 𝐹𝑘 + 𝐹𝑘+2 .

Theorem -12: - For all 𝑛 ≥ 1,𝐹2𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛 𝐹𝑛 .

Proof. Now

1
𝐿𝑛 𝐹𝑛 = (𝛼 𝑛 − 𝛽 𝑛 )(𝛼 𝑛 + 𝛽 𝑛 )
√5

1
𝐿𝑛 𝐹𝑛 = (𝛼 2𝑛 − 𝛽 2𝑛 )
√5

𝐿𝑛 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹2𝑛

Lemma -4: - 𝐿2𝑛 − 𝐿𝑛−1 𝐿𝑛+1 = 5(−1)𝑛 for 𝑛 ≥ 1.

Proof. Induction:

𝐿2𝑛+1 − 𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑛+2 = 𝐿𝑛−1 𝐿𝑛+1 − 𝐿2𝑛

= −5(−1)𝑛 .

15
Further relation between the Lucas and Fibonacci Numbers

Lemma -5: - 2𝐹𝑚+𝑛 = 𝐹𝑚 𝐿𝑛 + 𝐹𝑛 𝐿𝑚 .

Proof. By induction:

𝐹𝑛+𝑚+1 = 𝐹𝑛+𝑚 + 𝐹𝑛+𝑚−1

1 1
= 2 (𝐹𝑛 𝐿𝑚 + 𝐹𝑚 𝐿𝑛 ) + 2 (𝐹𝑛 𝐿𝑚−1 + 𝐹𝑚−1 𝐿𝑛 )

1
= 2 (𝐹𝑛 (𝐿𝑚 + 𝐿𝑛−1 )) + 𝐿𝑛 (𝐹𝑚 + 𝐹𝑚−1 )

1
= 2 (𝐹𝑛 𝐿𝑚+1 + 𝐿𝑛 𝐹𝑚+1 ).

Theorem- 13: - Two further relations:

a. 𝐿2𝑛 − 5𝐹𝑛2 = 4(−1)𝑛 .

b. 𝐿𝑛+1 𝐿𝑛 − 5𝐹𝑛+1 𝐹𝑛 = 2(−1)𝑛 .

Proof.

a. 𝐿2𝑛 − 4((−1)𝑛 + 𝐹𝑛2 ) = (𝐹𝑛+1 + 𝐹𝑛−1 )2 − 4(𝐹𝑛−1 𝐹𝑛+1 )

= (𝐹𝑛+1 − 𝐹𝑛−1 )2

= 𝐹𝑛2 .
b. 𝐿𝑛+2 𝐿𝑛+1 − 5𝐹𝑛+2 𝐹𝑛+1 = (𝐿𝑛+1 + 𝐿𝑛 )𝐿𝑛+1 − 5(𝐹𝑛+1 𝐹𝑛 )𝐹𝑛+1

= 𝐿2𝑛+1 + 𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑛+1 − 5𝐹𝑛+1

2
− 5𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛+1

= 𝐿2𝑛+1 − 5𝐹𝑛+1
2
+ 2(−1)𝑛

= 4(−1)𝑛+1 + 2(−1)𝑛

= 2(−1)𝑛 .

16
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