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An Introduction to Statistical
Analysis in Research
 ix

Preface

This book is designed to be a practical guide to the basics of statis-

tical analysis. The structure of the book was born from a desire to
meet the needs of our own science students, who often felt discon-
nected from the mathematical basis of statistics and who struggled
with the practical application of statistical analysis software in their
research. Thus, the specific emphasis of this text is on the conceptual
framework of statistics and the practical application of statistics in
the biological and life sciences, with examples and case studies from
biology, kinesiology, and physical anthropology.
In the first few chapters, the book focuses on experimental design,
showing data, and the basics of sampling and populations. Under-
standing biases and knowing how to categorize data, process data,
and show data in a systematic way are important skills for any
researcher. By solidifying the conceptual framework of hypothesis
testing and research methods, as well as the practical instructions for
showing data through graphs and figures, the student will be better
equipped for the statistical tests to come.
Subsequent chapters delve into detail to describe many of the
parametric and nonparametric statistical tests commonly used in
research. Each section includes a description of the test, as well as
when and how to use the test appropriately in the context of exam-
ples from biology and the life sciences. The chapters include in-depth
tutorials for statistical analyses using Microsoft Excel, SPSS, Apple
Numbers, and R, which are the programs used most often on col-
lege campuses, or in the case of R, is free to access on the web. Each
tutorial includes sample datasets that allow for practicing and apply-
ing the statistical tests, as well as instructions on how to interpret the
x Preface

statistical outputs in the context of hypothesis testing. By building

confidence through practice and application, the student should gain
the proficiency needed to apply the concepts and statistical tests to
their own situations.
The material presented within is appropriate for anyone looking
to apply statistical tests to data, whether it is for the novice student,
for the student looking to refresh their knowledge of statistics, or for
those looking for a practical step-by-step guide for analyzing data
across multiple platforms. This book is designed for undergraduate-
level research methods and biostatistics courses and would also be
useful as an accompanying text to any statistics course or course that
requires statistical testing in its curriculum.

Examples from the Book

The tutorials in this book are built to show a variety of approaches to

using Microsoft Excel, SPSS, Apple Numbers, and R, so the student
can find their own unique style in working with statistical software,
as well as to enrich the student learning experience through exposure
to more and varied examples. Most of the data used in this book were
obtained directly from published articles or were drawn from unpub-
lished datasets with permission from the faculty at the University of
La Verne. In some tutorials, data were generated strictly for teaching
purposes; however, data were based on actual trends observed in the
literature.
 xi

Acknowledgments

This book was made possible by the help and support of many close
colleagues, students, friends, and family; because of you, the ideas
for this book became a reality. Thank you to Jerome Garcia and Anil
Kapoor for incorporating early drafts of this book into your courses
and for your constructive feedback that allowed it to grow and
develop. Thank you to Priscilla Escalante for your help in research-
ing tutorial design, Alicia Guadarrama and Jeremy Wagoner for being
our tutorial testers, and Margaret Gough and Joseph Cabrera for your
helpful comments and suggestions; we greatly appreciate it. Finally,
thank you to the University of La Verne faculty that kindly provided
their original data to be used as examples and to the students who
inspired this work from the beginning.
 xiii

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by a companion website:

www.wiley.com/go/weaver/statistical analysis in research
The website features:
r R, SPSS, Excel, and Numbers data sets from throughout the book
r Sample PowerPoint lecture slides
r End of the chapter review questions
r Software video tutorials that highlight basic statistical concepts
r Student workbook including material not found in the textbook,
such as probability, along with an instructor manual
 

Experimental Design

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define key terms related to sampling and variables.

2. Describe the relationship between a population and a sample in
making a statistical estimate.
3. Determine the independent and dependent variables within a
given scenario.
4. Formulate a study with an appropriate sampling design that limits
bias and error.

. Experimental Design Background

As scientists, our knowledge of the natural world comes from direct

observations and experiments. A good experimental design is essen-
tial for making inferences and drawing appropriate conclusions
from our observations. Experimental design starts by formulating an
appropriate question and then knowing how data can be collected
and analyzed to help answer your question. Let us take the following
example.

An Introduction to Statistical Analysis in Research: With Applications in the Biological and Life Sciences,
First Edition. Kathleen F. Weaver, Vanessa C. Morales, Sarah L. Dunn, Kanya Godde and Pablo F. Weaver.
© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion Website: www.wiley/com/go/weaver/statistical analysis in research
 An Introduction to Statistical Analysis in Research

Case Study

Observation: A healthy body weight is correlated with good diet and

regular physical activity. One component of a good diet is consuming
enough fiber; therefore, one question we might ask is: do Americans
who eat more fiber on a daily basis have a healthier body weight or
body mass index (BMI) score?
How would we go about answering this question?
In order to get the most accurate data possible, we would need to
design an experiment that would allow us to survey the entire pop-
ulation (all possible test subjects – all people living in the United
States) regarding their eating habits and then match those to their
BMI scores. However, it would take a lot of time and money to sur-
vey every person in the country. In addition, if too much time elapses
from the beginning to the end of collection, then the accuracy of the
data would be compromised.
More practically, we would choose a representative sample with
which to make our inferences. For example, we might survey 5000
men and 5000 women to serve as a representative sample. We could
then use that smaller sample as an estimate of our population to eval-
uate our question. In order to get a proper (and unbiased) sample and
estimate of the population, the researcher must decide on the best
(and most effective) sampling design for a given question.

. Sampling Design

Below are some examples of sampling strategies that a researcher

could use in setting up a research study. The strategy you choose will
be dependent on your research question. Also keep in mind that the
sample size (N) needed for a given study varies by discipline. Check
with your mentor and look at the literature to verify appropriate sam-
pling in your field.
Some of the sampling strategies introduce bias. Bias occurs when
certain individuals are more likely to be selected than others in a sam-
ple. A biased sample can change the predictive accuracy of your sam-
ple; however, sometimes bias is acceptable and expected as long as
 Experimental Design 

Figure . A representation of a random sample of individuals within a

population.

it is identified and justifiable. Make sure that your question matches

and acknowledges the inherent bias of your design.

Random Sample

In a random sample all individuals within a population have an equal

chance of being selected, and the choice of one individual does not
influence the choice of any other individual (as illustrated in Fig-
ure 1.1). A random sample is assumed to be the best technique for
obtaining an accurate representation of a population. This technique
is often associated with a random number generator, where each indi-
vidual is assigned a number and then selected randomly until a pres-
elected sample size is reached. A random sample is preferred in most
situations, unless there are limitations to data collection or there is
a preference by the researcher to look specifically at subpopulations
within the larger population.
In our BMI example, a person in Chicago and a person in Seat-
tle would have an equal chance of being selected for the study.
 An Introduction to Statistical Analysis in Research

Likewise, selecting someone in Seattle does not eliminate the pos-

sibility of selecting other participants from Seattle. As easy as this
seems in theory, it can be challenging to put into practice.

Systematic Sample

A systematic sample is similar to a random sample. In this case,

potential participants are ordered (e.g., alphabetically), a random first
individual is selected, and every kth individual afterward is picked for
inclusion in the sample. It is best practice to randomly choose the first
participant and not to simply choose the first person on the list. A
random number generator is an effective tool for this. To determine
k, divide the number of individuals within a population by the desired
sample size.
This technique is often used within institutions or companies
where there are a larger number of potential participants and a subset
is desired. In Figure 1.2, the third person (going down the first col-
umn) is the first individual selected and every sixth person afterward
is selected for a total of 7 out of 40 possible.

Figure . A systematic sample of individuals within a population, starting at

the third individual and then selecting every sixth subsequent individual in the
group.
 Experimental Design 

Figure . A stratified sample of individuals within a population. A minimum of

20% of the individuals within each subpopulation were selected.

Stratified Sample

A stratified sample is necessary if your population includes a num-

ber of different categories and you want to make sure your sample
includes all categories (e.g., gender, ethnicity, other categorical vari-
ables). In Figure 1.3, the population is organized first by category (i.e.,
strata) and then random individuals are selected from each category.
In our BMI example, we might want to make sure all regions of the
country are represented in the sample. For example, you might want
to randomly choose at least one person from each city represented in
your population (e.g., Seattle, Chicago, New York, etc.).

Volunteer Sample

A volunteer sample is used when participants volunteer for a partic-

ular study. Bias would be assumed for a volunteer sample because
people who are likely to volunteer typically have certain characteris-
tics in common. Like all other sample types, collecting demographic
data would be important for a volunteer study, so that you can deter-
mine most of the potential biases in your data.
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 An Introduction to Statistical Analysis in Research

Sample of Convenience

A sample of convenience is not representative of a target population

because it gives preference to individuals within close proximity. The
reality is that samples are often chosen based on the availability of a
sample to the researcher.
Here are some examples:
r A university researcher interested in studying BMI versus fiber
intake might choose to sample from the students or faculty she has
direct access to on her campus.
r A skeletal biologist might observe skeletons buried in a particular
cemetery, although there are other cemeteries in the same ancient
city.
r A malacologist with a limited time frame may only choose to collect
snails from populations in close proximity to roads and highways.
In any of these cases, the researcher assumes that the sample is biased
and may not be representative of the population as a whole.

Replication is important in all experiments. Replication involves

repeating the same experiment in order to improve the chances of
obtaining an accurate result. Living systems are highly variable. In any
scientific investigation, there is a chance of having a sample that does
not represent the norm. An experiment performed on a small sample
may not be representative of the whole population. The experiment
should be replicated many times, with the experimental results aver-
aged and/or the median values calculated (see Chapter 2).

For all studies involving living human participants, you need to

ensure that you have submitted your research proposal to your cam-
pus’ Institutional Review Board (IRB) or Ethics Committee prior to
initiating the research protocol. For studies involving animals, sub-
mit your research proposal to the Institutional Animal Care and Use
Committee (IACUC).

Counterbalancing

When designing an experiment with paired data (e.g., testing multi-

ple treatments on the same individuals), you may need to consider
 Experimental Design 

counterbalancing to control for bias. Bias in these cases may take the
form of the subjects learning and changing their behavior between
trials, slight differences in the environment during different trials, or
some other variable whose effects are difficult to control between tri-
als. By counterbalancing we try to offset the slight differences that
may be present in our data due to these circumstances. For exam-
ple, if you were investigating the effects of caffeine consumption on
strength, compared to a placebo, you would want to counterbalance
the strength session with placebo and caffeine. By dividing the entire
test population into two groups (A and B), and testing them on two
separate days, under alternating conditions, you would counterbal-
ance the laboratory sessions. One group (A) would present to the
laboratory and undergo testing following caffeine consumption and
then the other group (B) would present to the laboratory and con-
sume the placebo on the same day. To ensure washout of the caffeine,
each group would come back one week later on the same day at the
same time and undergo the strength tests under the opposite con-
ditions from day 1. Thus, group B would consume the caffeine and
group A would consume the placebo on testing day 2. By counter-
balancing the sessions you reduce the risk of one group having an
advantage or a different experience over the other, which can ulti-
mately impact your data.

. Sample Analysis

Once we take a sample of the population, we can use descriptive

statistics to characterize the population. Our estimate may include
the mean and variance of the sample group. For example, we may
want to compare the mean BMI score of men who intake greater than
38 g of dietary fiber per day with those who intake less than 38 g of
dietary fiber per day (as indicated in Figure 1.4). We cannot sample all
men; therefore, we might randomly sample 100 men from the larger
population for each category (<38 g and >38 g). In this study, our
sample group, or subset, of 200 men (N = 200) is assumed to be rep-
resentative of the whole.
Although this estimate would not yield the exact same results as
a larger study with more participants, we are likely to get a good
estimate that approximates the population mean. We can then use
 An Introduction to Statistical Analysis in Research

Body mass index 35

30

25

20
< 38 > 38
Dietary fiber intake (grams per day)

Figure . Bar graph comparing the body mass index (BMI) of men who eat
less than 38 g of fiber per day to men who eat more than 38 g of fiber per day.

inferential statistics to determine the quality of our estimate in

describing the sample and determine our ability to make predictions
about the larger population.
If we wanted to compare dietary fiber intake between men and
women, we could go beyond descriptive statistics to evaluate whether
the two groups (populations) are different, as in Figure 1.5. Inferen-
tial statistics allows us to place a confidence interval on whether
the two samples are from the same population, or whether they are
really two different populations. To compare men and women, we
could use an independent t-test for statistical analysis. In this case,
we would receive both the means for the groups, as well as a p-value,

40
Daily dietary fiber (g)

30

20

10

0
Men Women
Gender

Figure . Bar graph comparing the daily dietary fiber (g) intake of men and
women.
 Experimental Design 

which would give us an estimated degree of confidence in whether

the groups are different from each other.

. Hypotheses

In essence, statistics is hypothesis testing. A hypothesis is a testable

statement that provides a possible explanation to an observable
event or phenomenon. A good, testable hypothesis implies that the
independent variable (established by the researcher) and depen-
dent variable (also called a response variable) can be measured.
Often, hypotheses in science laboratories (general biology, cell biol-
ogy, chemistry, etc.) are written as “If…then…” statements; how-
ever, in scientific publications, hypotheses are rarely spelled out in
this way. Instead, you will see them formulated in terms of possible
explanations to a problem. In this book, we will introduce formal-
ized hypotheses used specifically for statistical analysis. Hypotheses
are formulated as either the null hypothesis or alternative hypothe-
ses. Within certain chapters of this book, we indicate the opportunity
to formulate hypotheses using this symbol H .
In the simplest scenario, the null hypothesis (H0 ) assumes that
there is no difference between groups. Therefore, the null hypothesis
assumes that any observed difference between groups is based merely
on variation in the population. In the dietary fiber example, our null
hypothesis would be that there is no difference in fiber consumption
between the sexes.
The alternative hypotheses (H1 , H2 , etc.) are possible explana-
tions for the significant differences observed between study pop-
ulations. In the example above, we could have several alternative
hypotheses. An example for the first alternative hypothesis, H1 , is that
there will be a difference in the dietary fiber intake between men and
women.
Good hypothesis statements will include a rationale or reason for
the difference. This rationale will correspond with the background
research you have gathered on the system.
It is important to keep in mind that difference between groups
could be due to other variables that were not accounted for in our
experimental design. For example, if when you were surveying men
and women over the telephone, you did not ask about other dietary
 An Introduction to Statistical Analysis in Research

choices (e.g., Atkins, South Beach, vegan diets), you may have intro-
duced bias unexpectedly. If by chance, all the men were on a high pro-
tein diet and the women were vegan, this could bring bias into your
sample. It is important to plan out your experiments and consider all
variables that may influence the outcome.

. Variables

An important component of experimental design is to define and

identify the variables inherent in your sample. To explain these vari-
ables, let us look at another example.

Case Study

In 1995, wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park after

an almost 70-year absence. Without the wolf, many predator–prey
dynamics had changed, with one prominent consequence being an
explosion of the elk population. As a result, much of the vegetation
in the park was consumed, resulting in obvious changes, such as to
nesting bird habitat, but also more obscure effects like stream health.
With the reintroduction of the wolf, park rangers and scientists began
noticing dramatic and far reaching changes to food webs and ecosys-
tems within the park. One question we could ask is how trout pop-
ulations were impacted by the reintroduction of the wolf. To design
this experiment, we will need to define our variables.
The independent variable, also known as the treatment, is the
part of the experiment established by or directly manipulated by
the research that causes a potential change in another variable (the
dependent variable). In the wolf example, the independent variable is
the presence/absence of wolves in the park.
The dependent variable, also known as the response variable,
changes because it “depends” on the influence of the independent
variable. There is often only one independent variable (depending
on the level of research); however, there can potentially be several
dependent variables. In the question above, there is only one depen-
dent variable – trout abundance. However, in a separate question,
we could examine how wolf introduction impacted populations of
beavers, coyotes, bears, or a variety of plant species.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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Russia. I. [LHS]
Russia. I. [RHS]
Russia. II. [LHS]
Russia. II. [RHS]
 In addition to this enormous number there are the Irregular troops—a force
quite peculiar to Russia—namely, the Cossacks.[20]
The Cossacks are tribes of mixed Russian, Turkish, and Tatar blood. They
are descended from tribes of horsemen, who after the Mongol invasion in the
thirteenth century settled on the Don and Dnieper and established their own
forms of government. Every three years they used to elect a “Hetman” as
chief, with a council of elders, “Narschines,” to assist him. The Don Cossacks
of Great Russia have their head-quarters north of the Sea of Azov and in the
mountainous districts of that region. Branches of these Cossacks have settled
on the Volga, on the shores of the Sea of Azov, along the Ural, in the Kuban
North-Western Caucasus and in Siberia. Ever since they became subject to
Russia they have assisted in carrying the Russian dominion further into Asia.
The history of the settlement of these tribes in Siberia, led by the Cossack
chief Jermac, is exceedingly interesting. This bold leader crossed the Ural
mountains in 1758 with a following of only 840 Cossacks. His conquering
progress equalled that of the Spaniards under Cortez in Mexico for adventure
and for the great results that flowed from his successes.
Although attached to Russia, the Cossacks are
Russian in neither their language, religion, nor
customs. Gifted with extraordinarily sharp senses,
good-humoured, and hospitable, born warriors,
excellent horsemen, and good shots, they are yet
difficult to govern, and inclined somewhat to
insubordination. Now that they have been bound
down to stay in settled districts, instead of
wandering all over the country, their wildness has
been somewhat toned down, and they are of
inestimable value to Russia in her service on the
Chinese frontier, in the Ural, in the Kuban, in
Siberia, in the Crimea, and on the Seas of Azov or
Cossack of the Caucasus. of Aral. In return for lands granted by the
government on the different frontiers, every
Cossack is bound to serve as a soldier. They have a military organisation and
are divided into Cavalry regiments, or “polks.”
 They are gradually being more and more
definitely organised, disciplined, and trained. Each
man has to provide himself with clothing and
equipment according to regulation, and with a
horse, and keep them up during his time of service.
The uniform consists in a short coat, “kasakin,” or a
long one, “tcherkesska,” with a woollen shirt,
“beshmet,” loose trousers, long boots, no spurs,
and a fur-cap, “papasha.” Their chief weapon is a
long pennonless lance, with sabre (“shashka”),
pistol, or in the case of Cossacks of the Caucasus,
long knives, “kinzhal,” and finally, a rifle of some
sort.
Their small insignificant-looking horses are not to Officer of the Field
Police (full dress).
be beaten for speed and endurance. A day journey
of twenty hours is not too much for them; their hardiness is extraordinary,
and the worst forage possible does not come amiss to them.
A Cossack rides in the Oriental manner, i.e. with a loose rein, high saddle,
short stirrup, and toes down; he is very fond of his horse and treats him
kindly.
Their extraordinary mobility, endurance, and cleverness in getting over all
obstacles of ground, particularly fit the Cossack troops for outpost and
reconnaissance duty, for rapid raids and bold surprises, as well as for the
pursuit of the enemy. What is also by no means their least advantage is that
this mode of employing them in war would leave the regular Russian Cavalry
free for actual combat in the field.
The Cossack Army which best shows the Cossack peculiarities of character
and organisation is that of the Don Cossacks, which numbers in peace-time,
besides the Bodyguard Regiment of Cossacks, 15 regiments of Cavalry, 1
battery of Guard-Cossacks, and 7 batteries of the Line. In war-time these
numbers can be considerably increased, and the whole Cossack Army would
amount to 14 battalions Infantry, 136 regiments Cavalry, and 40 Horse
Batteries (236 guns).
This gipsy-like nation of horsemen, who eat, drink, sleep, live and die in
their saddles, and, eager for plunder, either precede the Regular Army or
 attach themselves to it, is well known in
Germany, where it appeared during the Wars of
the Liberation (1806–1815). One might say
with Schiller: “The rider and his swift horse are
fearsome guests.” On the whole, it seems to be
the fate of the Cossacks to be regarded with
feelings of greater respect as enemies than as
friends.
Still less amenable to discipline than the
Cossacks are some of the other foreign tribes
found amongst the Russian Irregulars, such as
the Tatars of the Crimea, the inhabitants of the
Caucasus, the Tcherkesses, the Bashkirs and
Field Gendarme (service kit). the Tunguses. Although these people render
Russia most valuable service in her Asiatic
possessions, still she can hardly count on their services in an European war,
so that an invasion by these Asiatic races, like what happened in the times of
Tamerlane or Jengiz-Khan, need not be taken into account by the Europe of
to-day.

Cossack of the Amour.

 Laying aside the question of these Irregular troops, we cannot deny that
Russia possesses a well-disciplined Army, and one which is prepared for war.
It is a mistaken idea to imagine the Russian soldier to be half a barbarian and
a foe to higher culture. Frederick the Great learnt to respect Russia as a
powerful adversary, and in the beginning of this century she brought a heavy
weight to bear in favour of Austria and Prussia, and fought valiantly as their
ally against the power of Napoleon I. Since that period Russia has made
important progress, not only in her culture, but in the organisation and
arming of her Army; universal conscription has also acted as a powerful
assistant to universal education. Whether Russia will fight Germany in the
near or in the distant future is a matter that does not concern us here; we will
leave the discussion of the probabilities pro and con to the newspapers. The
time may come, but all we need know about the matter is that Germany is
fully prepared and, though respecting her possible adversary, is not afraid of
her.

ADDENDUM TO RUSSIA.

P. 53. The Russian Infantry now numbers—

10 Regiments of the Guard,
18 Regiments of Grenadiers,
164 Regiments of the Line,
20 Regiments of Rifles (2 battalions each),
4 Rifle Battalions of the Guard,
38 Rifle Battalions of the Line.
Pp. 56–58. The Cossacks form altogether—
32 Regiments Regular Cavalry,
136 Squadrons Irregular Cavalry,
7 Battalions of Infantry,
12 Batteries of Artillery.
 DENMARK.

The military organisations of the Great Powers of Europe have served as

patterns to the smaller Powers, for even the smallest State must have an
Army of its own wherewith to defend its independence and secure the
vindication of its rights, actual or imaginary. Its strength would depend on the
size, geographical situation, and historical associations of the State.
In recent times the small State of Denmark has once or twice been obliged
to have recourse to arms, in order to keep possession of the Duchies of
Schleswig-Holstein, to the right of attaching which to the Danish crown, or
rather to their absorption into the Danish commonwealth, Prussia objected. In
the year 1848–49 the small Danish Army succeeded in making such a gallant
stand against the might of Prussia, that time was gained for other great
Powers, namely, Russia and England, to step in in her favour. The result was
that Prussia was obliged to stay her hand from taking under her protection
the German inhabitants of the two Duchies.
In 1863–64, when Prussia and Austria took in
hand the German rights in the Duchies,
circumstances were considerably altered, and the
war, which lasted a whole year, was brought at last
to a close by the Treaty of Vienna, which once and
for all separated the Duchies from Denmark and
gave them to Prussia. The resolution and courage,
however, with which the men of the tiny Danish
Army withstood the vastly superior forces of the
other two Powers, and the determined opposition
which they offered, more especially in their
fortifications at Danewirke, Duppel, and the Island of
Alsen, until their last hope of foreign intervention
had gone, bear most honourable testimony to the Foot Guardsman.
excellence and courage of the Danish troops.
 After this war Denmark made use of her bitter experience in reorganising
her Army on new lines, a proof that she had, in spite of the loss of her lands,
by no means given up the idea of being a Power in the North of Europe. She
has now made an important step in the military line by introducing universal
conscription, the terms of which are four years with the Colours, four in the
Reserve, and eight in the “Reinforcement” Reserve.
‐ The Danish Army is now constituted as follows:—
Infantry—
1 Battalion of Foot Guards, with 4 battalions Reinforcement Reserve.
10 Regiments of the Line, each of 3 battalions Active and 1 battalion
Reinforcement Reserve, forming 5 brigades (2 Jutland, 2 Seeland
and 1 Fünen) of 2 regiments each.
Cavalry—
1 Regiment Hussars of the Guard and 4 regiments of Dragoons, each
of 4 squadrons.
Artillery—
Field Artillery—2 Regiments of 2 divisions each—total, 12 Line and 4
Reinforcement Reserve Batteries.
Garrison Artillery—2 Battalions—total, 6 Line and 4 Reinforcement
Reserve Companies.
s Engineers—1 Regiment of 5 Line and 3 Reserve Companies.
Train—4 Sections.
The total strength of the Danish Army is reckoned at about 50,000 men,
with 128 guns. The Reinforcement Reserve battalions and batteries only exist
as depôt-cadres.
The Infantry is still armed with a single-loading rifle, the Remington, but it
is intended to shortly arm them with a magazine-rifle, which is now in course
of preparation.
The Cavalry is armed with the sabre and Remington carbine. Their Jutland
horses are clumsy, but enduring, animals. Recently large purchases of horses
have been made in Germany to improve the breed.
The Danish character is better adapted for stout resistance and endurance
than for daring courage, and the Army accordingly is better fitted for a
defensive rôle, such as holding a fortified
position to the last extremity, than for offensive
action and bold attack.
The general plan of national defence is based
on this characteristic, for the capital,
Copenhagen, is going to be turned into a great
entrenched camp, which would be garrisoned
by the larger portion of the Danish Army in case
of war.

Surgeon.
Denmark.
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

Sweden, which once, in the time of the Thirty Years’ War, represented the first
Military Power in Europe, keeps up now only a small Army, just large enough
for the needs of the country. The military system of Sweden is a peculiar one,
and entirely different from that of other States.
The whole land is divided into a great many small “Rote” or Divisions, each
of which has to supply one able-bodied man of the right age for the Army.
This man serves for as long as his physical powers last. He receives a small
property, consisting of house, farm, and ploughland, and definite pay as long
as he is actually with the Colours.
Men for the Cavalry are provided in a very similar manner with their horses
by the larger landowners or “Rusthalters,” in return for their exemption from
certain taxes.
These troops are called “Indelta” men.
The second portion of the Swedish Army consists of the “Värfvade,” the
men of which body enlist voluntarily for from two to six years’ service, and
may re-engage for further service.
The Värfvade men can be trained much more thoroughly than those of the
Indelta, for the former are continually with their Corps, whilst the latter are,
during the greater part of the year, on furlough, looking after their farms.
The third portion is the “Bewäring,” which consists of all men between their
twenty-first and twenty-sixth years of age. In case of war they would have to
reinforce the other two portions.
‐ The Swedish Army consists of—

Infantry—
2 Regiments of the Body-Guard,
2 Regiments of the Body-Grenadiers,
17 Regiments of the Infantry,
 2 Battalions of Body-Grenadiers, and
4 Rifle battalions.
Each regiment consists of 2 battalions in peace-and 3 in war-time: this
would give 48 and 69 battalions respectively.
Cavalry—
1 Regiment of Life-Guards of 4 squadrons,
4 Regiments of Hussars with altogether 26 squadrons,
2 Regiments of Dragoons with altogether 15 squadrons,
1 Corps of Light Horse of 2 squadrons.
Total, 47 squadrons.
Artillery—3 Regiments of Field Artillery, of 5 divisions of 2 batteries each, the
regiment consisting of 10 (2 “Driving,” 6 Horse-Artillery, and 2 “Foot”)
batteries, besides the Reserve Artillery of 3 Foot and 6 Driving-batteries.
Each battery has about 6 guns, which gives a total number of 234 field-
guns.
s Engineers—1 Pontoon battalion, including a Field-Telegraph Company, and 1
battalion of Sappers.
Train—1 battalion of 2 companies.
The Swedish Infantry drill is somewhat out of date. The quiet and leisurely
way in which a battalion drills is something astonishing. The skirmishers have
to keep exactly in line and are directed by a sergeant in the centre with
uplifted rifle. Every time a man in the firing-line snaps his rifle, he shouts out
“Piff-paff!” The introduction of a new magazine-rifle will, therefore, probably
cause some fatigue to the throats of the Swedish Infantry.
Sweden.
 NORWAY.

Although Norway is united under the same Crown with Sweden, still her
military system differs entirely from that of the latter.
Every able-bodied man of twenty-two years old is
sent to the so-called “Land-armament,” to serve five
years in the Line, four in the “Landwehr” and four in
the “Landsturm.” The conscripts remain but very few
weeks with the Colours. The main portion of the Army
consists of men voluntarily enlisted, who are bound to
stay for six years.
‐ The Rifle Corps, of five companies, of which one
forms a Guard-Company, consisting entirely of
voluntarily-enlisted men, constitutes the only Corps
under arms in time of peace; of the remaining troops
there are only cadres in existence. In the event of war,
the Line Infantry would consist of 5 brigades of 4
battalions each—total, 20 battalions. The Cavalry of 1
brigade of 3 Corps of Light Dragoons—total, 11 Officer (Standard-bearer)
squadrons; the Artillery of 5 battalions = 11 batteries of the Life Guards
with 66 guns; the Engineers of a small division. Grand (Andra Lifgardet).
total, about 18,000 men.
The rifle of the Swedish and Norwegian Infantry is the Remington, which,
however, will shortly be replaced by a magazine-rifle invented by Colonel
Jarman of their Army.
The Cavalry carries the Remington carbine in addition to the sabre. The
Artillery is being re-armed with new guns, made partly in the Krupp works at
Essen, and partly in the Swedish cast-steel works.
It is strange to find here, in the north of Europe, a head-dress similar to
that south of the Alps. The Norwegian Rifleman wears an almost identical hat
with the Italian Bersagliere.
The idea of having their Army organised for a foreign campaign does not
appear to have been entertained by the Norwegian-Swedish government. The
men, however, are tough fighters and good campaigners, sturdy and
enduring, abstemious and unassuming, and there is every reason to believe
that the Scandinavian Army would be in any case fully equal to its true and
destined use—i.e., the defence of the country.

Light Cavalry. (Jemtlands

hästjägarecorps.)
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

In most European States the Army is worked by the Sovereign or Government

of the country for the defence of the Crown and the nation, and for the
upholding of the Law. This, however, was for a long time not the case in the
south-western portion of Europe, i.e. the Iberian Peninsula. It could not be
the case, for during even this century revolution has succeeded revolution,
and the different forms of government introduced at rapidly-recurring
intervals have made it impossible for the Army to be always at the beck and
call of the head of the State for the time being. The energetic young king,
Alfonso XII., who ascended the Spanish throne in 1874 (and died in 1885),
experienced the necessity of making himself chief of the Army, and instituted
a military system by which he hoped to put an end to the earlier irregularities.
‐ The Army of Spain is therefore now divided into the Peninsular Army, which
serves in Spain itself, and the Colonial Army, which serves in Cuba, Puerto
Rico, and the Philippine Islands.
The Peninsular Army is founded on the system of universal conscription, to
which every Spaniard becomes liable on attaining his twentieth year. Those
who are exempted by law from the Army are only called out in time of war,
and those who belong to certain named professions are allowed to buy
exemptions from service for £60. Of the remaining able-bodied men it is the
ballot which decides which are to enter the Active Army.
Service is for twelve years on the whole, of which six years, as a rule, or
three, or even less, are passed with the Colours. The remainder of a man’s
service is passed in the Active Reserve. All those who are not taken by lot to
serve with the Colours, including those exempted by law and purchase, are
classed as “Disponible Recruits;” these receive only a very short training and
are called out to reinforce the Army in case of necessity only. After six years’
service as such, the “Disponible” recruits enter the 2nd Reserve.
The kingdom of Spain is divided up into 14 Military Districts, each under a
Captain-general. These are again divided into 140 Military Zones, each under
‐ a colonel, who is responsible for mobilisation and
supply details.
Each Zone comprises 1 Active, 1 Reserve, and 1
Depôt battalions. These latter two battalions are in
peace-time represented only by cadres, which would
be expanded into either Field or 2nd Line battalions
in case of mobilisation. Of the 140 active battalions
20 are Rifles; the remainder form 60 Line regiments
of 2 battalions each.
There are in peace-time no higher units than
battalions; brigades, divisions, and army corps would
be formed only in case of war.
The remainder of the Spanish Army consists of:—
Cavalry—8 Regiments of Lancers, 14 Regiments of
Cazaderos (Light Horse), 2 Regiments of Hussars, Halberdier of the Palace.
4 Regiments of Dragoons, each of 4 squadrons. Besides these there are 28
Reserve regiments, of which only cadres exist in peace-time, and 1
squadron of Life-Guards.
Artillery—5 Regiments of Divisional Artillery of 6 batteries each, altogether 30
batteries with 180 guns; 5 regiments of Corps Artillery of 4 batteries each,
altogether 20 batteries with 120 guns; 2 regiments of Mountain Artillery,
each of 6 batteries, altogether 72 guns, and 1 regiment of Siege and
Position Artillery, 4 batteries of 4 guns each, altogether 16 guns. Total
therefore, 388 guns, and 9 battalions Fortress Artillery.
s Engineers—5 Pioneer regiments, 1 Railway battalion, 1 Telegraph battalion,
and 5 Reserve regiments.
There is no Train in time of peace.
The peace-strength of the Peninsular Army amounts to 116,000 men.
 General (full dress).
Besides these there are 16 regiments of Gendarmes (Guardia Civil),
numbering 15,000 men, and 11,000 men of the Carabineros, or Frontier
Force.
The Colonial Army, about 33,000 men in all, is formed by voluntary
enlistment.
The Infantry is armed with the Remington rifle, the Cavalry with sword and
Remington carbine. Three sections[21] of each squadron of Lancers carry the
lance. The Artillery is armed with cast-steel Krupp guns of 3·15 inches calibre;
the Mountain Artillery with those of 2·95 inches. The guns have, however,
been altered to Colonel Placentia’s system.
The two Royal Household Companies, Halberdiers, are the only ones who
wear the old Spanish dress.
The Spaniard combines the liveliness and hot blood of the southerner with
the determination and endurance of the northerner, and would now count as
one of the best soldiers in Europe if it were not that, in consequence of the
long civil wars and disturbances in the country, he had become somewhat
less amenable to discipline than formerly. If an instance is required of what
Spaniards can do when fighting for their land and freedom, we have only to
look at the guerilla and mountain warfare waged by this plucky nation against
the old campaigners of Napoleon at the beginning of this century, before the
English troops came to their assistance.
Spain.
 PORTUGAL.

Universal Conscription is the rule in Portugal as well as in most other

countries, but there are numerous exemptions and sendings on “unlimited
furlough with the Colours” (in order to save the national exchequer), so that
the Army does not by any means comprise as many men as would appear
from the strength as laid down on paper. With a nominal peace strength of
37,000, the actual strength is only about 18,000.
The terms of service are three years with the Colours, five years in the 1st
Class, and four in the 2nd Class Reserves.
‐ The Infantry consists of 24 Line and 12 Rifle regiments, each of 2 Active
and 1 Depôt battalions, altogether 72 battalions, the Depôt battalions being
skeleton ones.
Cavalry—10 regiments, of which the first two are Lancers, and the
remainder Light Dragoons (Caçadores a Cavallo). Each regiment consists of 3
Active and 1 Depôt squadrons.
Artillery—3 Regiments of Field Artillery of 12 batteries each, 2 Regiments of
Garrison Artillery of 12 companies each, 1 Mountain Brigade of 6 batteries.—
Total, 32 Active and 10 Reserve batteries with 132 guns.
Engineers—2 Active and 1 Reserve battalions, and 1 Torpedo Company.
Portugal has, besides this Army, a Colonial Force of 9,600 men, chiefly
natives.
The Infantry is now armed with the Kropatschek repeating-rifle; till quite
recently, they had the Enfield rifle. The Field Artillery is chiefly armed with
3·54-inch steel Krupp guns.
More attention appears to be paid in Portugal to the Navy than to the Army,
and it seems unlikely that the latter will be engaged in war, at all events for
some time to come.
Spain and Portugal.
 SWITZERLAND.

The Swiss Republic, or rather the Free Confederation of twenty-two small

Republics (Cantons), had its beginning in the four “Forest” towns of Schwyz,
Uri, Unterwalden, and Glarus. It was by the treaties of 1815, upon which,
after the downfall of Napoleon I., the present distribution of Powers was
founded and still to a great extent remains, that the neutrality of Switzerland
was recognised, so that she is now, to all intents and purposes, excluded
from taking part in an European war. Being, however, surrounded by three
Great Powers, whose Armies may at any time traverse her territories from any
quarter, she is obliged to guard her neutrality very strictly. This object she
seeks to accomplish by universal conscription and by a military system which
is adapted to the exigencies of the country and rests on the so-called “Militia
System.”
According to this system the conscript has to pass only a few weeks or
months in being trained, and is subsequently called out for only a few weeks
annually during peace-time. This system certainly allows of universal service
in the widest sense of the word, and also gives a small State the power of
calling out a proportionally large Army in time of war. At the same time,
however, this system, in order to be of any use, would require the people to
be naturally of a warlike tendency, and every man to be thoroughly
accustomed to the use of a rifle; in fine, it would require that there should
always be a nucleus of thoroughly-trained troops, even in peace-time.
Every Swiss is liable to service from the 20th to the 44th year of his age. Of
these twenty-five years of service, thirteen are spent in the “Auszug” (Active
Army) and twelve in the “Landwehr.” All able-bodied men between the ages of
17 to 50 who are not employed in either of the above branches belong to the
“Landsturm.” Anyone who is not fit to serve has to pay a small fine as a sort
of compensation.
In case of war the “Auszug” would provide the Army as follows:—
Infantry—98 Fusilier and 8 Rifle Battalions.
‐ Cavalry—8 Regiments (24 squadrons) of Dragoons and 12 Companies of
Guides.
Artillery—24 Regiments of Field Artillery, and 1 of Mountain Artillery, each of 2
batteries of 6 guns each—total, 300 guns, besides 10 batteries of Position
Artillery.
Engineers—9 Battalions.
Train—8 Battalions.
The strength of the Field Army comes to about 100,000 men. It consists of
the Army Staff and 8 Divisions, each comprising 2 Infantry Brigades, each
Brigade comprising 2 Regiments of Infantry, 1 Rifle Battalion, 1 Regiment of
Dragoons, 1 Company of Guides, 1 Brigade of Artillery, 1 Battalion of
Engineers, 1 of Train, 1 Field Hospital and 1 Administration Company.
The Landwehr consists of nearly as many men as the Auszug, but the
former are only called on to serve on garrison duty at home. As for arms, the
Swiss troops are not behindhand with other nations. The Infantry is armed
with the repeating Vetterli rifle, the Rifles with a similar short repeating-rifle,
and the Dragoons with a repeating-carbine. The Field Artillery has three
patterns of guns: the light 3·28-in., the heavy 3·93-in., and the mountain
2·92-inch guns. The Swiss soldier is more of a Light Infantry man than
anything else; as for the Swiss Cavalry, it is not to be considered on the same
footing as the Cavalry of other nations, being feeble.
The Swiss Militiaman is trained for a short time and then sent home with
his uniform and rifle. Thereafter he appears yearly for a short training, in
order to “keep his eye in.” This sketchy military education is, however, greatly
helped by the numerous Cadet divisions in the schools, and by Volunteer Rifle
and Gymnastic clubs.
Switzerland.
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