How often do you read?
During reading, do you immediately
believe in the author’s message?
How do you usually respond if you
can read wrong information?
READING AND WRITING SKILLS
CRITICAL READING
AL WAYNE B. VERGARA
What is Critical Reading?
look at the
text from recognizing
different the writer’s
perspective purpose
identifying
the tone and Critical
persuasive recognizing
elements Reading biases
used
evaluate provides
how text high
presents reflective
arguments skills
Strategies for Effective Critical Reading (thinking and as reasoning)
• read the text with an open mind
• take note on how ideas are developed and organized
• remember to think critically all throughout the reading process
• ask higher-order questions whenever possible
• examine the facts and examples
• check for gaps and inconsistencies
• check for the accuracy and reliability of the source
• distinguish facts from opinions
• look for what is not presented
• based on all facts presented, assess if the conclusions are
acceptable
Why should we read critically?
Reading critically means you are thinking
critically. This shows that you do not simply
accept the message on the page. You bring to
your reading your own experience and
perspective and use these to separate
yourself from the text and judge for
yourself what you consider important, logical,
or right. W ith this, in reading critically, you
w ill find out the author’s views on something,
ask questions, evaluate the strengths and
weaknesses of the author’s argument, and
decide to agree or disagree w ith it.
Critical Reading
Critical Reading also means that
you can distinguish the
information that is clearly stated
(explicit) in the text from ideas
that are suggested (implicit). This
will help you make inferences
about what you read.
EXPLICIT VS IMPLICIT
Explicit Implicit
- information is written and - information is something
explained in the text so the that is implied, but not
reader will not be confused. stated outright in the text.
Hence, they directly imply a
Hence, the meaning of these
particular information, so claims are implied and can vary
there is no need to guess
from person to person
or look for clues as to
depending in their background.
what they possibly mean.
IMPLICIT Claims - are
EXPLICIT Claims - are
typically used in literary
typically used in academic
texts.
texts.
EXPLICIT CLAIMS IMPLICIT CLAIMS
She was very angry about the She suddenly walked out and
situation. slammed the door.
I’m sorry but I don’t have
romantic feelings for you. It I think we should stop seeing
would be better for us to stay each other.
friends.
Repeated reminders are given to
smokers that smoking causes
Smokers have been earned that
most cases of lung cancer,
smoking has bad effects.
coronary heart disease, and
stroke.
refers to a statement that something is true without
having been proven yet.
When reading, determining if
the claims in a text are
presented explicitly or
implicitly will help the
readers interpret correctly
the text being read. Hence, it
is important to distinguish
between explicit and implicit
claims in a text.
Evidence is defined as the
details given by the author
to support his/her claim.
the evidence provided by
the writer substantiates the
text. it reveals and builds
on the position of the
writer and makes the
reading more interesting.
Claim
of
Fact
Claim Types Claim
of of of
Policy Claims Value
Claim of
Cause
and
Effect
Claims in a Text
Claims are assertions in the truth in something that is argumentative
in nature.
Claim of fact Claim of policy Claim of value
states a quantifiable -Specific actions refers to an
assertion or should be chosen as assertion that is
measurable topic. solutions to based on a
They assert that particular problems person’s belief
something has you can easily in morality. It
existed(past), identify. judges whether
exist(present), or will the claim is
exist(future) based on It can easily
morally good or
data. They rely on identify a claim of
bad and right
reliable sources or policy because they
or wrong.
systematic procedures begins with “should,
to be validated. “ought to,” or “must”
LOGICAL FALLACIES
Modes of Persuasion
1. False Dilemma – occurs when an arguer
presents his/her argument as one of only
two options despite the presence of
multiple possibilities
Examples:
Either you fully devote yourself to the company or you quit.
Either you love me, or you hate me!
There are only two kinds of people in the Philippines,
people who love Duterte and people who hate the
government.
2. Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad
Ignorantiam– occurs when something is instantly
concluded to be true just because it is not proven to be
false, and vice versa.
Examples:
No one has ever been able to prove that extra-
terrestrial exist, so they must not be real. (-,+ = -)
Since you haven't been able to prove your
innocence, I must assume you're guilty. (-, + = -)
We have no evidence that the illuminati ever existed, so
(-,+ = - )
You know that scientists can't prove that UFO's do not visit
the Earth, so it makes sense to believe in them. (- , - = +)
3. Slippery Slope – occurs when a series of increasingly
superficial and unacceptable consequences is drawn.
Examples:
“You have to let me go to the party! If I don’t go to
party, I’ll be a loser with no friends. Next thing I’ll end up
alone and jobless living in our basement when I’m 30!”
If we ban computer shops, then students will not be able to do
research. And if they do not have tool for research, these
students will fail their subjects.
A = B = C = …Z wherein A ≠ B ≠ C ≠ …Z
Interrogationum) – occurs when two or
more points are rolled into one and the
reader is expected to either accept or reject
both at the same time.
Examples:
“Have you stopped cheating on exams?”
“ Have you stopped selling drugs?”
“Is your stupidity inborn?”
5. Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad Baculum) –
occurs when a threat, instead of reasoning is used to
argue
Examples:
“Give up your foolish pride, kneel down and accept
our religion today if you don’t want to burn in hell
forever and ever!”
6. Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordiam)
– Occurs when the element of pity is used instead of
logical reasoning
Examples:
“Please do not fire me for being absent all month;
I have a sick mother and a special child to support.”
“Sir, please let me pass on your subject. Have mercy
on me, my grandfather just passed away.”
7. Bandwagon (Argumentum ad Populum) – occurs
when an argument considered to be valid because it is
what the majority thinks
Examples:
Most Filipinas want have fair skin because they
think it will make them look beautiful. Therefore
having a fair skin must be the real standard of
beauty.
“Almost everyone of my friends will be at the party Friday
night. It must be the right thing to do.”
“Most of the millennials are ranting on facebook about
online and modular classes. I should post my rants also.”
“Most of my classmates are using iPhone. My parents
should buy one for me also.”
8. Attacking the Person (Argumentum ad Hominem) –
occurs when someone tries to refute an argument by attacking
the character of a person instead of attacking the ideas in the
argument
Examples:
“I cannot accept your argument because, unlike me, you
were not educated at Harvard University.”
“That so called judge, he is so evil that you cannot believe
anything he says.”
9. Appeal to Authority (Argumentum ad
Verecundiam) – occurs when the argument quotes
an expert who is not qualified in the particular
subject matter
Examples:
Bill Gates, the co-founder of Microsoft, recommends the
effective fabric softening properties of Downy.
A commercial claims that a specific brand of cereals is the best
way to start the day because Michael Jordan says that it is what he
eats every day.
10. Anonymous Authority – the authority in question is
not mentioned or named
Example:
Experts claim that eating peanuts causes pimples.
According to experts, eating an apple a day keeps the
doctor away.
11. Hasty Generalization ( Dicto Simpliciter) – occurs
when a sample is not significant or enough to support a
generalization.
Examples:
Martha, the foreigner from France, is very impolite.
French people are mean and rude.
There are so many killing incidents in the Philippines.
You are from the Philippines, therefore you are a killer.
12. False Analogy – occurs when it is assumed that
two concepts that are similar in some ways are also
similar in other ways.
Examples:
P1: Monkey eats banana.
P2: Humans eat banana.
Conclusion: Therefore, Humans are monkey.
“Drugs are like massage because they make me feel
good. Thus they must be good for you as well.”
13. Accident – occurs when general rule is applied to a
situation, even when it should be an exception
Examples:
Jaywalking is not allowed, so you should not have
done that even when you were being chased by
terrorist.
Ambulance must also follow the traffic lights signal.
14. Post Hoc (post hoc ergo propter hoc) – occurs
when the arguer claims that since event A happened
before event B, therefore A is the cause of B
Example:
Dina saw a black cat when they went home. Along the
way, they crashed into a tree. The black cat must be
the reason why they met an accident.
A=B wherein B ≠ A or A ≠ B
15. Wrong Direction – occurs when the direction
between cause and effect is reversed
Example:
The Philippine’s rising amount of debt causes the
growth of economy to slow down.
Flood will result to massive cutting of trees.
16. Irrelevant Conclusion (ignoratio elenchi) – occurs
when an argument which is supposed to prove
something concludes something else instead
Examples:
We must support the fight for gender equality between
men and women. Women have suffered enough
violence at home. Violence against women must be
stop.
“You are always eating salty food, you will become a
diabetic person.”
17. Affirming the Consequent – any argument of the form;
If A is true the B is true; if B is true therefore A is true.
Example:
You are drinking wine, you have a problem. Therefore
if you have a problem, you are drinking wine.
If there’s no gas in the car then the car won’t run. The
won’t run.
Therefore, there’s no gas in the car.
source: https://criticalthinkeracademy.com/
18. Denying the Antecedent – any argument of the
form; If A is true then B is true; if A is not true then B is
not true.
Example:
If you are drinking wine, you have a problem.
Therefore, if you are not drinking wine, you do not
have a problem.
19. Inconsistency - occurs when argument contradict
one another
• Examples:
• Frank is older than Jake, Jake is older than Noli, and Noli is older
than Frank.
• There is no evil in this world. Though evil
exists in some parts of the world, we will
overcome it sooner or later.
20. Appeal to Hypocrisy (Tu Quoque) - answering
criticism with criticism, or turning the argument back
around on the other person.
Example:
Mother: You should stop smoking. It's harmful to your
health.
Daughter: Why should I listen to you? You started
smoking when you were 16!
Hasty Generalization ( Dicto Simpliciter) – occurs
when a sample is not significant or enough to support
a generalization.
Examples:
Martha, the foreigner from France, is very
impolite. French people are mean and rude.
There are so many killing incidents in the
Philippines. You are from the Philippines; therefore,
you are a killer.
Slippery Slope – occurs when a series of increasingly
superficial and unacceptable consequences is drawn.
Examples:
“You have to let me go to the party! If I don’t go to
party, I’ll be a loser with no friends. Next thing I’ll end up
alone and jobless living in our basement when I’m 30!”
If we ban computer shops, then students will not be able to do
research. And if they do not have tools for research, these
students will fail their subjects.
A = B = C = …Z wherein A ≠ B ≠ C ≠ …Z
Attacking the Person (Argumentum ad Hominem) –
occurs when someone tries to refute an argument by attacking
the character of a person instead of attacking the ideas in the
argument.
Examples:
“I cannot accept your argument because, unlike me, you
were not educated at Harvard University.”
“That so-called judge, he is so evil that you cannot
believe anything he says.”
