MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Dr. Erwin Sulaeman

Chapter 1: Tension, Compression and Shear
1.1 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials
1.2 Static Review
1.3 Normal Stress and Strain
1.4 Mechanical Properties of Materials
1.5 Elasticity, Plasticity, and Creep
1.6 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio
1.7 Shear Stress and Strain
1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Chapter Summary & Review
1.6 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio
When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear relationship between stress and strain,
it is said to be linearly elastic.
This type of behavior is extremely important in engineering for an obvious reason—by designing
structures and machines to function in his region, we avoid permanent deformations due to yielding.

Hooke’s Law
The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or compression is expressed by
the equation:

Where:
σ = axial stress
ε = axial strain
E = modulus of elasticity for the material (also known as Young’s modulus of the material)
The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress-strain diagram in the linearly elastic region
Units of E are the same as the units of stress.
Typical units of E are psi or ksi in USCS units and pascals (or multiples thereof) in SI units.
1.6 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson’s Ratio
When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is
accompanied by lateral contraction (that is, contraction normal to
the direction of the applied load).
The lateral strain ε′ at any point in a bar is proportional to the axial strain ε at
that same point if the material is linearly elastic.
The ratio of lateral strain to axial strain is a property of the material known as
Poisson’s ratio.
It is denoted by the Greek letter ν (nu), can be expressed by the equation:

For most metals and many other materials, Poisson’s ration is in the range 0.25 to 0.35
Materials with an extremely low value of Poisson’s ratio: cork (ν ≅ 0) and concrete (ν = 0.1 or 0.2)
A theoretical upper limit for Poisson’s ratio is 0.5, See Appendix H: Table H-2
 1.6 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio
Example:
A round bar of 10 mm diameter is made of aluminum alloy 7075-T6. When the bar is
stretched by axial forces P, its diameter decreases by 0.016 mm. Find the magnitude of the
load P. (Mechanical properties of aluminum alloy 7075-T6 are: E = 72 Gpa; v = 0.33 and
Yield stress σY = 480 Mpa).

AXIAL STRESS:
σ = Eε = (72 GPa )(0.004848)
Solution: = 349.1 MPa
d = 10 mm; ∆d = − 0.016 mm (decrease in diameter) Because σ <σY, Hooke’s law is valid.

∆d − 0.016 LOAD P (TENSILE FORCE):

Lateral strain: ε ′ = = = −0.0016
d 10 π 
P = σA = (349.1 MPa ) (10 mm 2 )
ε ′ 0.0016 4
Axial strain: ε = − = = 0.004848 (elongation)
ν 0.33 = 27.4 kN
 1.6 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio
Example 1.8:
 1.6 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio
Example 1.8: continued….
 1.6 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio
Example 1.8: continued….
 1.6 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio
Example 1.8: continued….
 1.6 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio
Example 1.8: continued….
 1.6 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio
Example 1.8: continued….
 1.6 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio
Example 1.8: continued….

Note: The numerical results obtained in

this example illustrate that the
dimensional changes in structural
materials under normal loading
conditions are extremely small. In spite of
their smallness, changes in dimensions
can be important in certain kinds of
analysis (such as the analysis of
statically indeterminate structures) and in
the experimental determination of
stresses and strains.
1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
In general

 Normal stress acts in the directions perpendicular to

the surface of the material
 Shear stress acts tangential to the surface of the
material
 Bearing stress acts on the projected area of the
contact surface.
1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Example Bolted connection in which the bolt is loaded in double shear.
1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Example Bolted connection in which the bolt is loaded in double shear.
1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Shear Strain: Definition  Shear stresses are accompanied by
shear strains
 Shear stresses have no tendency to
elongate or shorten the element in
the x, y, and z directions. The sides of
the elements do not change.
 Instead, they produce a change in
the shape of the element (Fig. 1-50b).
 Rectangular parallelepiped deformed
into oblique parallelepiped and the
front and rear faces become
rhomboids.
Angle γ is called the shear strain:  The angle between the side faces
It is a measure of the distortion of the element changes.
Units
γ is measured in degrees or radians
1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Sign Conventions for Shear Stresses and Strains
With reference to Fig. 1-50a, the faces oriented toward the positive directions of the axes are
referred to as the positive faces of the element. The opposite faces are negative faces.
Thus, in Fig. 1-50a, the right-hand, top, and front faces are the positive x, y, and z faces,
respectively, and the opposite faces are the negative x, y, and z faces.

Now we may state the sign convention for shear stresses in the following manner:
A shear stress acting on a positive face of an element is positive if it acts in the positive direction
of one of the coordinate axes and negative if it acts in the negative direction of an axis. A shear
stress acting on a negative face of an element is positive if it acts in the negative direction of an
axis and negative if it acts in a positive direction.

The sign convention for shear strains is as follows:

Shear strain in an element is positive when the angle between two positive faces (or two
negative faces) is reduced. The strain is negative when the angle between two positive (or
two negative) faces is increased.
1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Sign Conventions for Shear Stresses and Strains
1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Hooke’s Law in Shear
 Properties of materials in shear can be obtained from direct shear test or torsion test.
 Torsion test performed by twisting hollow tubes to produce state of pure shear
 From the test results, plot stress-strain diagram in shear τ-γ
 τ-γ diagrams are similar in shape to σ-ε diagram for the same material, although they
differ in magnitudes.
 From τ-γ diagrams: obtain the materials properties, e.g., Proportional limit, modulus
of elasticity/modulus of rigidity, Yield strength, Ultimate strength.
1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Hooke’s Law in Shear
 For many materials the initial part of shear stress-strain diagrams is a straight line,
just as it is in tension.
 For this linearly elastic region τα γ and we have the following equation for Hook’s
law in shear:

 G = Shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity (same units as E)

For mild steel, typical values of G are 11,000 ksi or 75 GPa; for aluminum alloys, typical values are 4000 ksi
or 28 GPa. Additional values are listed in Table H-2, Appendix H.

 The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear are related by the following equation:
 1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Example 1.9
 1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Example 1.9: continued
 1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Example 1.9: continued
 1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Example 1.11
 1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Example 1.11: continued
 1.7 Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress
Example 1.11: continued
1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Factor of Safety
 When studying mechanics of materials, our principal design interest is strength.
 Strength means the capacity of the object to support or transmit loads and we will call any object that
must support or transmit loads as structure
 If structural failure is to be avoided, the loads that a structure is capable of supporting must be
greater than the loads it will be subjected to when in service
 Meaning that The actual strength of a structure must exceed the required strength.
 The ratio of the actual strength to the required strength is called the factor of safety n:

Sometimes in aircraft design it is customary to speak of the margin of safety rather than the factor of
safety. The margin of safety is defined as the factor of safety minus one:
1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Allowable Stresses
For ductile materials, the factor of safety is normally established with respect to yielding of the
structure
Therefore, by applying a factor of safety with respect to the yield stress (or yield strength), we obtain an
allowable stress (or working stress) that must not be exceeded anywhere in the structure. Thus,

In brittle materials the factor of safety is applied to the ultimate stress

1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Allowable Loads
After the allowable stress has been established for a particular material and structure, the allowable load on
that structure can be determined.
Allowable load (also called the permissible load or the safe load) is expressed as:

For bars in direct tension and compression (no buckling):

For pins in direct shear:

For load based upon bearing:

1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Example:
The steel link BD is connected to a support at D and to member ABC by steel pins of diameter d = 20
mm acting in single shear. Knowing that the ultimate shearing stress is 210 MPa for the steel used in the
pins and that the ultimate normal stress is 490 MPa for the steel used in the link BD, determine the
allowable load P if an overall factor of safety of 3.0 is desired. Take a = 350 mm, b = 400 mm.
Solution:
This sample solution use: d = 20 mm, a = 314 mm and b = 452 mm
We need to find the allowable force in link BD. This will be determined by the shear failure
of the pin or the tensile failure of the rod BD at its smallest area.

𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑 2
For pin: shear area, As = ; For link BD: tensile stress area, At = (50 ─ d) × t
4
N 𝜋𝜋×202
𝜏𝜏𝑈𝑈×𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 210 × mm2
mm2 4
For Pin: allowable for 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 = = = 22.0 kN
𝐹𝐹.𝑂𝑂.𝑆𝑆 3
N
𝜎𝜎𝑈𝑈×𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 490 × 50−20 ×12 mm2
mm2
For link: allowable for 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 = = = 58.8.0 kN
𝐹𝐹.𝑂𝑂.𝑆𝑆 3
Therefore, the allowable load must be calculated based on the smaller of the two, which
is the allowable shear load.

FBD:

� 𝑀𝑀𝐴𝐴 = 0; 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 − 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 = 0

𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 22.0 kN ×314 mm

Therefore; 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = = = 9.0 kN;
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 314+452 mm
1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Example 1.12
A steel bar serving as a vertical hanger to support heavy machinery in a factory is attached to a
support by the bolted connection shown in Fig. 1-54. Two clip angles (thickness tc = 9.5 mm) are
fastened to an upper support by bolts 1 and 2 each with a diameter of 12 mm; each bolt has a
washer with a diameter of dw = 28 mm. The main part of the hanger is attached to the clip angles
by a single bolt (bolt 3 in Fig. 1-54a) with a diameter of d = 25 mm. The hanger has a
rectangular cross section with a width of b1 = 38 mm and thickness of t = 13 mm, but at the
bolted connection, the hanger is enlarged to a width of b2 = 75 mm. Determine the allowable
value of the tensile load P in the hanger based upon the following considerations.

a) The allowable tensile stress in the main part of the hanger is 110 MPa.
b) The allowable tensile stress in the hanger at its cross section through the bolt 3 hole is 75 MPa. (The
permissible stress at this section is lower because of the stress concentrations around the hole.)
c) The allowable bearing stress between the hanger and the shank of bolt 3 is 180 MPa.
d) The allowable shear stress in bolt 3 is 45 MPa.
e) The allowable normal stress in bolts 1 and 2 is 160 MPa.
f) The allowable bearing stress between the washer and the clip angle at either bolt 1 or 2 is 65 MPa.
g) The allowable shear stress through the clip angle at bolts 1 and 2 is 35 MPa.
 1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Example 1.12: continued
 1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Example 1.12: continued
 1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Example 1.12: continued
 1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Example 1.12: continued
 1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Example 1.12: continued
 1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Example 1.12: continued
 1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Example 1.12: continued
 1.8 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads
Example 1.12: continued
1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Analysis versus Design
 Analysis: determining the response of a structure to loads, temperature changes, and other physical
actions. Response of a structure may mean the stresses, strains, and deformations produced by the loads.
Allowable load is also a form of response
 When analyzing a structure, the properties are given and the response is to be determined.

 The inverse process is called design. When designing a structure, we must determine the properties of the
structure in order that the structure will support the loads and perform its intended functions.
 For instance, a common design problem in engineering is to determine the size of a member to support
given loads.
 Designing a structure is usually a much lengthier and more difficult process than analyzing it
 Analyzing a structure, often more than once, is typically part of the design process.
 1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Design
 We will demonstrate the design in its most elementary form by calculating the required sizes of
simple tension and compression members as well as pins and bolts loaded in shear
 Knowing the loads to be transmitted and the allowable stresses in the materials, we can calculate the
required areas of members from the following general relationship:

 In addition to strength considerations, the design of a structure is likely to involve stiffness and
stability.
 Stiffness refers to the ability of the structure to resist changes in shape (for instance, to resist
stretching, bending, or twisting)
 Stability refers to the ability of the structure to resist buckling under compressive
 Another part of the design process is optimization, which is the task of designing the best structure to
meet a particular goal, such as minimum weight.
 1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Example 1-13
The cable-pipe structure ABCD shown in Fig. 1-55 has
pin supports at points A and D, which are 1.8 m apart.
Member ABC is a steel pipe, and member BDC is a
continuous cable which passes over a frictionless pulley
at D. A sign weighing 6.6 kN is suspended from bar
ABC at points E and F.
Determine the required diameter of the pins at A,
B, C, and D if the allowable stress in shear is 45 MPa.
Also, find the required cross-sectional areas of bar
ABC and cable BDC if the allowable stresses in
tension and compression are 124 MPa and 69 MPa,
respectively. (The allowable compression stress is lower
because of the possibility of buckling instability.)
(Note: The pins at the supports are in double shear.
Also, consider only the weight of the sign; disregard the
weights of members BDC and ABC.)
 1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Example 1-13:continued
Solution
The first step in the overall solution is to find reaction
forces at supports and the tensile force in the
continuous cable BDC. These quantities are found by
applying the laws of statics to free-body diagrams (see
Section 1.2). Once reaction and cable forces are known,
we can find the axial forces in member ABC and the
shear forces in pins at A, B, C, and D. We can then find
the required sizes of member ABC and the pins at A, B,
C, and D.
Reactions: We begin with a free-body diagram of
the entire structure (Fig. 1-56), which shows all of the
applied and reaction forces. A statics sign convention is
commonly used so all reaction components are initially
shown in the positive coordinate directions.
 1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Example 1-13:continued
 1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Example 1-13:continued
 1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Example 1-13:continued
 1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Example 1-13:continued
 1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Example 1-13:continued
 1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Example 1-13:continued
 1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Example 1-13:continued
 1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Example 1-13:continued
 1.9 Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear
Example 1-13:continued