PROJECT MANAGEMENT

LEC06: PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

[Video 6.1: Project Time Management]
1. The Importance of Project Schedules
Completing projects is a challenge as well as a main cause of conflict. While scope and cost
can be negotiated, timing requires precision. Once the project schedule is set, everyone will
be able to quickly estimate the schedule's performance. Besides, people often compare
planned and actual project completion times without taking into account the approved
changes in the project.
Time is the variable that has the least amount of flexibility in project management and
passes no matter what happens on a project. Affective time often arises due to differing
preferences or differing cultural disparities, for example some prioritize detailed schedules
and task completion, while others prefer flexibility, or some countries businesses close for
several hours every afternoon to have siestas, and different cultures have different holidays.

Figure 6.1: Processes in Time Management

Therefore, project managers need to manage project time well to avoid schedule conflicts as
mentioned above. Project time management, simply defined, involves the processes required
to ensure timely completion of a project. There is seven main processes are involved in
project time management:
1. Planning schedule management involves determining the policies, procedures, and
documentation that will be used for planning, executing, and controlling the project
schedule. The main output of this process is a schedule management plan.
2. Defining activities involves identifying the specific activities that the project team
members and stakeholders must perform to produce the project deliverables. The
main outputs of this process are an activity list, activity attributes, a milestone list,
and project management plan updates.
 3. Sequencing activities involves identifying and documenting the relationships between
project activities. The main outputs of this process include project schedule network
diagrams and project documents updates.
4. Estimating activity resources involves estimating how many resources people,
equipment, and materials - a project team should use to perform project activities. The
main outputs of this process are activity resource requirements, a resource breakdown
structure, and project documents updates.
5. Estimating activity durations involves estimating the number of work periods that are
needed to complete individual activities. Outputs include activity duration estimates
and project documents updates.
6. Developing the schedule involves analyzing activity sequences, activity resource
estimates, and activity duration estimates to create the project schedule. Outputs
include a schedule baseline, project schedule, schedule data, project calendars, project
management plan updates, and project documents updates.
7. Controlling the schedule involves controlling and managing changes to the project
schedule. Outputs include work performance information, schedule forecasts, change
requests, project management plan updates, project documents updates, and
organizational process assets updates.

Figure 6.2: Project time management summary

2. Defining Activities
Planning scope management doesn't always provide sufficient detail for project work. In
schedule management, activities are defined with precision, detailing the actions required
for deliverables, and aiding resource and schedule estimates. The process begins with a
review of the schedule management plan, scope baseline, environmental factors, and process
assets, outputs of this process include an activity list, attributes, milestone list, and project
plan updates.
The activity list outlines project schedule activities with names, identifiers, and brief
descriptions. Activity attributes offer additional schedule-related details, such as
relationships, resource needs, constraints, dates, and assumptions. These should align with
the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) and evolve as more information becomes available,
like logical relationships and resource requirements. Automation systems are often
employed to manage activity data efficiently.
Project milestones are vital events with no duration, serving as markers for essential
activities. They facilitate goal setting and progress monitoring. In the context of the
chapter’s opening case, milestones include completion and customer sign-off of documents,
such as design documents and test plans, product delivery such as software modules, and
significant process-related tasks like project reviews. Not every project output is a
milestone, only the most pivotal and conspicuous events qualify. Just as in child
development, where milestones like rolling over, sitting, crawling, walking, and talking are
crucial markers, in project management, milestones denote key achievements, guiding
project progress.
3. Sequencing Activities
After defining project activities, the next step in time management is sequencing them by
recognizing inter-dependencies. Key inputs are the schedule management plan, activity list,
project scope statement, milestone list, and organizational assets.
3.1. Dependencies
Dependencies in project activities involve their sequencing. For example, must one task
finish before another begins? Can tasks run concurrently, or overlap? Determining these
dependencies significantly affects project schedule management. There are three types of
dependencies:
 Mandatory Dependencies: Inherent to the project's work, often termed "hard logic."
For example, testing code can only occur after it's written.
 Discretionary Dependencies: The project team defined and considered "soft logic."
For instance, not starting system design until user approval of analysis. Use these
cautiously as they can limit scheduling flexibility.
 External Dependencies: relationships between project and non-project activities. For
example, installing new software depending on hardware delivery. Even if external to
the project's scope, such dependencies are added as late delivery impacts the schedule.
Figure 5.3: Four task dependencies in Project 2010 software
Task dependencies describe how one task relates to the start or finish of another. Project
2010 offers four task dependencies: finish-to-start (FS), start-to-start (SS), finish-to-finish
(FF), and start-to-finish (SF). Efficiently using these dependencies can alter the critical path
and reduce project duration. The most frequent is the finish-to-start (FS) dependency, as
seen in the Project Tracking Database example.
However, sometimes you need to establish other types of dependencies. Where we can apply
lead and lag time to a dependency.
 Lead time reflects an overlap between tasks that have a dependency. For example, if
Task B can start when its predecessor, Task A, is half-finished, you can specify a
finish-to-start dependency with a lead time of 50 percent for the successor task.

 Lag time is a time gap or delay between tasks that have a dependency. If you need a
two-day delay between the finish of Task C and the start of Task D, establish a finish-
to-start dependency between Tasks C and D and specify a two-day lag time.

3.2. Network Diagrams

Network diagrams display activity sequencing and are commonly used in project
management. A network diagram illustrates the logical relationships and sequence of
project activities, sometimes referred to as project schedule network diagrams or PERT
charts.

Figure 6.4: Network diagram for Project X

The network diagram in Figure 6.4 features activities represented by letters A to J, derived
from the WBS and activity definition process. Arrows denote task sequencing. For example,
Activity A must be done before D and D precedes H. This diagram employs the activity-on-
arrow (AOA) or arrow diagramming method (ADM), illustrating activity sequences with
nodes as start and endpoints. Remember, it showcases essential project activities, not a race
from start to finish. Every task on the diagram must be completed for project closure.
Despite the simplicity of AOA or ADM network diagrams, the more common approach is
the precedence diagramming method (PDM). PDM uses boxes to represent activities,
providing a clearer visualization of specific time relationships.

Figure 6.5: Precedence diagramming method (PDM) network diagram for Project X
4. Estimating Activity Resources
Estimating activity durations requires a good idea of the resources (people, equipment,
materials) assigned to each task. Tools like expert judgment, alternative analysis, estimating
data, and project management software aid in resource estimation and they also are
influenced by the project's nature and organization. Those deciding on resources should
have relevant experience and expertise in similar projects and the executing organization.
Important questions to answer when estimating activity resources include:
 How difficult will specific activities be on this project?
 Is there anything unique in the project’s scope statement that will affect resources?
 What is the organization’s history in doing similar activities? Has the organization
done similar tasks before? What level of personnel did the work?
 Does the organization have people, equipment, and materials that are capable and
available for performing the work? Could any organizational policies affect the
availability of resources?
 Does the organization need to acquire more resources to accomplish the work? Would
it make sense to outsource some of the work? Will outsourcing increase or decrease
the number of resources needed and when they will be available?
The primary outputs of resource estimating are a list of activity resource requirements, a
resource breakdown structure, and project document updates. These outputs help in various
project management aspects, including cost estimates, human resource management,
communication management, risk management, and procurement management. For
instance, a resource breakdown structure categorizes project resources by type and
category, aiding in resource cost estimation and acquisition.
5. Estimating Activity Durations
Following the definition of activities, determining dependencies, and estimating resources,
the next step in project time management is estimating activity duration. It's crucial to
distinguish between duration and effort, duration includes the actual amount of time
worked on an activity plus elapsed time. For example, even though it might take one
workweek or five workdays to do the actual work, the duration estimate might be two weeks
to allow extra time needed to obtain outside information. Besides that, effort is the number
of workdays or work hours required to complete a task. Duration relates to the time estimate
on a calendar, not the effort estimate. Inputs for duration estimates include project plans,
activity details, resource requirements, calendars, scope, risk factors, and organizational
assets. Resource availability, especially human resources, plays a vital role in duration
estimation.
Video 5.2: What is the difference between Duration Estimate and Effort Estimate?
The outputs are duration estimates, which can be discrete, range-based, or three-point
estimates. Three-point estimates which add estimation of uncertainty and risk to duration
estimate to improve accuracy, include an optimistic (O), most likely (M), and pessimistic
estimate (P), we have the following formulas:
- PERT=(O+4M=P)/6PERT=(O+4M=P)/6
- StandardDeviation=(P−O)/6StandardDeviation=(P−O)/6
- Variance=[(P−0)/6]2Variance=[(P−0)/6]2
Other duration estimating techniques include analogous and parametric estimating and
reserve analysis, and expert judgment is also an important tool for developing good activity
duration estimates, it helps recommend maximum activity duration and suggests specific
assumptions to make.
 Analogous estimating uses historical information and expert judgment for estimating
the current project. E.g. the last five projects similar to this one each took 5 months,
so this one should be the same.
 Parametric estimating uses a mathematical model based on such measures as time
per linear meter or time per installation. Useful in industries that use standard
estimating units for work.
 Reserve analysis is an analytical technique to determine the essential features and
relationships of components in the project management plan to establish a reserve for
the scheduled duration. The contingency reserve may be a percentage of the estimated
activity duration. As more precise information about the project becomes available,
the contingency reserve may be used, reduced, or eliminated.
6. Developing The Schedule
Schedule development integrates the results from previous time management processes to
determine project and activity start and end dates. It usually undergoes multiple iterations
before finalization. The aim is to create a realistic schedule for effective time-based project
monitoring. Outputs include the project schedule, schedule baseline, schedule data, project
calendars, and updates to the project management plan and project documents.
 Schedule development benefits from various tools and techniques:
 Gantt charts effectively display project schedules.
 Critical path analysis is crucial for schedule development and control.
 Critical chain scheduling focuses on resource constraints.
 PERT analysis addresses schedule risk.
Each tool has its pros and cons, and the following sections provide examples of each while
discussing their advantages and disadvantages.
6.1. Gantt charts
Gantt charts provide a standard format for displaying project schedule information by listing
project activities and their corresponding start and finish dates in calendar form. Gantt charts
are sometimes referred to as bar charts because the activities’ start and end dates are shown
as horizontal bars.
Figure 6.6: Gantt chart for software launch project
Sometimes, we need to add Milestones to Gantt Charts because milestones can be a
particularly important part of schedules, especially for large projects. Many people like to
focus on meeting milestones, so you can create them to emphasize important events or
accomplishments on projects. To make milestones meaningful, some people use the SMART
criteria to help define them:
- Specific
- Measurable
- Assignable
- Realistic
- Time-framed
For instance, when distributing a marketing plan, it becomes a SMART milestone if
everyone understands its content, the distribution process, the quantity to be distributed, the
responsible parties, and if it's realistically attainable and scheduled appropriately.
You can use a special form of a Gantt chart to evaluate progress on a project by showing
actual schedule information. By tracking the Gantt chart—a Gantt chart can compare
planned and actual project schedule information. The planned schedule dates for activities
are called the baseline dates, and the entire approved planned schedule is called
the schedule baseline.
Figure 6.7: Sample Tracking Gantt chart
6.2. Critical Path Method
The Critical Path Method (CPM) also called critical path analysis is a crucial network
diagram technique used to predict total project duration, helping prevent schedule overruns.
The critical path, the longest path in the network diagram with the least slack (time delay
allowance), determines the earliest project completion time. Slack or float is the amount of
time an activity may be delayed without delaying a succeeding activity or the project finish
date. Multiple tasks often run in parallel, but the critical path's tasks are key to the project's
finish date. You are not finished with the project until you have finished all the tasks.
6.2.1. Calculating the Critical Path
To calculate the critical path, you need a well-structured network diagram based on the
activity list from the WBS. Once the network diagram is in place, activity durations are
estimated to identify the critical path, which is determined by summing up the durations of
activities on each path and selecting the longest path. Figure 6.8 displays an AOA network
diagram for Project X, illustrating that it is possible to use either the AOA or the Precedence
Diagramming Method. This figure outlines four different paths within the network diagram,
with their respective durations. The path B-E-H-J, having the longest duration of 16 days, is
the critical path for the project.
Figure 6.8: Determining the critical path for Project X
In essence, the critical path signifies the shortest time required to complete a project even
though it is the longest path, and any delays in activities on this path will lead to project
schedule delays unless corrective measures are taken by the project manager. Project teams
often find creative ways to manage the critical path, as exemplified by Joan Knutson's story.
Apple Inc. used a stuffed gorilla placed atop the cubicle of the team member responsible for
the task on the critical path, serving as a visual cue to everyone that this individual was
under time pressure and should not be distracted. When that critical task was completed, the
gorilla was passed on to the next team member in charge of the next critical task.
6.2.2. Using Critical Path Analysis to Make Schedule Trade-Offs
It is important to know the critical path throughout the life of a project so the product
manager can make trade-offs. If a task on the critical path falls behind schedule, the project
manager can take action such as they may need to renegotiate the schedule with
stakeholders, allocating additional resources to critical tasks, or evaluating the acceptability
of delayed project completion. Monitoring the critical path empowers the project manager
and the team to proactively manage the project schedule.
One helpful technique for making these schedule trade-offs involves calculating the free
slack and total slack for each project activity. Free slack, also known as free float, indicates
the time an activity can be delayed without affecting the early start date of subsequent
activities. Total slack, or total float, represents the time an activity can be delayed without
impacting the planned project finish date.
To calculate free and total slack, project managers perform a forward and backward pass
through the network diagram. The forward pass establishes early start and early finish dates
for each activity, while the backward pass determines late start and late finish dates. The
project's start date coincides with the early start date of the first activity, and the early start
plus activity duration sets the early finish date. In cases where an activity has multiple
predecessors, its early start date aligns with the latest early finish date among those
predecessors. A similar approach is followed in the backward pass, defining the late start
date, which is the latest possible time an activity might begin without delaying the project
finish date, and the late finish date, which is the latest possible time an activity can be
completed without delaying the project finish date.
To make it easier to imagine, look at the following pictures:

Figure 6.10a: Task dependencies and length

Figure 6.10b: Forward pass with earliest times

Figure 6.10c: Float and critical path
Project managers can manually calculate the early and late start and finish dates for each
activity. To illustrate, consider a simple network diagram in Figure 6.9 with three tasks: A,
B, and C. Tasks A and B precede Task C, and all duration estimates are in days. Task A has
an estimated duration of 5 days, Task B has an estimated duration of 10 days, and Task C
has an estimated duration of 7 days. In this small network diagram, two paths exist: path A-
C with a duration of 12 days (5 + 7) and path B-C with a duration of 17 days (10 + 7). Since
path B-C is longer, it serves as the critical path. There is no float or slack on this path,
resulting in identical early and late start and finish dates. However, Task A possesses 5 days
of float or slack, with an early start date on day 0 and a late start date on day 5. The early
finish date is on day 5, and the late finish date is on day 10. Both the free and total float for
Task A amount to 5 days.
Figure 6.11: Calculating early and late start and finish dates
A more efficient method for determining early and late start/finish dates and free/total slack
for activities is by using project management software. Utilizing slack data is valuable for
schedule negotiations. For in-depth guidance on calculating slack, consult Microsoft
Project's Help section or other relevant resources.

Table 6.1: Free and total float or slack for Project X

6.2.3. Using the Critical Path to Shorten a Project Schedule
Stakeholders often seek to accelerate project schedules. The project team may have
diligently crafted a schedule based on activity definition, sequencing, resource estimation,
and duration estimation. The outcome may indicate a 10-month project duration, but
sponsors might inquire about an eight or nine-month completion. Thus, by recognizing the
critical path, the project manager can employ various duration compression tactics for
schedule reduction. There are three main techniques for shortening schedules:
1. Increasing resources or modifying their scope: Recall Sue Johnson's situation in the
case study where schedule issues arose due to missed meetings and staff changes.
With an accurate project schedule, precise duration estimates, and well-defined task
dependencies, she could evaluate their progress toward the May 1 deadline. If certain
critical-path activities had already fallen behind schedule buffers, corrective actions
would be needed to meet the deadline. Sue could request additional workforce or
scope reduction. Alternatively, she might employ schedule compression techniques
like crashing or fast tracking.
2. Crashing is a cost-effective technique for compressing schedules. For instance,
consider the critical task of entering course data for the online registration project,
originally planned for two weeks with a part-time data entry clerk. Sue could propose
that the college assigns the clerk full-time to complete the task in one week, without
additional cost. If the college can't comply, hiring a temporary data entry person for
one week would be another option. By optimizing tasks on the critical path for swift
completion at little or no extra expense, project schedules can be expedited.
3. Fast tracking means performing activities in parallel instead of sequentially. For
instance, Sue Johnson's project team might initiate coding for the online registration
system before completing all the analyses. Fast tracking can expedite project
completion, but it may also extend the schedule due to heightened risk and potential
rework.
6.2.4. Importance of Updating Critical Path Data
Updating the schedule with actual data is essential. When activities are completed, their
actual durations must be recorded. Revised estimates for ongoing or upcoming activities
should also be documented, which can affect the project's critical path and completion date.
Proactive project managers stay informed about changes to make informed decisions and
involve stakeholders in major project choices. Besides that, if you know the project
completion date will slip, negotiate with the project sponsor.
6.3. Critical Chain Scheduling
Critical chain scheduling is a technique rooted in the Theory of Constraints (TOC), a
management philosophy by Eliyahu M. Goldratt. discussed in his books The
Goal and Critical Chain. TOC treats complex systems as chains with one critical constraint
limiting goal achievement. Critical chain scheduling is a method that considers limited
resources when creating a project schedule and includes buffers to protect the project
completion date.
A crucial element in critical chain scheduling is the availability of scarce resources. Some
projects hinge on specific resources being accessible for certain tasks. For instance, a
television network planning a celebrity-centered show must confirm the celebrity's
availability. Similarly, if a single piece of equipment is needed for two tasks that were
initially scheduled to run concurrently, critical chain scheduling suggests either delaying one
task until the equipment is free or finding an alternative piece of equipment to adhere to the
schedule. Multitasking and time buffers are other essential concepts associated with critical
chain scheduling.
Multitasking occurs when a resource juggles multiple tasks simultaneously. It's a common
situation in projects, with team members assigned to various tasks across different projects.
For instance, if a person handles three different tasks, each taking 10 days to complete,
sequentially starting with Task 1, the tasks would finish on days 10, 20, and 30, as shown in
Figure 6.12a. However, in practice, individuals often switch between tasks to accommodate
multiple stakeholders, as depicted in Figure 6.12b. This results in delayed task completions,
with Task 1 at day 20 instead of 10, Task 2 at day 25 instead of 20, while Task 3 remains on
day 30. Multitasking can introduce delays and waste setup time, increasing overall duration.

Figure 6.12a: Three tasks without multitasking

Figure 6.12b: Three tasks with multitasking

An important concept in enhancing project completion dates through critical chain
scheduling involves altering the approach to task estimation. Many individuals tend to
include a safety or buffer time in their task estimates to accommodate factors such as the
adverse effects of multitasking, disruptions, interruptions, concerns about potential
reductions in estimates, and the influence of Murphy's Law, which suggests that anything
that can go wrong will go wrong. Critical chain scheduling departs from this practice by
eliminating these individual task buffers and, instead, introduces a project buffer—a time
allowance inserted prior to the project's deadline. Furthermore, it safeguards critical chain
tasks from potential delays by employing feeding buffers, which entail allocating additional
time before critical chain tasks in cases where they are preceded by non-critical path
activities.
In Figure 6.13, you can see a network diagram created using critical chain scheduling. This
method factors in a resource constraint, X, and integrates feeding buffers and a project
buffer into the diagram. Tasks marked with an X are part of the critical chain, somewhat
akin to the traditional critical path. Task duration estimates in critical chain scheduling
should be notably shorter compared to standard estimates since they don't include their own
independent buffers. This change is designed to mitigate the effects of Parkinson's Law,
which suggests that work tends to expand to fill available time. The feeding and project
buffers play a key role in protecting the crucial project completion date.

Figure 6.13: Example of critical chain scheduling

6.4. Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), is an additional project time
management tool. It is particularly useful when there is significant uncertainty about the
duration of individual project activities. PERT takes the critical path method (CPM) and
incorporates it into a weighted average duration estimate. It was developed in the late 1950s
alongside CPM and still utilizes network diagrams, which are sometimes referred to as
PERT charts.
The unique feature of PERT is its use of probabilistic time estimates. Instead of relying on
a single specific duration estimate like CPM, PERT involves a range of estimates that
includes optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic scenarios for activity durations. To calculate
PERT estimates, you use a weighted average formula:
PERTweightedaverage=(optimistictime+4∗mostlikelytime+pessimistictime)/
6PERTweightedaverage=(optimistictime+4∗mostlikelytime+pessimistictime)/6
By using the PERT weighted average for each activity duration estimate, the total project
duration estimate takes into account the risk or uncertainty in the individual activity
estimates.
7. Controlling the Schedule
The final step in project time management is schedule control, which is an integral part of
the integrated change control process. Its primary objective is to monitor the schedule's
status, influence the factors affecting schedule changes, identify schedule modifications, and
manage them as necessary.
The key inputs for schedule control encompass the project management plan, project
schedule, work performance data, project calendars, schedule data, and organizational
process assets. Various tools and techniques are employed in this process, including:
 Performance reviews, a schedule change control system (part of integrated change
control)
 Scheduling tools or project management software (such as Project 2010)
 Variance analysis (using metrics like float or slack and earned value)
 What-if scenario analysis
 Adjustment of leads and lags
 Schedule compression techniques (such as crashing and fast tracking)
 Resource optimization techniques (such as resource leveling)
Schedule control yields several important outputs, including work performance
measurements, updates to organizational process assets such as lessons-learned reports on
schedule control, change requests, updates to the project management plan, and revisions to
project documents.

Summary
 Planning schedule management involves defining the strategies, procedures, and
documentation for planning, executing, and controlling the project schedule, resulting
in a schedule management plan.
  Defining activities identifies specific tasks necessary to produce project deliverables
and typically refines the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).
 Sequencing activities establish task relationships or dependencies, either mandatory,
discretionary, or external, which is essential for critical path analysis.
 Network diagrams, such as arrow diagramming or precedence diagramming, are used
to represent activity sequencing.
 Four common task relationships are finish-to-start, finish-to-finish, start-to-start, and
start-to-finish.
 Estimating activity resources determines the type and quantity of resources (people,
equipment, materials) needed for each task, with resource estimates influenced by the
project's nature and the organization.
 Estimating activity durations provides time estimates for each task, considering both
actual work time and elapsed time.
 Developing the schedule utilizes outputs from all previous time management
processes to establish project start and end dates. Project managers often employ
Gantt charts, including tracking Gantt charts displaying planned versus actual
schedule information.
 Critical Path Method (CPM) predicts the overall project duration, with the critical
path representing the sequence of activities determining the earliest project
completion date. Any delay in a critical path activity affects the entire project
timeline.
 Crashing and Fast-tracking are techniques that aim to shorten project schedules, but it
is crucial to be cautious about accepting unrealistic schedules, particularly in IT
projects.
 Critical Chain Scheduling: Applies the Theory of Constraints (TOC) by using critical
path analysis, resource constraints, and buffers to meet project completion dates.
 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a network analysis method for
estimating project duration in cases with significant uncertainty regarding individual
activity duration estimates. PERT relies on optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic
estimates but is less commonly used today.
 Discussion Questions:

 1. Why do you think schedule issues often cause the most conflicts on projects?
Schedule issues frequently become the primary source of conflict in projects for several
fundamental reasons that affect all stakeholders involved.
Key Reasons
1. Visibility and Accountability: Schedule delays are highly visible to all stakeholders and
often require immediate explanation, unlike other project aspects that might be less apparent.
2. Ripple Effects: A delay in one activity can cascade through the entire project, affecting
other teams, resources, and deadlines.
 3. Cost Implications: Schedule delays typically translate directly to increased costs, creating
financial pressure and tensions.
4. Psychological Impact: The stress of time pressure can heighten emotions and reduce
collaborative problem-solving.
Real-World Example
In a commercial building construction project:
 The client needed the building completed by September to accommodate a major tenant's
move-in date
 The electrical contractor fell three weeks behind due to material shortages
 This delay prevented the drywall team from starting their work as scheduled
 The project manager had to decide whether to:
o Compress later activities by adding resources (increasing cost)
o Inform the client of a potential delay (risking relationship damage)
o Pressure the electrical team to work overtime (creating tension with the contractor)
The conflict escalated as:
 The client threatened penalty clauses
 Subcontractors argued over workspace access and overtime requirements
 The project manager faced pressure from executive management about budget impacts
 The design team was drawn into disputes about whether specification changes contributed to
delays
This situation created a web of conflicts stemming from the initial schedule disruption, with
each stakeholder viewing the problem through their own perspective and interests.
Unlike quality or scope issues that might be addressed more collaboratively, schedule
problems often force zero-sum decisions where one party's gain becomes another's loss,
making them particularly contentious in project environments.

 2. Why is defining activities a process of project time management instead of project

scope management?
Why Defining Activities is Part of Project Time Management
Defining activities is considered a process of project time management rather than project
scope management because it serves as a bridge between the two areas, with its primary
purpose being to prepare for schedule development.
Key Reasons
1. Sequencing Purpose: When we define activities, we're breaking down work packages into
specific schedule activities that can be sequenced, estimated, and scheduled - all of which
are time management concerns.
2. Level of Detail: Scope management identifies WHAT needs to be done (deliverables and
work packages), while time management determines HOW and WHEN these will be
accomplished (specific activities and their timing).
3. Schedule Focus: The output of activity definition directly feeds into schedule development
processes, making it more aligned with time management objectives.
Example
Consider a software development project:
Scope Management defines a work package called "User Authentication System"
Time Management (Defining Activities process) breaks this down into specific activities:
 Design database schema for user credentials
 Create login screen UI
 Develop password recovery functionality
  Implement two-factor authentication
 Write unit tests for authentication
 Perform integration testing
These activities can then be sequenced, assigned resources, and given duration estimates to
create a schedule. The activity definition creates that critical bridge between the WBS
(scope) and the project schedule (time).
The distinction is important because while scope management establishes WHAT will be
created, activity definition under time management establishes the specific tasks needed to
create those deliverables, which is essential for schedule development.

 3. Why is it important to determine activity sequencing on projects?

 Determining activity sequencing on projects is important for several critical reasons:

 It establishes logical workflow. Identifying which activities must happen before others creates
a coherent path to completion. Some tasks have technical dependencies where one must finish
before another can begin (like pouring a foundation before framing a house).
 It optimizes resource utilization. Proper sequencing ensures teams and equipment aren't sitting
idle or becoming overwhelmed by conflicting priorities.
 It enables accurate timeline forecasting. Without understanding dependencies between
activities, it's impossible to create a realistic project schedule or determine the critical path.
 It helps identify and manage risks. Sequencing reveals potential bottlenecks and single points
of failure where delays would impact the entire project.
 It improves communication. When everyone understands the sequence of work, teams can
better coordinate their efforts and anticipate handoffs.
 It facilitates better decision-making. When changes occur (as they inevitably do),
understanding the sequence of activities helps project managers assess impacts and make
informed adjustments.
 It supports efficient resource allocation. By knowing when specific activities need to happen,
project managers can plan for resource availability at the right times.
 Ultimately, proper activity sequencing transforms a simple task list into a coherent project plan
that can be executed efficiently and adapted as needed.

 4. How does activity resource estimating affect estimating activity durations?

Ước lượng HR là cơ sở để ước lượng duration, Junior ko thể làm bằng senior trong
cùng 1 khoảng thời gian, senior làm 3 ngày, junior làm mất 7 ngày

Activity resource estimating directly impacts activity duration estimating through several
key mechanisms:
Resource availability affects timing. The number and type of resources assigned to an
activity directly influence how long it will take. For example, having two experienced
developers work on coding a feature might reduce the duration from two weeks to one week
compared to having just one developer.
Resource skill levels impact productivity. When estimating durations, you must consider not
just how many resources you have, but their expertise and efficiency. An expert welder
might complete a complex join in 2 hours, while a novice might need 6 hours for the same
task.
Resource constraints create bottlenecks. Limited specialized equipment or personnel can
extend durations regardless of other factors. For instance, if your project requires a
 specialized testing lab that's only available one day per week, your testing activities will
have longer durations than if the lab were continuously available.
Resource types determine work patterns. Different resources work at different paces and
schedules. For example, a manual quality inspection might take 3 days of human work, but
automated testing equipment could complete it in 4 hours.
Here's a practical example:
Consider a software development project with a user interface design activity. The resource
estimation might look like:
 Option A: One senior designer (100% allocation)
o Duration estimate: 10 working days
 Option B: Two junior designers (100% allocation each)
o Duration estimate: 12 working days (less efficient but more hands)
 Option C: One senior designer (50% allocation - part-time)
o Duration estimate: 20 working days
 Option D: One senior designer with specialized UI prototyping software
o Duration estimate: 7 working days
Each resource estimation scenario directly leads to a different duration estimate,
demonstrating how closely these two processes are interlinked in project planning.

 5. Explain the difference between estimating activity durations and estimating the
effort required to perform an activity.
Estimating activity durations and estimating effort are related but distinctly different
concepts in project management:
Activity Duration is the calendar time needed to complete an activity from start to finish.
It's measured in time units (hours, days, weeks) and accounts for:
 Resource availability and allocation
 Non-working periods
 External dependencies and constraints
 Potential delays
Effort is the actual labor or work hours required to complete an activity. It represents the
total work time needed and is typically measured in person-hours, person-days, or other
labor units.
The key difference is that effort focuses on work volume, while duration includes all factors
that influence timeline.
Here's an example to illustrate:
Consider a website development task:
Effort Estimation:
 Designing the homepage requires 40 person-hours of work
 This is the pure work time needed regardless of how it's scheduled
Duration Estimation:
 The designer is only allocated to this project 50% of their time (4 hours per day)
 The client needs 2 days to review designs before finalization
 There's a company holiday during the work period
So while the effort is 40 hours, the duration might be:
 10 business days (5 days for initial design at 4 hours/day = 20 hours)
 2 days for client review (no effort hours)
 5 more days to complete revisions and finalization (20 more hours)
Total: 17 calendar days with 40 hours of actual effort.
 This distinction is crucial for resource planning, scheduling, and managing stakeholder
expectations.

 6. Explain the following schedule development tools and concepts: Gantt charts,
critical path method, PERT, and critical chain scheduling.
Gantt Charts, Critical Path Method, PERT, and Critical Chain Scheduling
Gantt Charts
Gantt charts are horizontal bar charts that visually represent project activities against time.
Each activity is shown as a bar, with the length corresponding to its duration.
Example: For a house construction project, a Gantt chart would show activities like
foundation work (days 1-10), framing (days 11-25), roofing (days 26-35), and electrical
work (days 30-45) as horizontal bars on a timeline. You can easily see overlaps, such as
electrical work starting before roofing is complete.
Critical Path Method (CPM)
CPM identifies the sequence of dependent activities that form the longest path through a
project, determining the minimum possible project duration. Activities on this path have
zero float (slack time).
Example: In building a mobile app, the critical path might be: requirements gathering (2
weeks) → UI design (3 weeks) → core functionality coding (6 weeks) → integration (2
weeks) → testing (3 weeks). This 16-week sequence cannot be shortened without changing
the scope or resources, as any delay in these activities directly delays the project completion.
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
PERT uses statistical methods to analyze uncertain activity durations by using three time
estimates: optimistic (O), most likely (M), and pessimistic (P). The expected time is
calculated as (O + 4M + P)/6.
Example: For a database migration task:
 Optimistic: 4 days (everything goes perfectly)
 Most likely: 7 days (normal conditions)
 Pessimistic: 16 days (major problems encountered)
PERT estimate: (4 + 4×7 + 16)/6 = 8 days This accounts for uncertainty rather than using a
single estimate.
Critical Chain Scheduling
Critical chain scheduling focuses on resource constraints in addition to task dependencies. It
adds buffers at strategic points rather than padding individual activities, and manages
resources to protect the critical chain.
Example: In a product development project, the critical chain might include activities that
require a specific testing equipment that's shared with other projects. Instead of adding
safety margins to each activity, a project buffer is added at the end, and "feeding buffers" are
added where non-critical chains merge with the critical chain. Resources are managed to
ensure the critical chain activities receive priority access to the testing equipment.
Each of these techniques serves different scheduling needs - Gantt charts for visualization,
CPM for identifying the most time-sensitive sequence, PERT for handling uncertainty, and
critical chain for managing resource constraints.

 7. What do you think about adding slack to individual task estimates (sometimes
called padding estimates)? What do you think about adding a project buffer for the
 entire project, as critical chain scheduling suggests? What are some ethical
considerations when using slack and buffers?
Padding Individual Tasks vs. Project Buffers
Individual Task Padding
Adding slack to individual task estimates ("padding") is a common practice but has
significant drawbacks:
Pros:
 Protects individual task owners from blame for delays
 Accounts for unexpected issues at the task level
Cons:
 Often leads to Parkinson's Law ("work expands to fill the time available")
 Creates hidden reserves that can't be managed effectively
 Padding gets "used up" even when unnecessary
Example: A developer estimates a feature will take 3 days but adds 2 days of padding. Even
if the work could be completed in 3 days, the developer might use all 5 days, working at a
more relaxed pace or adding nice-to-have elements that weren't in the original scope.
Project Buffers (Critical Chain)
Adding a collective buffer at the project level typically works better:
Pros:
 Creates a transparent reserve that can be actively managed
 Encourages realistic task estimates
 Allows for strategic allocation of buffer time where most needed
 Promotes a shared ownership of schedule risks
Example: Instead of padding each task in a 10-task project by 20%, a critical chain
approach would use aggressive estimates for each task and add a 15% buffer at the end of
the project. This buffer becomes a shared resource that any task can use when genuinely
needed.
Ethical Considerations
Several ethical considerations arise with both approaches:
1. Transparency: Hiding buffers in individual tasks can be seen as deceptive, while project
buffers promote honesty about uncertainties.
2. Resource allocation: Excessive padding can waste resources that could be better used
elsewhere.
3. Trust: Consistently padding estimates can erode trust between teams and management.
4. Accountability: A balance must be struck between protective buffers and maintaining
accountability for efficient work.
5. Stakeholder expectations: There's an ethical obligation to give stakeholders realistic
completion dates, not artificially extended ones.
The most ethical approach is typically to be transparent about uncertainties, use realistic
estimates for tasks, maintain explicit project-level buffers where needed, and communicate
clearly about how these buffers are being used and managed.

 8. How can you minimize or control changes to project schedules?

To minimize or control changes to project schedules, we can implement several effective strategies:

Develop a Realistic Initial Schedule

Create a well-researched schedule with appropriate contingencies from the start.

Example: For a software implementation project, the team interviews experienced implementers,
reviews historical data from similar projects, and includes contingency time for integration testing
based on past challenges. This thorough initial planning prevents mid-project discoveries that the
timeline was fundamentally flawed.

Implement Strong Change Control Processes

Establish formal procedures for evaluating and approving schedule changes.

Example: A construction project requires all schedule change requests to go through a change
control board that meets weekly. Each request must document the business justification, impact
analysis, and alternatives considered. This prevents arbitrary changes and ensures only necessary
adjustments are approved.

Document and Communicate Dependencies

Clearly identify and communicate task dependencies to all stakeholders.

Example: A product launch team creates a dependency map showing how marketing activities
depend on final product specifications. When engineering considers a feature change, they can
immediately see it would impact the marketing materials timeline, allowing for informed decisions
before making the change.

Conduct Regular Schedule Risk Assessments

Proactively identify and mitigate risks that could impact the schedule.

Example: A manufacturing team conducts monthly schedule risk reviews, identifying potential
component shortages before they occur. This allows them to secure alternative suppliers in advance
rather than scrambling to adjust the schedule after a delay occurs.

Use Rolling Wave Planning

Plan near-term activities in detail while keeping future activities at a higher level until more
information is available.

Example: A research project plans the first phase in great detail but keeps months 4-6 at a
summary level until the initial research results are available. This prevents having to completely
reschedule later phases based on early findings.

Monitor Progress Rigorously

Implement regular tracking and early warning systems.

Example: An IT implementation uses earned value metrics reviewed weekly. When the Schedule
Performance Index drops below 0.95, it triggers an immediate assessment and corrective action
plan rather than waiting until the delay becomes significant.

Build Team Accountability

Create a culture where schedule commitments are taken seriously.

Example: A marketing agency introduces daily standups where team members report on progress
toward deadlines and collaboratively problem-solve any potential delays, creating peer
accountability for maintaining the schedule.

These approaches won't eliminate all schedule changes, but they will help ensure changes are
necessary, well-managed, and minimally disruptive to the overall project.

 9. Why is it difficult to use project management software well?

Why Project Management Software Is Difficult to Use Well

Project management software can be challenging to use effectively for several key reasons:

Steep Learning Curve

Most robust PM software has complex functionality that requires significant time to master.

Example: A marketing team adopts Microsoft Project, but team members struggle with creating
proper task dependencies and resource assignments. The project manager ends up spending more
time fixing the schedule than actually managing the project until everyone becomes proficient.

Overemphasis on Tools Over Process

Organizations often implement software without establishing proper project management processes
first.

Example: A software development company implements Jira, but without clear sprint planning
processes, teams create inconsistent user stories, assign arbitrary story points, and produce
unreliable burndown charts that don't actually help predict completion dates.

Data Entry Burden

Keeping project management software updated requires consistent, accurate data entry from all
team members.

Example: A construction project uses Primavera P6, but field supervisors update progress
sporadically and inaccurately. By week 6, the schedule shows everything on track, while reality
shows several critical activities falling behind, leading to major surprises later.

False Precision

Software can create an illusion of accuracy that doesn't reflect real-world uncertainty.

Example: A product development schedule in Microsoft Project shows task durations calculated to
the hour over a 9-month timeline. This precision creates false confidence among executives who
don't understand the significant uncertainties in research and development work.

Complexity vs. Usability Tradeoff

Software that's powerful enough for complex projects is often too cumbersome for daily use by
team members.
Example: A company implements Oracle Primavera for a large infrastructure project. The software
can handle the complex schedule, but team leads find it so difficult to use that they create separate
Excel trackers for their teams, leading to disconnected planning systems.

Integration Challenges

PM software often doesn't integrate seamlessly with other business systems.

Example: A manufacturing team uses specialized PM software that doesn't connect to their ERP
system. This requires double-entry of inventory information and leads to scheduling decisions
based on outdated resource availability data.

Prioritizing Features Over Needs

Organizations often select software based on features rather than their specific project management
needs.

Example: A small marketing agency purchases an enterprise-level PM solution with advanced

resource leveling and Monte Carlo simulations. These features go unused while team members
struggle with the basics of time tracking and task assignments that could have been handled by a
simpler tool.

To use project management software well, organizations need proper training, established
processes, appropriate tool selection, and a commitment to consistent usage across all team
members.