CHAPTER 1

Electromechanical Energy Conversion Principles

1.0 Introduction.

In this course, we shall briefly examine the basic concepts of rotating electrical machines.

So that we will be able to understand their behaviors and performances as they convert

energies in their operations. The basic operation of all rotating machines is based on

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. This law states that whenever a relative

motion exists between a conductor and a magnetic field such that the conductor cuts or is

cut by the magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor proportional to the rate at

which the cutting occurs.

The energy conversion in a machine is achieved by two principal interdependent

mechanisms – magnetic and electrical circuits.

1.1 Magnetic Circuits

In most machines, the magnetic circuit consists usually of laminated iron core. The

lamination is to reduce eddy current and hence reduce losses. The iron also provides

support for the coils used to obtain the electrical circuit. For this purpose, the iron cores

are slotted to accommodate the coils in a circumferential manner. When current flows in

the electrical circuit of a machine, magnetomotive force is set up which drives a magnetic

flux in the magnetic circuit obeying the following law:

mmf
 (1.1)
S

Where  = flux,

mmf = magnetomotive force,

1
S = reluctance of magnetic circuit. 
r 0a
1
µr µo = absolute permeability

a = cross-sectional area of magnetic circuit.

The mmf is proportional to the number of ampere-turns (NI) acting on the magnetic

circuit.

1.2 Electrical Circuit.

The electrical circuit of a machine consists primarily of the windings through which

electrical current flows to set up fluxes which act as force carriers to initiate and sustain

angular or linear motion of the free member known as the rotor. Thus, the basic machine

consists of a stationary part and a moving part. Both may carry windings depending on

the type and construction of the machine. The windings are arranged in slots and either

concentrated or distributed depending on the type.

There are two main types of machine viz. direct current and alternating current machines.

Their characteristic differences will be treated under the appropriate topics.

The development of a rotating field and the production of torque in all machines are

identical hence a universal or a generalized approach is usually adopted in analyzing their

performance.

1.3 Induced emf.

When the flux in a core such as in fig.1.1a changes, an emf is developed across its

terminal which according to Lenz’ s or Faraday’s Laws is given by

d  d
e  N  (1.2)
dt dt

where . = flux linkage

It is convenient to define voltage V that is applied to overcome the em f ‘e’, such that a

direct analogy with ohms law relationship shown in fig 1.1b obtains.

Thus, V = i R, and for a single turn,

2
 d
v  e  (1.3)
dt

(a) (b)

Figure 1.1

The inductance L of a circuit may be defined as the flux linkage per unit current flowing

through the circuit when a voltage is impressed.


i.e L  ( 1.4)
i

Thus from equations (3), and (4)

v
d
Li   L di  i dL
dt dt dt

di dL 
L i x (1.5)
dt  t

The first term of the right hand side of equation (5) is a pulsating or transformer emf,

while the second term is a motional emf. In equation (5)  is the angular displacement

when a rotating member is involved.

1.4 Torque Production.

For the production of mechanical work and the transfer of electrical energy into

mechanical energy some part of the system must move either with or against a force.

Consider the singly excited systems having movable elements as shown in figure 1.2

3
 (a) (b)

Figure 1.2

Now employing the principle of virtual work:-

The electrical energy supplied to a coil having self inductance L11 when the “rotor” or

“moving part” shown in figure 1.2 is allowed to move through a distance or small angle

towards the aligned position where  = 0 or x = 0 is given by


we  i x d x dt (1.6)
dt

i.e

Small quantity of electrical = instantaneous x instantaneous back x short time

energy supplied to coil current emf or rate of change of movement
of flux linkage

Thus,

we = i d. = id(L11 i)

or we = i2dL11 (1.7)

But the energy stored in a magnetic circuit during a small movement  is given by


w f  d 12 L11i 2 
 12 i 2 dL11 (1.8)

4
Since i is constant in this case. Now the system is conservative i.e. all the energy input

can be accounted for since none disappears. Thus the electrical energy input

we = energy stored in the field, wf plus the mechanical energy output, wm.

i.e wm = we - wf

or wm  i 2 dL11  12 i 2 dL11  12 i 2 dL11 (1.9)

Note that half the electrical energy input appears as mechanical work done while half is

stored in the magnetic field.

Now, the rotational work done is the product of the torque and the angular displacement.

i.e wmr = T x d (1.10)

Similarly, the linear work done is the product of the force and the linear distance moved.

i.e wmL = F x dx. (1.11)

Substituting for the small quantity of mechanical work done:

(i) In the rotational system,

wm = wmr = T x d   12 i 2 dL11

dL11
Hence, torque, T  12 i 2 (1.12)
d

(ii) In the linear system,

wl = wm = F x dx  12 i 2 dL11

dL11
Hence, force F  12 i 2 (1.13)
dx

Equations (1.12) and (1.13) are the torque and force in the direction of  and x

respectively. These equations could be have been anticipated since

(a) Torque or force is the rate of change of mechanical energy with displacement i.e

dwm
F , etc.
dx
5
(b) Mechanical energy transfers is accompanied by an equal change in field energy.

(c) Since field energy is simply 1

2 Li 2 at any instant for a linear system, the rate of change

of field energy with displacement is also equal to the force or torque at any instant.

The association of field energy and circuit inductance has thus been established together

with the basis for converting field energy into mechanical energy. However, only a

singly excited device has so far been considered. Most machines have double and

sometimes more windings. The field energy and hence torque for such machines would

differ from the singly excited system.

Consider the doubly excited system of figure 1.3(b) with that of identical singly excited

one of figure 1.3 (a)

(a) (b)

Figure 1.3

Let N1i1 + N2i2 = N i to provide the same magnetomotive force (mmf) and hence flux in

each core.

The flux linkage for figures 1.3(a) and 1.3(b) are

a = N (1.14)

b = N1 + N2 = 1 +  2 (1.15)

6
The field energy in each case is given by

w fa  12  a i  12 Ni  1
2
N1i1  N 2 i2 
 12  1i1  12  2 i2  w fb (1.16)
since the field energy is the same.

Now, the flux linkages of the single winding of figure 1.3(a) are given by  = L i

But since there are two windings in figure 1.3(b) there will be mutual inductance between

the two as a result of their respective currents. The flux linkages in each coil will thus be

1 = L11 i1 + M12 i2 (1.17)

and 2 = L22i2 + M21i1 (1.18)

where M12, M21 are the mutual inductance between the two coils defined as

 12
M 12  (1.19)
i2

 21
M 21  (1.20)
i1

where 12 is the flux linkage of winding 1 due to current in winding 1due to current in

winding 2 alone and 21 is the flux linkage of winding 2 alone due to current flowing in

winding 1 alone.

Hence, the field energy of figure 1.3(b) may be written as

1
2  1i1  12  2 i2  12 L11i12  12 L22i22  12 i1i2 M 12  M 21  (1.21)

Now in a static system,

M12 = M21 = M (1.22)

Therefore w fb  12 L11i12  12 L22i22  i1i2 M (1.23)

1.5 Emf and Torque Equations for a Two-coil System.

Consider the doubly excited system with a movable part as shown in figure 4.

7
 Figure 1.4

In this case, the mutual and self-inductances may vary with displacement .

The emf induced in coils1 and 2 will be given by

e1 
d
L11i1  Mi2 
dt

di1 di dL dM d
 L11  M 2  i1 11  i2 x (1.24)
dt dt dt d dt

e2 
d
L22i2  Mi1 
dt

di2 di dL dM d
 L22  M 1  i2 22  i1 x (1.25)
dt dt dt d dt

d
where is the speed term.
dt

To obtain torque, neglect the self-inductance variation for the moment. The total rate of

energy flow to those emf components caused by movement is obtained from the last

terms of e1 and e2. equations as:

e1 i1 (motional ) + e2i2(motional)

8
  dM   dM 
 i1  i2   i2  i1 
 dt   dt 

dM
 2i1i2 (1.26)
dt

Now, it can be shown that the stored energy in the mutual field of two coupled coils is

given by i1i2 M and so, with currents constant, the rate of energy flow into the mutual field

dM
is i1i2 which is exactly one half of the power supplied. The other half is converted to
dt

 dM  d
mechanical energy and can be re-expressed as:  i1i2  .
 d  dt

d
In mechanical terms, the rate of energy conversion is Te . By equating the two
dt

expressions since they refer to the same energy, the torque in terms of mutual inductance

changes is:

dM
Te  i1i2 (1.27)
d

The self-inductance terms in the motional emfs also give rise to a torque if L11 or L22

varies with angular position. By extending the above argument, taking into consideration

the stored energy in the fields, 1

2 L11i12  12 L22i22 , it can be shown that the additional torque

is numerically equal to the angular rate of change of this energy with currents constant.

Thus, the total torque is:

dL11 1 2 dL22 dM
Te  12 i12  2 i2  i1i2 (1.28)
d d d

Note that

1. Mutual inductance always changes with  since there is relative angular movement

between windings.

9
2. Self-inductance changes if the air gap is not uniform round the periphery as in the

salient-pole machine, and variations of magnetic reluctance occur.

1.6 Operational Considerations.

Important practical considerations include power rating, and duty cycle, temperature rise

and cooling scheme, environment and machine enclosure etc.

All practical machines must be capable of delivering its normal rated power for the

duration or cycle to be imposed. To minimize excessive temperature rise, adequate

ventilation must be provided by design or by other means such as forced cooling. On

large machines ducts may be included through which special coolants are passed when in

operation. For small and medium sized machines, special axial vents or a miniature fan

mounted on the shaft end provide self-cooling.

In flammable conditions, totally enclosed machines are used with internal cooling

schemes. Such machines are liberally rated.

Example 1.1 Consider the following singly excited system:-

Figure Example 1.1

10
Cross –sectional area of plunger = 20cm2

Limit of travel of plunger = 0.5cm

Neglecting flux leakage, fringing and friction, calculate

(a) Coil inductance as a function of air gap length “g”,

(b) the energy stored in the field as a function of air gap length “g”,

(c) the external force required just to keep the plunger at the position where g is

maximum.

(d) Is this a stable condition?

Solution

(e) Coil inductance, L = flux linkage per ampere

N

i

Now, flux  = mmf x permeance

 Nxix

a
But    0  r and   g in this case


a
therefore,   Ni 0 , since µr = 1 in this case


N a
therefore, L   N 20 Henry
i g

500 2 x20 x10 4 x 0 500 0

  Henry
g g

(f) Energy stored in the field  12 i 2 dL11

500 0
Now, from (a), dL11  H
g

11
 i 2 x500 x 0 250
therefore, W f    0i 2 Joules
2 xg g

dL11
(g) External force, F   12 i 2 , where dx = 1cm for max. g
dx

d
  12 x6 2 x500 x 4x10 7 x
dx

6 2 x500 x 4x10 7
  113.1 N
2 x1x10 4

(h) This condition is stable.

1.7 General form of Induced Emf.

 i L 
e =  L  i  
 t  

ep eu

pulsating emf motional emf

In a transformer, eu = 0 because there is no movement. In a dc machine under steady

state condition, ep = 0 . In an a.c machine both terms are present.

Induced emf in static linear circuits.

(a) Single self excited coil.

Figure 1.5
12
v+e =ir

d di d
or v  ir  e  L N (1.29)
dt dt dt

v t 
r
From which i  1  e L 
r 

Two Coupled Coils

Consider the coupled coils shown in figure 1.6

Figure 1.6

1
 e1  v1  i1r1   d
dt

2
 e2  v2  i2 r2   d (1.30)
dt

But,

 1   L11  L12   i1 
    L   (1.31)
 2   21 L22  i2 

Hence,

  e1   L11  L12  d  i1 
 e    L L22  dt i2 
(1.32)
 2   21
13
since the system is static.

Consequently, for n coupled static and linear coils,

 d1 
 v1  i1 r1    e1   dt   L11 L12 L1n   i1 
v  i r   e   d2   L L2 n  d i2 
 2 2 2   2     21 L22
 .   .   dt  . . . .  dt  . 
(1.33)
         
v n  in rn   en   dn   Ln1 Ln 2 Lnn  in 
 
 dt 

or  e  L i 
d
(1.34)
dt

1.8 Power and Energy of Electromagnetic Induction in Static and Linear System.

(a) Power and Energy in a Single Coil

(i) Power

d
v  ir  e 
dt

Multiply through by i to obtain

d
iv  ir   ei  i (1.35)
dt

d
or vi  i 2 r  i (1.36)
dt

That is, (input power) - (Copper loss) = (power of the changing flux linkage).

(ii) Energy

d
We =  i xdt = Work done by changing flux linkage.
dt

= Magnetic energy stored + mechanical work.

Assume however that the coils are static. Then the mechanical work = 0, and

We = magnetic energy stored, Wl

14
 = Li = N (1.37)

We =  id =  idN =  Fd (1.38)

 1
2
2 i2  1i1 


 12 L i 22  i12 
 1
2
 2 F2  1 F1 


 12 S  22  12 

 1
2S F 2
2
 F12  Joules (1.39)

Figure 1.7

Now, if i1= 0, We  12 Li22  12  22 S etc

 12 BH x volume of magnetic circuit . (1.40)

(b) Power and Energy in Two Static Linear Coils

15
  e1   L11 L12  d  i1 
 e    L L22  dt i2 
(1.41)
 2   21

(i) Power: Pe1  e1i1  v1i1  i12 r1 (1.42)

Pe 2  e2 i2  v 2 i2  i22 r2 (1.43)

(ii) Energy: We1   Pe1 dt (1.44)

We 2   Pe 2 dt (1.45)

Total energy of coils = We1 + We2

 di di 
Now, Pe1  i1  L11 1  L12 2  (1.46)
 dt dt 

We1   L11i1 di1   L12i1 di2

 12 L11i12  L12  i1 di2 (1.47)

 di di 
and Pe 2  i2  L21 1  L22 2  (1.48)
 dt dt 

We 2   L21i2 di1  12 L22i22 (1.49)

Total energy We = We1 + We2

i.e. We  12 L11i12  12 L22i22  L12  i1 di2  i2 di1  (1.50)

since L12 = L21

We  1
2
L 2
11 1i  L12i1i2  L21i2 i1  L22i22  (1.51)

L L12   i1 
 1
i1 i2  11
L22  i2 
2
(1.52)
 L21

or We  1
2 iT  L i  (1.53)

where subscript T is the transpose matrix of i.

16
This result may be extended to n circuit system. The analysis demonstrated the

relationship between circuit concept of inductance, field energy and mechanical work.

1.9 Solved Examples

1. The voltage applied to the coil shown in figure Q1 is 60 V d.c. If the resistance of
the coil is 20 ohms, determine for each transducer gap:
(a) the flux density, B
(b) the inductance, L and
(c) the force.
Assume that the radial gap, iron reluctance, fringing and leakage are negligible.

Solution.

g2

N=1000
g1=1.5cm
g1 g2=0.5cm

d=5cm
Figure Q1.
1.(a) i. N = 1000
g1 = 1.5cm
V = 60 V
V 60
R = 20   i  3 A
R 20

mmf Ni a
Now, 1  
l (
0

g)
S 1 1

N i  d 2 1000 x3x 4x10 7 xx(5 x10 2 ) 2

  0
  4.94 x10 4 Webers
4g 4 x1.5 x10 2
1


B  where a = area of air gap.
a

4.94 x10 4 x 4
B  0.251 Tesla
x(5 x10 2 ) 2
17
 N 2 1000 2  0 a
(b) Inductance, L1  
S1 g1
1000 2 x4x10 7 xx(5 x10 2 ) 2
  0.164 Henry
4 x1.5 x10 2
1 2  N2 g
(c) Force, f  i L1 but L1  and S1  1
2 x S1 0a

1 2 2  1 d 2
f  i N 0a ( ) where x = g1 = 1.5 cm and a 
2 x x 4

1 1
f  (mmf ) 2  0 a( 2 )
2 x

(1000 x3) 2 x 4x10 7 xx(5 x10 2 ) 2

f   49.34 N
2 x 4 x(1.5 x10  2 ) 2
(ii) (a). when g = g2 = 0.5 cm

N i  0 d 2 4 N i 0
B x x 2 
g2 4 d g2

1000 x3x 4x10 7

  0.754 Tesla
0.5 x10 2

N2  0 xd 2
(b) Inductance, L   1000 x
2

S2 g 2 x4
4x10 7 xx(5 x10 2 ) 2
 1000 2 x
0.5 x10 2 x 4
 0.4935 Henry
1 2  N2 N 20a
(c) Force, f  i L2 where L2  
2 x S2 g 2 ( x 2 )
1  1
 f  i 2 N 20a ( )
2 x x 2
1 1
  i 2 N 2  0 ax 2 where x2 = g2 = 0.5 cm
2 x 2

3 x1000 x 4x10 7 xx(5 x10 2 ) 2

2 2
  444.13 N
2 x(0.5 x10 2 ) 2 x 4

18
 2. Neglecting iron reluctance, fringing and leakage, calculate the:
(i) vertical and
(ii) horizontal components of the electromagnetic force of figure 2,
if the exciting coil produces ampere-turn of 2000 A dc.

5 cm

2.5 mm 3 cm

5 cm 5 cm

Figure 2

Solution
1 2 L N 2 N 2 0a
(a) Vertical Force, Fv  i , where L  
2 x S l (  x)
x = air gap (vertical) = 2.5 mm
a = cross-sectional area (vertical)
= 5 cm x 2.5 mm
1  1
Fv  i 2 N 2  0 a  
2 x  x 
1 1
  (mmf ) 2  0 a 2
2 x
1 2000 x 4x10 7 x5 x10 2 x 2.5 x10 3
2
 x
2 (2.5 x10 3 ) 2
= -50.3 N

1 2 L N 20a
(b) Horizontal Force, FH  i , where L 
2 x x
x = air gap (horizontal) = 2.5 mm
a = cross-sectional area (vertical)
= 3x10-2 x5x10-2 = 15x10-4 m2
1 1
FH   (mmf ) 2  0 a 2
2 x
1 2000 x 4x10 7 x15 x10 4
2
 x
2 (2.5 x10 3 ) 2
= -603.2 N

19