Tribhuvan University, Institute of Engineering

Thapathali Campus
Bachelor in Civil Engineering
(BCE)

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Chapter 2

Electrical Machines
Presenter: Sandesh Dhungana

1 1
Contents
2.1 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
2.2 Dynamically and Statically Induced EMFs
2.3 Transformer
2.4 Three phase induction motor
2.5 DC Motors
2.6 Synchronous Generator

2
 Electrical Machines
The machines which are operated in relation with electrical
energy are called electric machines or electrical machines. In
these machines, electricity may serve as the input, output, or
both. They are broadly classified into three main types:
transformers, generators, and motors.

1. Electrical transformer: In the transformer, both input and

output are electrical power.
2. Electrical generator: In a generator, the input is
mechanical power and the output is electrical power.
3. Electrical motor: In a motor, the input is electrical power
and output is mechanical power.
Electrical machines can also be categorized as static machine
and dynamic machine.
Transformer is an example of static electrical machine. Motor
and generator both are dynamic electrical machines.

3
 2.1 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic Induction: The phenomenon of production of e.m.f. and hence current in a conductor or coil
when the magnetic flux linking the conductor or coil changes is called electromagnetic induction.

First Law
When the magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil changes, an e .m.f. is induced in it.
Second Law
The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a conductor or coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of
flux linkages i.e.

Induced e.m.f., 𝑒 α
𝑁Φ2 𝑁Φ1
𝑒 𝑘 ; In SI units the value of k is unity
𝑡
𝑁Φ 2 𝑁Φ 1
𝑒
𝑡
In differential form, we have, 𝑒 𝑁 𝑑Φ
𝑑𝑡
The magnitude and direction of induced e.mf. should be written as:
,𝑒 𝑁 𝑑Φ
𝑑𝑡
Represent Lenz’s law 4
Direction of Induced E.M.F. and Current
The direction of induced e.m.f. and hence current (if the circuit is closed ) can be determined by one of the following
two methods :
(i) Lenz’s law
The induced current will flow in such a direction so as to oppose the cause that produces it i.e. the induced current will
set up magnetic flux to oppose the change in flux.

ii) Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule

This law is particularly suitable to find the direction of the
induced e.m.f. and hence current when the conductor moves at
right angles to a stationary magnetic field. It may be stated as
Fig. 1.38 Illustration of Lenz’s law
under :
Stretch out the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of your
right hand so that they are at right angles to one another. If the
forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field, thumb in the
direction of motion of the conductor, then the middle finger will
point in the direction of induced current.

Fig. 1.39 Illustration of

Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule
5
2.2 Dynamically and Statically Induced EMFs

The magnetic flux linkage could be changed in two different ways. There fore emf can be produced in two
different ways,

a. Statically Induced EMFs

b. Dynamically Induced EMFs
𝑑𝜙 𝑑 𝐵𝐴 𝑑 𝐴 𝑑 𝐵
𝑒 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁𝐵 𝑁𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
dynamically Statically

Statically Induced E.M.F.

When the conductor is stationary and the field is moving or changing, the e.m.f. induced in the conductor
is called statically induced e.m.f. A statically induced e.m.f. can be further sub-divided into :

1. Self-induced e.m.f. 2. Mutually induced e.m.f.

6
1. Self-induced e.m.f.
The e.m.f. induced in a coil due to the change of its own flux
linked with it is called self-induced e.m.f.
When a coil is carrying current (See Fig. 1.41), a magnetic field
is established through the coil. If current in the coil changes,
then the flux linking the coil also changes. Hence an e.m.f. (= N
dΦ/dt) is induced in the coil. This is known as self-induced Fig. 1.41
e.m.f. The direction of this e.m.f. (by Lenz’s law) is such so as
to oppose the cause producing it, namely the change of current
(and hence field) in the coil. The self-induced e.m.f. will persist
so long as the current in the coil is changing.
When current in a coil changes, the self-induced e.m.f. opposes
the change of current in the coil. This property of the coil
is known as its self-inductance or inductance.

Fig. 1.42

7
2. Mutually induced e.m.f.
The e.m.f. induced in a coil due to the changing current in the
neighbouring coil is called mutually induced e.m.f.

Consider two coils A and B placed adjacent to each other as

shown in Fig. 1.43. A part of the magnetic flux produced by coil A
passes through or links with coil B. This flux which is common to
both the coils A and B is called mutual flux (φm). If current in coil
A is varied, the mutual flux also varies and hence e.m.f. is induced
in both the coils. The e.m.f. induced in coil A is called self-
induced e.m.f. . The e.m.f. induced in coil B is known as mutually
induced e.m.f. Fig. 1.43

The magnitude of mutually induced e.m.f. is given by Faraday’s laws i.e. 𝑒𝑚 = 𝑁𝐵d𝜑𝑚/dt where 𝑁𝐵 is the number of
turns of coil B and d𝜑𝑚/dt is the rate of change of mutual flux i.e. flux common to both the coils. The direction of
mutually induced e.m.f. (by Lenz’s law) is always such so as to oppose the very cause producing it. The cause producing
the mutually induced e.m.f. in coil B is the changing mutual flux produced by coil A. Hence the direction of induced
current (when the circuit is completed) in coil B will be such that the flux set up by it will oppose the changing mutual
flux produced by coil A.

The property of two neighboring coils to induce voltage in one coil due to the change of current in the other is called
mutual inductance.
8
Dynamically Induced E.M.F
The conductor is moved in a stationary magnetic field in such a way
that the flux linking it changes in magnitude. The e.m.f. induced in
this way is called dynamically induced e.m.f. (as in a d.c.
generator). It is so called because e.m.f. is induced in the conductor
which is in motion.
Consider a single conductor of length l metres moving at right
angles to a uniform magnetic field of B Wb/m2 with a velocity of v Fig. 1.40
m/s [See Fig. 1.40 (i)]. Suppose the conductor moves through a
small distance dx in dt seconds. Then area swept by the conductor
is = l × dx. Special case. If the conductor moves at angle θ to
the magnetic field [See Fig. 1.40 (ii)], then the
Flux cut, dΦ = Flux density × Area swept = B l dx Wb velocity at which the conductor moves across the
field is v sin θ.
According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, the
magnitude of e.m.f. e induced in the conductor is given by ; e = B l v sin θ
The direction of the induced e.m.f. can be
determined by Fleming’s right-hand rule.

9
2.3 Transformer
2.3.1 Introduction of Single-Phase Transformer
2.3.2 Working Principle of Transformer
2.3.3 Components of Transformer
2.3.4 Transformation Ratio
2.3.5 EMF Equation of Transformer
2.3.6 Types of Transformers
2.3.7 Load and No-Load Operation
2.3.8 Ideal and Practical Transformer
2.3.9 Losses and Efficiency
2.3.10 Applications

10
Introduction

• Transformer is a static electrical machine which transfer

electrical power from one circuit to another circuit .

• The two circuits are electrically isolated from each other but
they are linked by common magnetic flux via core.

Fig. 2.1 Block diagram representation of transformer

• While transferring the electrical power from one circuit to
another circuit, the voltage level of the second circuit may be
different from that of the first circuit, but the frequency of
both circuits remain same.

11
2.3.1 Introduction of Single-Phase
Transformer
• A single-phase transformer consists of primary and secondary windings
put on a magnetic core.
• Primary winding is connected to the AC source and secondary winding is
connected to the load. Magnetic core is used to confine flux to a definite
path.
• Two separate coils (windings) are wound on the two separate limbs of Fig. 2.2 Basic Construction of transformer
the core.. The coils are made of enamel insulated copper wire. The
winding connected to the supply main is called the primary and the
winding connected to the load circuit is called secondary.

• Transformer cores are made from thin sheets (called laminations) of high-grade silicon steel. The laminations
reduce eddy-current loss and the silicon steel reduces hysteresis loss.
• The laminations are insulated from one another by heat resistant enamel insulation coating. L-type and E-type
laminations are used. The laminations are built up into stack and the joints in the laminations are staggered to
minimize air gaps (which require large exciting currents). The laminations are tightly clamped.
• There are two basic types of transformer constructions, the core type and the shell type.

12
There are two basic types of transformer constructions, the core type and the shell type
Core-type Construction
In the core-type transformer, the magnetic circuit consists of two
vertical legs or limbs with two horizontal sections, called yokes. To
keep the leakage flux to a minimum, half of each winding is placed
on each leg of the core. The low-voltage winding is placed next
to the core and the high-voltage winding is placed around the
low-voltage winding to reduce the insulating material required.
Thus, the two windings are arranged as concentric coils. Such a
winding is, therefore, called concentric winding or cylindrical Fig. 2.4 Core-type transformer
winding.

Shell-type Transformer

In the shell-transformer, both primary and secondary windings are

wound on the central limb, and the two outer limbs complete the
low reluctance flux paths. Each winding is subdivided into
sections. Low-voltage (lv) and high-voltage (hv) subsections are
alternately put in the form of a sandwich. Such a winding is,
therefore, called sandwich or disc winding.

Fig. 2.5 Shell-type transformer 13

2.3.3 Components of Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another,
typically with different voltages. It consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped around a magnetic
core.
Key Components
1. Primary winding: This is the coil connected to the source of electrical power. The current
flowing through this winding creates a magnetic field.
2. Secondary winding: This is the coil that receives the induced voltage from the primary
winding. The number of turns in the secondary winding determines the output voltage.
3. Magnetic core: This is a ferromagnetic material (usually iron or steel) that provides a low-
reluctance path for the magnetic flux created by the primary winding.
It helps to concentrate the magnetic field and improve the efficiency of the transformer. The
magnetic core can be constructed in different shapes, such as a laminated core, a toroidal core, or
a shell-type core.

14
2.3.2 Working principle of transformer
When an AC source V 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 is connected to the primary winding, a
current flow through it. This current produces an alternating magnetic
flux (𝜙) in the core. Since this flux is alternating and links with the
secondary winding and induces an emf in the secondary winding
𝐸 according to the Faraday's law of electro-magnetic induction.

The frequency of the induced emf will be same as the frequency of the
magnetic flux which is same as that of supply voltage.
Due to induced emf, secondary winding delivers current to the load
connected across it, Thus, transforming energy from primary to
secondary windings by means of electro-magnetic induction. Fig.2.6 Circuit representation of transformer

The alternating flux in the core also links with the primary windings,
so produces self induced emf 𝐸 in the primary winding. This emf
opposes the applied voltage, thus sometime also called as 'back emf
and is responsible to limit the current in primary winding.

15
2.3.4 and 2.3.5 EMF Equation of Transformer and Transformation ratio
From fig 2.6, When one of the winding (say a-a’) is excited by ac voltage source ‘V1’,
• winding will draw some current (say I0)
• assume to be w i n d i n g t o b e purely inductive with zero resistance, the current I0 lags the supply V1 by 900 as
shown in Fig.2.7.
The iron core gets magnetized and magnetic flux will circulate through the iron core. The magnitude of magnetic flux is
given by:
N1.i0
 (2.1) Where, N1 = Number of turns in the coil a-a’
Re l i0 = Instantaneous value of current through the coil a-a’
Rel = Reluctance of the core.

Since the applied voltage v1 is alternating in nature, the current i0 also will
be alternating in nature. Hence, the magnetic flux () also will be alternating in
nature and in phase with i0 as shown in Fig.2.8.

Fig.2.7.Waveforms of input voltage, no-load current and emf induced

Fig.2.8 Waveforms of input voltage and magnetic flux

16
• The magnitude of magnetic flux in the core is changing with respect to time and it is
linking with the second coil on the another limb.
• Hence, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf (e2) will induce in
the second coil b-b’.
• If the load is connected across the second coil, electric current will circulate through
the load thus by transferring the electrical power from coil a-a’ to coil b-b’.
This is the operating principle of transformer
• The magnitude of emf induced in the secondary winding can be evaluated as follow:

According to 2nd law of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the average value of
emf induced (e2) is given by:

E 2(avg)  N d (2.2) Where, N = Number of turns in secondary winding

2 dt 2

d   Average rate of change of magetic flux

dt
From figure we can see that Magnetic flux changes from 0 to m in T/4 sec.
So, Average rate of change of flux is; ie Average emf induced per turn in volts= average rate of change of flux

d m  0 4.m 1
Hence,    4 f m (Because, f  )
dt T T T
4
17
 d  4 N RMS Value
 E
2(avg)
 N
2 dt 2
f m For sine- wave, formfactor   1.11
Average Value

 RMS value of emf induced in the secondary winding is given by:

E 2  4.44 N 2 f  m Volt (2.3)

- According to the Lenz’s law the direction of e2 at every instant opposes the
direction of v1 at every instant.
- As the magnetic flux also links with the primary winding, emf (e1) will also
induced in the primary winding.
-The direction of e1 at every instant opposes the direction of v1 at every instant.

-The magnitude of emf induced in the primary winding is given by:

E  4.44 N f  (2.4)
1 1 m

Now the primary winding is under the pressure of two voltages V1 and E1. The magnitude E1
will be little less than the magnitude of V1. Therefore, the current I0 is given by:
~ ~ -Where, Z1 is the impedance of the primary winding.
~ V1  E1
I0  (2.5)
Z
1 - Since E1 opposes the flow of current I0, it is also
~ ~ ~
OR V I Z E (2.6) known as back emf. Fig. 2.9 Phasor diagram
1 0 1 1

18
At no-load condition (i.e. secondary winding open), no
current flows through the secondary winding and no voltage drop
take place in the secondary winding internal impedance.

 V2 = E2, Where V2 is the load terminal voltage at

secondary side.

As the primary current (I0) at no-load condition is very small, the

voltage drop in the internal impedance of primary winding (I0
Z1) is very small.

 V1  E1 (Nearly equal)
The magnitude of emf induced in the secondary
Dividing eqn (2.3) by eqn (2.4) gives: winding depends upon the transformation ratio. The
following three cases may exist:
E2 4.44 N 2 f  N V Case-I : If N2 > N1, i.e. K > 1 , then V 2 > V 1
 m  2  2
E1 4.44N f  N V Such a transformer is known as step up transformer
1 m 1 1
Case-II : If N2 < N1, i.e. K < 1 , then V2 < V1
N Such a transformer is known as step down transformer
V  2 V  K.V (2.7)
2 N 1 1
1
Case-III : If N2 = N1, i.e. K = 1 , then V 2 = V 1
N Such a transformer is known as isolation transformer
Where, K  2  Transformation Ratio
N
1 19
2.3.8 Ideal and Practical Transformer
An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has the following properties:
(i) Its primary and secondary winding resistances are negligible.
(ii) The core has infinite permeability (𝜇) so that negligible mmf is required to establish the flux in the
core. i.e. no magnetizing current needed to set up flux in the core, i.e. zero reluctance
(iii) Its leakage flux and leakage inductances are zero. The entire flux is confined to the core and links
both windings.
(iv) There are no losses due to resistance, i.e hysteresis and eddy currents loss=0. Thus, the efficiency is
100 %.
It is to be noted that practical (commercial) transformer has none of these properties inspite of the
fact that its operation is close to ideal.

A practical transformer is one in which there are some energy losses inside the transformer due to
its core and winding characteristics. In simple words, a transformer which has some loss of energy
in it is known as practical transformer or real transformer. Therefore, the practical transformer can
represented by the following equation,
Ideal Transformer + Energy Losses = Practical Transformer
All the transformers that we achieve in real world are practical transformers, which have some
energy losses and efficiency less than 100%.
20
Illustrative example2.1:
The primary winding of a 50Hz transformer is supplied by 6600V and it has 520 turns. The
secondary winding has 260 turns. Calculate:
• Peak value of magnetic flux in the core
• Secondary voltage.

Solution:
The emf induced in the primary winding is give by:

E  4.44 N f  It is nearly equal to the applied voltage to primary winding(V ).

1 1 m 1

 V  4.44 N f 
1 1 m
V 6600
1
Or, Peak value of flux in the core = m  4.44 N  f  4.44 520 50  0.0572Wb
1
N
260
Secondary Voltage V 2  V1  2  6600  3300V
N1 520

21
2.3.7 Load and No-Load Operation of Transformer
When the primary winding is supplied by AC voltage source of rated voltage and
frequency, keeping secondary winding open without load as shown in Fig.2.10, such a
operation is known as no-load operation.
The current drawn by the primary winding (I0) is known as no-load primary current or exciting Fig.2.10 No-load operation of transformer
current.
• At no-load, output power from secondary winding is zero.
• Therefore no power is transferred from primary winding to secondary winding.
• Only emf is induced in the secondary winding.
• The power (VA) consumed by the primary winding is utilized to supply:
i) No-load power loss (Active Power loss due to heating of iron core)
ii) Reactive Power loss to establish the magnetic flux in the core.
Fig.2.11 Phasor diagram for no-load operation
Note: Active power loss α Current in phase with V1
Reactive power loss α Current lagging by 900 with V1
In ideal transformer, there is no losses in the core of the transformer, thus 𝐼 totally lags 𝑉 by 90. That means the no-
load current (I0) of a real transformer does not lag by 900 with V1 as explained in the operating principal of ideal
transformer. It lags by an angle ϕ0 which is less than 900. Therefore no-load current I0 has two components as shown in
the Fig.2.11.
I or I = Component of I0 in phase with V1, Iw = I0 Cos𝜙0 = Active or Loss component of I0 (for core losses)
I or I = Component of I0 which lags V1, by 900 , Iµ = I0 Sin𝜙0 = Magnetizing component of I0
22
The active power consumed by transformer at no-load is given by:
W0 = V1 I0 Cos𝜙0 = V1 Iw Watts (2.8)

This power will be lost within the transformer in heating the iron core. Hence, W0 is known as no-load power loss or iron loss of the
transformer. Therefore, the component Iw is responsible for producing heat loss in the iron core. Cos𝜙0 is known as no-load power
factor of the transformer.

The reactive power consumed by transformer at no-load is given by:

W0 = V1 I0 Sin 𝜙 0 = V1 Iµ Vars (2.9 )

This reactive power is utilized to maintain magnetic flux in the core. Therefore, the component Iµ is responsible for maintaining
magnetic flux in the iron core. Here it shall be noted that only reactive power can establish magnetic flux in magnetic circuit excited
by AC voltage.

From the phasor diagram , it can be written as:

I √I I 2.10

23
When the transformer is loaded as shown in Fig.2.12, Current (I2) will flow through the
secondary winding. Now the secondary mmf N2I2 will set up its own magnetic flux 2,
whose direction will be opposite to main flux . (as per Lenz’s law). This weakens the main
flux momentarily, ie back emf 𝐸 ends to reduce, thus difference between V and E will
cause more current to be drawn from source until V E

-At no-load, the output volt-amp(VA)=V2I2= 0 , but

Input VA=V1I0. This input volt-amp is lost within the transformer.

Fig.2.12 Loaded operation of transformer
-When the transformer is loaded, output VA = V2I2.
-Now in order to make power balance between primary winding and secondary
winding, some additional current I2’ will flow in the primary winding to increase the
power in primary winding.
-This additional current in the primary winding will set up additional magnetic flux According to magnetic circuit theory:
2’, whose magnitude is equal to 2 and direction is opposite to 2. Therefore, 2’
cancels 2. and net magnetic flux in the core remains constant and equal to main flux  N .I 𝑁1. 𝐼2′
  2 2 And 𝜑2′
irrespective of load. 2 RELUCTANCE 𝑅𝐸𝐿𝑈𝐶𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐶𝐸
-That means magnetic flux in the core remains constant at any load conditions.
The additional power in the primary winding should be equal to the power in
The reluctance for both the cases are equal.
the secondary winding. Now for power balance.
Therefore, 2 = 2’ and they cancel each other.
I2'V N
 V1.I2’ = V2.I2 OR  2  2
I2 V N
1 1

Or N1.I2’ = N2.I2 (Amp-turn balance ) 24

24
We have ,
, ∴I I I and I is very small
→I ≅I
Thus,
K

Fig: Equivalent circuit without leakage flux of loaded

transformer
In figure, R = loss resistance
X = Reactance
I R = heat loss due to resistance of primary winding (copper loss of primary winding)
Since, I changes with load.
∴ Copper loss is not constant. It depends on load.

I R = heat loss due to resistance of secondary winding(Copper loss of secondary winding)

Here, Cu-loss is also known as variable loss and iron loss is known as constant loss.
But if applied voltage 𝑉 is increased, then magnetizing current ( 𝐼 ↑ ) increases, which leads to increase in
active component of magnetizing current ( I ↑) and reactive component of magnetizing component (I ↑).
Hence, iron loss also increases.

25
Phasor diagram for transformer on different load condition

Fig. 2.13: phasor diagram for transformer on different load condition

1. For inductive load

2. For resistive load
3. For capacitive load.
In this phasor diagram of transformer on load operation the voltage drop on resistance and inductance
is neglected. The actual phasor diagram with voltage drop across the resistance and inductance of a
transformer is presented later on this slide.

26
Winding Resistance
In actual transformer both the windings, primary and secondary have finite resistances 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 which causes copper losses and
voltage drop in them.
If magnetic leakage is negligible,
The secondary terminal voltage is equal to phasor difference of secondary induced emf and voltage drop in the secondary winding i.e.
𝑽𝟐 𝑬𝟐 𝑰𝟐𝑅2 ; 𝐼2 and 𝑅2 is the secondary current and secondary winding resistance.
Similarly the counter emf of primary, 𝐸1 is equal to the phasor difference of voltage applied to the primary winding and voltage drop
in the primary winding i.e.
𝑬𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑰𝟏𝑅1 ; 𝐼1 and 𝑅1 is the primary current and primary winding resistance

Leakage Reactance/Flux
The flux which leaks out of the core and does not link both windings i.e. Φ𝐿1 and
Φ𝐿2 in fig. 2.15 are known as leakage flux.

• The primary leakage flux Φ𝐿1 is due to primary ampere-turns only, on no-load
it can be neglected.

• Φ𝐿1 is in phase with 𝐼1 and produce self-induced emf 𝐸𝐿1 2π𝑓𝐿1𝐼1in primary
winding ; 𝐿1is the self-inductance of the primary winding produced by primary
leakage flux Φ𝐿1.
Fig. 2.15 Magnetic leakage in transformer

27
In order to represent the effect of leakage flux, we add a
reactance in the equivalent circuit as follows. The
reactance of the primary winding, 𝑋1 can be obtained as

𝐸𝐿1 2π𝑓𝐿1𝐼1
𝑋1 2π𝑓𝐿 1
𝐼1 𝐼1

Similarly, the reactance of the secondary winding, 𝑋2

can be obtained as
𝐸𝐿2 2π𝑓𝐿2𝐼2
𝑋2 2π𝑓𝐿 2 Fig.: Exact equivalent circuit of transformer.
𝐼2 𝐼2

Here, I ′ X represent voltage drop due to leakage flux in primary winding.

Similarly, secondary winding will leave also some leakage which also increase with load current I .
This will also flux cause a reactance voltage drop in secondary winding.
Therefore, we introduce a reactance X in equivalent circuit.

R = internal resistance of PW
X = leakage reactance of PW
R = internal resistance of SW
X = leakage resistance of SW

28
2.3.9 Losses and Efficiency
• The input power of the transformer is equal to V1I1Cos 1

• The output power is equal to V2I2Cos 2.

• The output power of a transformer is always less than

the input power, because there are some power losses
within the transformer.
• There are mainly two types of power losses in
the transformer: i) Iron or Core loss or No-Load loss
and ii) Copper loss or Ohmic loss

i)Iron loss: This is the power loss due to heating of iron core of the transformer. This power loss is equal to the no-load power
loss and remains constant at any load.
It is power consumed to sustain the magnetic in the transformer steel core and it doesn’t vary with load.
Therefore, iron loss is also known as constant power loss. The power loss in the iron core take place mianly due to eddy current
loss and hysteresis loss. This loss is constant because, hysteresis loss and eddy current loss both depends on the magnetic properties of
the material used in construction and design.
a. Eddy current loss:
When the time varying magnetic flux circulates through the iron core, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
emf will also induce in the iron core. Because of this emf induced in the iron core, current will circulate within the iron core
and it is known as eddy current. The eddy current produces heat in the iron core, which is proportional to the square of the
induced eddy current. The power loss due to heat produced in the iron core due to eddy current is known as eddy current loss. In
order to reduce eddy current loss, the transformer core is made of laminated core rather than solid iron core.
29
b. Hysteresis loss:
Since the exciting current is alternating in nature, in every cycle of exciting current, the magnetic core undergoes
through the process of magnetic reversal thus by causing hysteresis power loss in every cycle.
In order to reduce the hysteresis loss, silicon steel is used to make the core of the transformer. About 0.3% to 4.5 % of
silicon is mixed with the steel by weight, which helps to reduce residual flux density and accordingly hysteresis loss
will reduce.
Above 5% of silicon content, the resulting alloy will be very brittle and can not be punched. The addition of silicon
with steel increases the resistivity of steel. Hence, the use of silicon steel also helps to reduce eddy current loss.

𝟐
𝐈𝐫𝐨𝐧 𝐋𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐕𝟏 𝐈𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛟𝟎 𝐨𝐫 𝐈𝐰 𝐑𝟎

ii) Copper loss: When the transformer is loaded, current flows through primary winding as well as secondary
winding. The internal resistance of the primary winding and the secondary winding produces heat due to current
flowing through them. The power loss due to the heat so produced is known as copper loss. The magnitude of copper
loss depends upon the square of current and can be calculate as follow:
Total copper loss = Copper loss in PW + Copper loss in SW = I12 R1 + I22 R2 ( A)
O r , Total copper loss = I12 R01 (referred to primary side parameter) = I22 R02 (watts)
It is clear from the eqn (A) that the copper loss of the transformer varies with the load current. Hence, it is also known as
variable loss.

30
Efficiency of a Transformer

Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to input power.

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
When transformer is loaded, output power increases,
At no load,
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝 𝑉 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
Input power is given by: Pin = V1I1Cos1 𝜂 0
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝 𝑉 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
Output power: Pout = Pin – Iron loss – Copper loss = V1I1Cos1 – Wi – I12 R01 Since ∴ 𝐼 0
Pout Pout
Efficiencyof transformer   pu. Or η  100 %
Pin Pin
V1. I1 Cos𝜑1 Wi I21𝑅01 𝑊 𝐼 𝑅
OR η B 𝜂 1
V1. I1 Cos𝜑1 𝑉 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑉 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙

From the eqn (B), it is clear that the efficiency of transformer varies with the load current.
At no-load, output power is zero and input power is V1I0Cos0 = Wi. Hence, the efficiency is zero at no-load. When the
load goes on increasing, the output power goes on increasing and efficiency also increases accordingly.

However, there is a limit on increasing the efficiency. At a particular value of load current, the efficiency becomes
maximum. Further increased in load beyond this value will cause decrease in efficiency.

At which particular value of load current, the efficiency will be maximum can be determined as follow:

31
 Equation (B) can be re-written as :
Wi I1 R01
η  1  Differentiating with respect to I 1, gives:
V1.I1 Cos1 V1. Cos1
Or, d   0  Wi R01 d
0
 Efficiencywill be maximum, when
dI1 V 1 .I 1 C o s  1
2
V1 . C o s  1 dI1
Wi R01 Wi R01
Or,  0 Or When 
V1 .I 1 Cos 1 V1. Cos1
2 V1 .I Cos 1
2
1 V1 . Cos  1

𝑊𝑖
Or W I R OR when 𝐼1
𝑅01
C
∴W W
Wi
Hence, efficiency will be maximum at I1  OR when Iron loss  Copper loss
R01

Fig.2.37 Variation of efficiency with load

32
Illustrative example:
A step-up single phase transformer supplies a current of 5 amp to the load at 200V at 0.8
lagging power factor. R1 = 0.5 ohm, X1 = 1 ohm, R2 = 2 ohm, X2 = 4 ohm, R0= 400 ohms, X0
= 240 ohms, turn ratio N2/N1 = 2. Find V1, I1 and input power factor.
Solution:
The equivalent circuit of the transformer is shown below:

Let 𝑉 be the reference phasor, i.e. 𝑉 200∠00

I2 lags V2 by 2, where 2 = Cos-1(0.8) = 36.870  I~  5   3 6 . 8 7 0

2
~ ~ ~
E2  V  I (R  jX ) = 20000 + (5-36.870).(2+j4)
2 2 2 2
~
Or E  2000 0  (5 - 36.87 0 ) (4.47263.430 )
2
220.2∠2.6 V

33
 ~' ~ N2
I2  I2   10  36.87 0
N
1
~ ~ N
E  E  1  110.12.6 0
1 2 N
2
~ ~ ~
And V  E  I ' .(R  jX ) 1102.6 0  (10-36.87 0).(0.5 j1)
1 1 2 1 1
~
V  120.294.7 0
1
~
~ V 120.294.70 𝑉 120.29 ∠4.7
I  1   0.501  85.30 IW    0.34.70
X0 240900 R0 400
~ ~ ~
I0  IW  I  (0.34.70 )  (0.501 -85.30)  0.5825- 54.53 0

~ ~ ~
I  I  I '  ( 10 - 36.87 0 ) + (0.5825 - 54.53 0 )  10.548 - 37.53 0
1 0 2
~ ~
Phase Angle between V and I    4.7 0 - (-37.530 )  42.230 I~ Lags V~ by 42.23 0
1 1 1 1 1
Hence, input power factor = Cos(42.230) = 0.74 lagging

34
All-day (or Energy) Efficiency
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

• There are certain types of transformers ( like distribution transformers) whose performance cannot be
judged by ordinary or commercial efficiency.
• They deliver very light loads for major portion of the day so iron or core loss occur for the whole day but
the copper loss occurs when the transformer is loaded.
• The performance of such transformer must be judged by its all-day efficiency, also called the energy
efficiency or operational efficiency which is computed on the basis of energy consumed during the whole
day (24 hours).

The all-day efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy (kWh) output over 24 hours to the energy input
over the same period.
i.e. 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ

35
36
37
2.4 Three phase induction motor

2.4.1 Construction
2.4.2 Rotating Magnetic Field
2.4.3 Working Principle
2.4.4 Direction of Rotor and Slip
2.4.5 Types of Rotors
2.4.6 Standstill and Running Condition
2.4.7 Modes of Operation
2.4.8 Torque Equations
2.4.9 Torque-Slip Characteristics
2.4.10 Applications

38
Introduction
Induction motor derives its name from the fact that ac voltage
are induced in the rotor circuit by rotating magnetic field of stator.

• Induction machine is a rotating electrical machine

operated by AC voltage source or which generates AC
voltage. It is widely used as motor in consumer
connected devices.
• In fact, about 50 percent of global electric power
consumption is due to induction motors.
• It can be used as generator as well as motor. It is not
common as generator.
• It also known as asynchronous machine, because it
never operates at synchronous speed.
• It is simple in construction and better operating
characteristics with compared to a dc motor, Fig: Stator and rotor of an induction motor
• Induction machines are widely used in various
industrial and domestic applications.
• Cheaper

39
2.4.1 Construction
An induction machine has three major parts namely- stator, rotor and yoke. Fig.5.1 shows a cross-
sectional view of a dc machine. The various parts of the machine are described below:
a) Stator:
• It is the stationary part of the machine in
cylindrical form with hallow space at the center.
• The stator core is made of laminated silicon steel.
The inner circumference of the stator core has
alternate number of slots and teeth.
• The slots are provided with stator windings made
of enamel insulated copper wire. In case of three- Fig.5.1 Cross-sectional view of induction machine
phase induction machine, the stator winding is
three-phase distributed winding with each phase
spaced 1200 electrically apart.
• The windings are insulated from the slots with
insulating paper. When the stator windings are
supplied by three-phase voltage, the winding
creates definite number of magnetic poles on the
stator core.
40
Fig.5.2 Example of three-phase stator winding

41
b) Rotor: It is the rotating part of the machine. It is cylindrical in shape
with a central shaft. The shaft is supported by bearing at both end so that it
can rotates freely keeping a small air gap of about 1 to 4mm between rotor
and stator. It is made of laminated silicon steel sheet. There are two types of
rotor i) Squirrel cage rotor and ii) Phase wound rotor
i) Squirrel cage rotor:
• This type of rotor is made of cylindrical laminated core with parallel
slots near by outer circumference as shown in Fig.5.3. These parallel
slots carry rotor conductors and ends of these conductors are short
circuited by copper rings known as end rings.
Fig.5.3 Squirrel cage rotor

• Low initial torque

• Most 3-phase IM use squirrel cage rotor as it has a
remarkably simple and robust construction enabling
it to operate in most adverse condition.
• Disadv: Low starting torque because rotor bars are
permanently short circuited and it is not possible to
add any external resistance to the rotor circuit.

42
ii) Phase wound rotor or Slip Ring:
• This type of rotor is also made of cylindrical laminated silicon steel
core, but it has open slots along the outer circumference on which 3-
phase winding is provided with same no. of poles as that in the stator
winding.
• The winding principle is same as that of the stator windings. The
three-phase rotor windings are connected in star and three ends of
rotor windings are connected to the three separate slip-rings mounted
on the shaft and the slip-rings are short circuited by the carbon
Fig.5.4 Phase wound rotor
brushes with or without external resistance as shown in Fig.5.4.
• The slip-rings are electrically insulated from the shaft. The slip-
rings rotates along with the shaft, but the carbon brushes are fixed
and always touching over the slip-rings.
• At starting the external resistance is included in the rotor circuit to give
large starting torque.
• When the motor attains normal speed the three brushes are short
circuited such that wound rotor run like squirrel cage rotor.

43
c) Yoke: It is the outermost frame of the machine. It houses the stator core and
provides mechanical protection of the whole machine.

Yoke

44
Rotating magnetic field
When the three phase stator windings are supplied by three phase balanced ac voltage source, three
phase currents will flow through the stator windings.
The stator winding will magnetize the stator core. Let us study the nature of magnetic field produced by
these three phase stator currents.
It produces a rotating magnetic field (RMF) (refer Fig a). As shown in the figure below a magnetic field
is produced which is rotating in nature.
Motor is supplied by balanced 3-𝜙 voltage of the
stator winding.
Let,
i I sinωt
i I sin ωt 120
i I sin ωt 240
These stator currents produce their own
magnetic flux, whose nature will be same that
of three phase stator currents ie alternating and
inphase.
ϕ ϕ sinωt
ϕ ϕ sin ωt 120
ϕ ϕ sin ωt 240 Fig a
45
 Fig.5.7 Phasor diagram of three-phase flux
Fig.5.6 Waveform of three-phase stator magnetic flux

The net air-gap magnetic flux is the sum of three individual magnetic flux produced by individual phase
current. Let us study the nature of net air-gap magnetic flux at any instant ie.. sum of ϕ ,ϕ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ϕ ,

46
Let us consider a two pole machine and suppose that each phase winding is concentrated in a slot as shown in
Fig.5.5. R and R’ represents the starting and finishing ends of the R-phase winding. The cross mark (×) indicate
the current entering inside (to load) and the dot mark () indicates the current coming out(from load) ie negative
current means current moving away from load.. Let us assume that the current is positive when it is flowing inside.

Fig.5.5 Distribution of magnetic flux due to three phase stator current

47
 When t = 00,
R = m Sint = 0
3
Y = m Sin(t – 1200) = m Sin(00 – 1200) =  2 m
3
B = m Sin(t – 2400 ) = m Sin(00 – 2400) =  
2 m

At this instant, flux produced by R-phase current is zero and net air-gap flux
is sum of Y and B. Their sum is shown in Fig.5.8.

The total air-gap flux is given by:

   2   2  2. . .Cos
T Y B Y B`
Fig.5.8 Total air gap flux at t = 00
3 3 3 3
OR   (  )2  (  )2  2.  . .Cos600  1.5
T 2 m 2 m 2 m 2 m m

Hence, net air-gap flux at t = 00 has a magnitude of 1.5 m and direction is downward.

48
 When t = 600, 3
R = m Sint = m 600 =  2 m
 3
Y = m Sin(t – 1200) = m Sin(600 – 1200) = 2 m
B = m Sin(t – 2400 ) = m Sin(600 – 2400) = 0

At this instant, flux produced by B-phase current is zero and net air-gap flux is sum of R and Y.
Their sum is shown in Fig.5.9.

Fig.5.9 Total air gap flux at t = 600

3
The total air-gap flux is given by:   (  )2  ( 3  )2  2. 3  3
. .Cos600  1.5
T 2 m 2 m 2 m 2 m m

Hence, the net air-gap flux at t = 600 has a magnitude of 1.5 m (same as before) and direction is as shown in Fig.5.9.
Which has rotated by 600 in clockwise direction with compare to that for ωt =00.

49
At this instant, flux produced by Y-phase current is zero and net air-gap flux is sum of R and B. Their sum is
shown in Fig.5.10.

Fig.5.10 Total air gap flux at t = 1200

The total air-gap flux is given by:   ( 3  )2  ( 3  )2  2. 3  3

. .Cos600  1.5
T 2 m 2 m 2 m 2 m m

Hence, it is clear from the above mathematical and phasor analysis that the net air gap flux has a constant magnitude of
1.5 𝜙 at any instant and its direction is rotating in clockwise direction with a constant speed. Such a magnetic field is known
as rotating magnetic field. The speed of the rotating magnetic field is known as synchronous speed and is given by:

120. f f = Frequency of voltage applied to the stator winding

N 
S P P = Number of magnetic pole for which the stator winding is wound.

50
Operating principle of three-phase induction motor

• When the stator winding is supplied by three phase balanced ac voltage

source, three phase currents 𝑖 , 𝑖 , 𝑖 will flow through the stator windings.
• This will produce a rotating magnetic field in a air gap, this rmf cuts the rotor
conductor (which are at rest at starting).
• Thus, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf will induced
in the rotor conductors. As the rotor conductors are short circuited by end rings at
both ends, there is a closed path and current will circulate through the rotor
conductors.
• Now the current carrying rotor conductors are lying in the magnetic field, hence
force will develop on the rotor conductors. Under the action of the force so
developed, the rotor starts rotating. Hence, main cause of induced current in the
rotor conductor is the relative speed between rotating field and rotor.

51
 In which direction the rotor will rotates??
Direction of Rotor and Slip
At starting, if N is the speed of rotor, N=0
∴Relative Speed = 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 0 𝑁
This can be determined with the help of Lenz’s law.
According to Lenz’s law, the direction of induced current will be such that the magnetic field produced by the
induced current opposes the cause by which it was induced. Here, the main cause of induction of rotor
current is the relative speed between magnetic field and rotor conductor. Hence the direction of induced
current in the rotor will be in such a direction which will produced force in the conductors in such a
direction that the rotor rotates to reduce the relative speed between magnetic field and rotor conductors. That
means, the rotor rotates in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field.
(Simply, according to Lenz law, the direction of force on the rotor will be such that to reduce the
relative speed (ie tried to decrease the flux cut process).

The rotor will try to catch-up the synchronous speed 𝑖𝑒 𝑁 𝑁 of the rotating magnetic field, but it never success
to do so. If the rotor rotates with synchronous speed, there will no relative speed (=0) between magnetic field and
rotor conductors, hence no emf (emf=0) and current (current=0) will induce in the rotor conductors and no
force will develop on the rotor conductors. Hence rotor slows down ie N decreases. Once again N 𝑁 , the flux
again cuts rotor conductor and emf 0 and rotor current 0. Therefore, the rotor always rotates at a speed less than
the synchronous speed. That is why an induction motor is also known as asynchronous motor.

52
Let N = speed of the rotor (in RPM)
Ns  N is a factor indicating the fraction by which the speed of the rotor is less than the synchronous speed. This factor is
Ns known as ‘Slip’.

 Slip s  Ns  N
(5.3)
The difference between the speed of
Ns the stator field, known as Synchronous
For example: If number of magnetic pole P = 4 and f = 50 Hz speed 𝑁 and the actual speed of the
rotor N is know as the slip and it is
120. f 120 50  1500 RPM If the rotor rotates at N = 1470 RPM
Then NS  
denoted by ‘S’ .Normally it is
P 4
expressed as a fraction of 𝑁
Then slip 1500 1470  0.02 pu
S 1500

That means, the speed of the rotor is 2% less than the synchronous speed. The slip of the motor
changes with load on the shaft. If the load on the shaft of the motor increases, the speed of the rotor
decreases and the value of slip increases.

At starting, rotor speed is zero. The relative speed between magnetic field and rotor conductors (NS –
N) is maximum. Therefore, maximum emf will induce in the rotor conductors at the starting and
maximum current will flow in the rotor conductors and accordingly the stator will draw maximum
current at starting. At starting, the electric circuit of induction motor is similar to that of a
transformer. The stator winding acts as primary winding and rotor conductors acts as secondary
winding. Hence, the frequency of emf induced in the rotor at starting is equal to the frequency of
voltage applied to the stator winding and the magnitude of emf induced in the rotor circuit at starting
is given by: 53
 N
E  2E (5.4)
2 N 1
1
Where,
E1 = emf induced in the stator winding per phase
N1 = Numbers of turn per phase in the stator winding N2 = Numbers of turn
per phase in the rotor winding

At starting, the frequency of emf induced E2, will be equal to the frequency of applied input voltage just like in
transformer.
120. f Ns.P
N  OR f 
S P 120

When the rotor rotates, the relative speed between rotating magnetic field and rotor conductors decreases.
Therefore, the magnitude of emf induced in the rotor conductors reduces to:
ER = s.E2 (5.5)
Frequency of emf induced in rotor circuit also decreases to:

(Ns.- N)P f (N - N)P/120 (N - N)

f  OR R  s  s s OR fR = s.f (5.6)
R 120 f N s .P/120 Ns.

54
Standstill and Running Condition
Stand still condition is the instant of starting, when the speed of rotor is zero. (Completely stationary)
• At this instant, the relative speed (NS – N) is maximum and slip is maximum ( s =1 ) and emf induced in the rotor
circuit is maximum. ie N = 0 and slip = 100%
This condition is similar to the transformer operation with stator winding as primary winding and rotor circuit as
secondary winding. Hence, the electrical equivalent circuit of three-phase induction motor at stand-still is same as
that of a transformer. Fig.5.11 shows the per phase equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction motor at standstill.
Here, V1 = Supply voltage to stator winding per phase I1 =
Stator current per phase
I0 = No-load stator current per phase
E1 = Stator emf per phase
E2 = Rotor emf at stand-still per phase R1 =
Stator winding resistance per phase
X1 = Stator winding leakage reactance per phase R2 =
Rotor winding resistance per phase Fig.5.11 Per phase equivalent circuit of three phase
X2 = Rotor winding leakage reactance per phase at standstill
I2 = Rotor current per phase at stand-still induction motor at standstill

Rotor current = Maximum and lagging behind induced EMF by 90 degrees.

Torque = Maximum, but it is a reactive torque and does not contribute to the motors mechanical output.
Power factor = Low and Lagging
Starting current = High, typically 5 to 7 times the rated current.
55