ANALOG AND DIGITAL

COMMUNICATION (IT 221)

Course Coordinator
Dr. Deepa Sharma
IIIT Bhopal
SYLLABUS
 Introduction: Basic blocks in a communication system: transmitter, channel and receiver;
baseband and pass band signals and their representations; concept of modulation and
demodulation.

 Continuous wave (CW) modulation: AM, DSB/SC, SSB, VSB, methods of generation;
Demodulation techniques of CW modulation: coherent and non-coherent;

 Nonlinear modulation techniques: FM and PM, narrowband FM, wideband FM, methods of
generation; FM spectrum; Demodulation techniques for FM;

 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM); Radio transmitters and receivers.

 Performance of analog modulation schemes in AWGN : CNR, post-demodulation SNR and

figure of merit for AM, DSB/SC, SSB, FM, threshold effect in FM, pre-emphasis and de-
emphasis in FM, FMFB. Noise in receivers; Noise figures; Radio link design.

 Signal analysis and analog modulation: Analog signal, digital, convolution correlation,
autocorrelation, of analog modulation, amplitude and angle modulation, spectral analysis and
relation, noise source, band pass noise, noise performance of AM and FM signal.
SYLLABUS
 Pulse Modulation: Natural sampling, flat top sampling, sampling theorem, PAM,
bandwidth, pulse time modulation method of generation and detection of PAM, and PPM,
time division multiplexing, Noise in pulse modulation system.

 Pulse code modulation: Quantization of signal, quantization errors, PCM, PCM system,
comp multiplexing PCM system, differential PCM, delta modulation, adaptive delta
modulation, noise in PCM system.

 Information theory and Coding: Unit of information, entropy, Joint and conditional
entropy, information rate mutual information, channel capacity of BSC, BEC and binary
channel theorem Shannon Harte’y theorem, bandwidth S/N trade off, average length of
code control coding, Hamming distance block code, convolution code

 Digital Communication: Differential phase shift keying (DPSK), quadrature phase shift
k (QPSK), M- ray PSK, Binary frequency shift keying (BESK), comparison of DPSK
QPSK, M-ray FSK, duo binary encoding, base band signal reception, probability of
optimum filter, matched filter.
BOOKS

 Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems B. P. Lathi,

 Communication Systems Simon Haykins

 Communication Systems A. B. Carlson

 Analog & Digital Communication R.P. Singh & Sapre

 Communication Engineering Rao

INTRODUCTION

Basic blocks in a communication system: transmitter, channel and receiver

 INTRODUCTION
 The source originates a message, such as a human voice, a television picture, an e-mail
message, or data.

 If the data is nonelectric (e.g., human voice, e-mail text, a scene), it must be converted by an
input transducer into an electric waveform referred to as the message signal through
physical devices such as a microphone, a computer keyboard, or a charge-coupled device
(CCD) camera.

 The transmitter transforms the input (message) signal into an appropriate form for efficient
transmission.

 The transmitter may consist of one or more subsystems: an analog-to-digital (A/D)

converter, an encoder, and a modulator.
INTRODUCTION
 The channel is a medium of choice that can convey the electric signals at the transmitter
output over a distance.

 A typical channel can be a pair of twisted copper wires (e.g., in telephone and DSL),
coaxial cable (e.g. in television and Internet), an optical fiber, or a radio cellular link.

 The receiver reprocesses the signal received from the channel by reversing the signal
transformation made at the transmitter and removing the distortions caused by the
channel.

 The receiver may consist of a demodulator, a decoder, and a digital-to-analog (D/A)

converter.

 The receiver output is passed to the output transducer, which converts the electric signal to
its original form—the message.
IMPORTANT TERMS
 Analog signals generated by the message sources or digital signals generated through A/D
conversion of analog signals are often referred to as baseband signals because they typically are
low pass in nature.

 A carrier is a sinusoid of high frequency. A commonly used carrier is a sinusoidal wave, the
source of which is physically independent of the source of the information-bearing signal.

 Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristic of a carrier wave is

varied in accordance with an information-bearing signal.
or

 Through modulation, one of the carrier sinusoidal parameters—such as amplitude, frequency, or

phase—is varied in proportion to the baseband signal m(t). Respectively, we have amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), or phase modulation (PM).

 In AM, the carrier amplitude varies linearly with m(t); and in FM, the carrier frequency varies
linearly with m(t).

 To reconstruct the baseband signal at the receiver, the modulated signal must pass through a
reverse process called demodulation.
Modulation: (a) Carrier; (b) Modulating (Baseband) Signal;
(c) Amplitude modulated Wave; (d) Frequency modulated Wave
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
 Consider a sinusoidal carrier wave

where Ac: carrier amplitude and fc: carrier frequency and m(t):information-bearing signal or
message signal.

 Amplitude modulation (AM) is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is
varied about a mean value, linearly with the message signal.

where ka is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator responsible for the
generation of the modulated signal.

the carrier amplitude Ac & the message signal m(t) are measured in volts and the amplitude
sensitivity is measured in volt-1.
Illustration of the amplitude modulation process.
(a) Message signal m(t)
(b) AM wave for ka m(t) <1 for all t.
(c) AM wave for | ka m(t)| >1for some t.
With Ac =1 volt.
 In amplitude modulation, information pertaining to the message signal m(t) resides solely in the
envelope, which is defined as the amplitude of the modulated wave s(t) that is, Ac |1+ ka m(t) |.

 The envelope of s(t) has the same shape as the message signal m(t) provided that two
conditions are satisfied:

 The amplitude of ka m(t) is always less than unity, i.e.

It ensures that the function (1+ ka m(t)) is always positive (fig b). When the amplitude
sensitivity ka of the modulator is large enough to make | ka m(t)| >1 for any t, the carrier
wave becomes over modulated, resulting in carrier phase reversals whenever the factor 1+
ka m(t) crosses zero. The modulated wave then exhibits envelope distortion (fig c). The
absolute maximum value of ka m(t) multiplied by 100 is referred to as the percentage
modulation

 The carrier frequency is much greater than the highest frequency component W of the
message signal,

W: the message bandwidth. If the above condition is not satisfied, an envelope cannot be
visualized (and therefore detected) satisfactorily.
 If these two conditions are satisfied, demodulation of the AM wave is achieved by using an
envelope detector, which is defined as a device whose output traces the envelope of the AM
wave acting as the input signal.

 The frequency-domain description of AM:

Let , where the Fourier transform M(f) is called the message spectrum. The
Fourier transform or spectrum of the AM wave is

Where

δ(f) denotes the Dirac delta function in the frequency domain.

 The condition fc >W ensures:

i)lower and upper sidebands do not

overlap.

ii) the spectrum of m(t) for negative

frequencies extending from –W to

0 becomes completely visible for

positive frequencies.

Fig. (a) Spectrum of message signal m(t).

b) Spectrum of AM wave s(t).
 For positive frequencies, the highest frequency component of the AM wave equals fc +W and
the lowest frequency component equals fc – W. The difference between these two frequencies
defines the transmission bandwidth of the AM wave, which is exactly twice the message
bandwidth W; that is, BT =2W.
TUTORIAL
 The AM wave is a voltage or current wave. In either case, the average power delivered to a 1-
ohm resistor by s(t) is comprised of three components:

 the ratio of the total sideband power to the total power in the modulated wave

 If μ=1 or 100 percent modulation is used,the total power in the two side frequencies of the
resulting AM wave is only one-third of the total power in the modulated wave.
Envelope detection

 The envelope detector is effective when two conditions are satisfied,

 The AM wave is narrowband, i.e. Fc >W

 The percentage modulation in the AM wave is less than 100 percent

 consists of a diode and resistor-capacitor (RC) filter.

 Working: On a positive half-cycle of the input signal, the diode is forward-biased and the
capacitor C charges up rapidly to the peak value of the input signal. When the input signal falls
below this value, the diode becomes reverse-biased and the capacitor C discharges slowly through
the load resistor The discharging process continues until the next positive half-cycle. When the
input signal becomes greater than the voltage across the capacitor, the diode conducts again and
the process is repeated.
Envelope detector for AM.
 Assume,

 the diode is ideal, presenting resistance rf to current flow in the forward-biased region
and infinite resistance in the reverse-biased region.

 AM wave applied to the envelope detector is supplied by a voltage source of internal

impedance Rs .The charging time constant (rf +Rs)C must be short compared with the
carrier period ,that is,

so that the capacitor C charges rapidly and thereby follows the applied voltage up to the
positive peak when the diode is conducting.

 The discharging time constant must be long enough to ensure that the capacitor
discharges slowly through the load resistor between positive peaks of the carrier wave,
but not so long that the capacitor voltage will not discharge at the maximum rate of
change of the modulating wave— that is,
 Transmitted power and channel bandwidth are two primary communication resources and they
should be used efficiently.

 The amplitude modulation suffers from two major practical limitations:

 AM is wasteful of transmitted power :

 The transmission of the carrier wave represents a waste of power

 In AM only a fraction of the total transmitted power is actually affected by m(t).

 AM is wasteful of channel bandwidth:

 The upper and lower sidebands of an AM wave are uniquely related to each other by
virtue of their symmetry about the carrier frequency;

 Hence, given the amplitude and phase spectra of either sideband, we can uniquely
determine the other.

 Therefore, only one sideband is necessary, and the communication channel therefore
needs to provide only the same bandwidth as the message signal.
 To overcome these limitations of AM, we trade off system complexity for improved utilization
of communication resources,

 Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation: the transmitted wave

consists of only the upper and lower sidebands. Transmitted power is saved here through
the suppression of the carrier wave, but the channel bandwidth requirement is the same
as before (i.e., twice the message bandwidth).

 Single sideband (SSB) modulation: the modulated wave consists only of the upper
sideband or the lower sideband. Single sideband modulation is particularly suited for the
transmission of voice signals by virtue of the energy gap that exists in the spectrum of
voice signals between zero and a few hundred hertz. SSB is the optimum form of
continuous-wave modulation in that it requires the minimum transmitted power and
minimum channel bandwidth; its principal disadvantages are increased complexity and
limited applicability.
 Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation: one sideband is passed almost completely and just a
trace, or vestige, of the other sideband is retained. The required channel bandwidth is
slightly in excess of the message bandwidth by an amount equal to the width of the
vestigial sideband. This form of modulation is well suited for the transmission of
wideband signals such as television signals that contain significant components at

extremely low frequencies.

 DOUBLE SIDEBAND-SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSB-
SC) MODULATION
 DSB-SC signal is given by,

 Product modulator used to generate the DSB-SC.

 Unlike amplitude modulation, DSB-SC modulation is reduced to zero whenever the message
signal is switched off. The modulated signal undergoes a phase reversal whenever the
message signal crosses zero. The envelope of a DSB-SC modulated signal is therefore
different from the message signal, which means that simple demodulation using an envelope
detector is not a viable option for DSB-SC modulation.

 The Fourier transform of s(t),

Where
 DSB-SC modulation transmission bandwidth =2W.

 Advantage lies in saving transmitted power

(a) Spectrum of message signal (b) Spectrum

(a) Message signal (b) DSB-SC modulated of DSB-SC modulated wave s(f)
wave s(t).
COHERENT DETECTION OR SYNCHRONOUS
DEMODULATION

 The recovery of the message signal can be accomplished by first multiplying with a locally
generated sinusoidal wave and then low-pass filtering the product. It is assumed that the
local oscillator signal is exactly coherent or synchronized, in both frequency and phase,
with the carrier wave used in the product modulator to generate s(t).

Block diagram of coherent detector, assuming that the local oscillator is out of
phase by with respect to the sinusoidal carrier oscillator in the transmitter.
 Let the local oscillator signal is

 The first term in eqn. represents a new DSB-SC modulated signal with carrier frequency
whereas the second term is proportional to the message signal

 Spectrum V(f),
 The LP filter output

 The demodulated signal vo(t) is therefore proportional to m(t) when the phase error
is a constant., and |vo(t)| =max, when ϕ= 0 and |vo(t)| =min, when ϕ= ±π/2.

 The zero demodulated signal, which occurs for ϕ= ±π/2 represents the
quadrature null effect.

 In practice, the phase error ϕ varies randomly with time due to random variations
in the communication channel, which is undesirable. Therefore, provision must be
made in the system to maintain the local oscillator in the receiver in synchronism, in
both frequency and phase, with the carrier wave used to generate the DSB-SC
modulated signal in the transmitter. The resulting system complexity is the price that
must be paid for suppressing the carrier wave to save transmitted power.
COSTAS RECEIVER
COSTAS RECEIVER
 It consists of two coherent detectors supplied with the same input signal but with
two local oscillator signals that are in phase quadrature with respect to each
other.

 The detector in the upper path is referred to as the in-phase coherent detector or
I-channel, and the detector in the lower path is referred to as the quadrature-
phase coherent detector or Q-channel.

 These two detectors are coupled together to form a negative feedback system
designed in such a way as to maintain the local oscillator in synchronism with
the carrier wave.
SINGLE-SIDEBAND MODULATION
 SSB modulation relies solely on the lower sideband or upper sideband to transmit
the message signal across a communication channel. Depending on which
particular sideband is actually transmitted, we speak of lower SSB or upper SSB
modulation.

 First considering sinusoidal modulating wave, and then we generalize the results
to an arbitrary modulating signal in a step-by-step manner.

 A sinusoidal SSB modulated wave is defined as,

 With the generalization of above equation, we next proceed in two

stages. In stage 1, we let the message signal be periodic; and in stage
2, we let it be non-periodic.
 Consider a periodic message signal defined by the Fourier series

 Therefore the SSB modulated wave in terms of Fourier series,

 Let us consider another periodic signal defined by the Fourier series

 The SSB modulated wave

 Observation

 We know from Fourier analysis that under appropriate conditions, the Fourier
series representation of a periodic signal converges to the Fourier transform
of a non-periodic signal

 The signal is the Hilbert transform of the signal m(t). A Hilbert transformer
is a system whose transfer function is defined

where sgn(f) is the signum function.

Transfer function of an
ideal π/2 phase shifter
(Hilbert transformer).
 The Hilbert transformer is a wide-band phase-shifter whose
frequency response is characterized as

 The magnitude response is unity for all frequencies, both positive

and negative.

 The phase response is +90o for negative frequencies and -90o for
positive frequencies.
SSB spectra from suppressing one DSB
sideband.
MODULATORS FOR SSB
 Frequency Discrimination Method

 The product modulator produces a DSB-SC modulated wave with an upper

sideband and a lower sideband. The band-pass filter is designed to transmit one of
these two sidebands, depending on whether the upper SSB or lower SSB is the
desired modulation.
 For the design of the band-pass filter
to be practically feasible, there must
be a certain separation between the
two sidebands that is wide enough to
accommodate the transition band of
the band-pass filter. This separation
is equal to where is the lowest
frequency component of the message
signal(fig. ). This requirement limits
the applicability of SSB modulation.
Phase Discrimination Method

 It consists of two parallel paths, one called the in-phase path and the other called the
quadrature path.
 The wide-band phase-shifter, which is designed to produce the Hilbert transform in
response to the incoming message signal.

 The role of the quadrature path embodying the wide-band phase shifter is merely to
interfere with the in-phase path so as to eliminate power in one of the two sidebands,
depending on whether upper SSB or lower SSB is the requirement.

COHERENT DETECTION OF SSB

The coherent detector applies equally well to the demodulation of both DSB-SC and
SSB;
Vestigial Sideband Modulation
 Single-sideband modulation works satisfactorily for an information-bearing signal
(e.g., speech signal) with an energy gap centered around zero frequency.

 for the spectrally efficient transmission of wideband signals, we have to look to a

new method of modulation for two reasons:

1. Typically, the spectra of wideband signals (exemplified by television video

signals and computer data) contain significant low frequencies, which make it
impractical to use SSB modulation.

2. DSBSC requires a transmission bandwidth equal to twice the message

bandwidth, which violates the bandwidth conservation requirement.

To overcome these two practical limitations, we need a compromise

method of modulation that lies somewhere between SSB and DSB-SC
in its spectral characteristics.
 the transmission bandwidth of a VSB modulated signal is

where fv is the vestige bandwidth and W is the message bandwidth. Typically, fv is 25

percent of W.

VSB Modulator using Frequency Discrimination

Amplitude response of sideband-shaping filter; only the
positivefrequency portion is shown, the dash
COHERENT DETECTION OF VSB

 The demodulation of VSB consists of multiplying with a locally generated

sinusoid and then low-pass filtering

 It is assumed that the local sinusoid in the coherent detector is in perfect

synchronism with the carrier in the modulator responsible for generating the
VSB-modulated wave.
the VSB modulated wave as
 TUTORIAL

Q1. For a baseband signal

i. Determine the DSB-SC signal, and sketch its spectrum.

ii. Identify the upper and lower sidebands (USB and LSB).

iii. Determine the demodulated signal by the demodulator and sketch its spectrum.
ASSIGNMENT
 Questions provide.
 Superhetrodyne receiver
 FDM
MINI TEST

Q1. For a baseband signal 6

i. Draw the modulator to generate the Double sideband-suppressed carrier

signal. Also define it mathematically and sketch spectrum of modulating
signal, carrier signal and modulated signal.
ii. Identify the upper and lower sidebands (USB and LSB). Determine the
bandwidth and power required to transmit it.
iii. Draw the demodulator to regenerate modulating signal. Express
mathematically the demodulated signal and sketch its spectrum.
Q2. i. An AM signal is detected using an envelope detector. The carrier 4
frequency and modulation signal frequency are 1 MHz and 2 KHz
respectively. An appropriate value for the time constant of the envelope
detector is ………..
ii. If modulation index of an AM wave is increased from 1.5 to 2,
then the transmitted power is ……………
iii. For a message signal m(t) = cos(2 m t) and carrier of frequency fc.
Which of the following represents a single side-band signal?
(a) cos(2 mt) cos(2 c t) (b) cos(2 c t)
(c) cos(2 ( c + m )t (d) [1 + cos(2 m t)]. cos(2 c t)

iv ………… modulator and …………… demodulator is used to generate

vestigial sideband modulated signal.
ANGLE MODULATION
Angle modulation:

 Angle of the carrier wave is varied according to the information-bearing signal.

 Amplitude of the carrier wave is constant

 Provide better discrimination against noise and interference (than amplitude

modulation) at the cost of increased transmission bandwidth and increased system
complexity in both the transmitter and receiver.

 Let θi (t): the angle of a modulated sinusoidal carrier at time t; it is

assumed to be a function of message signal. The resulting angle-
modulated wave as

where Ac is the carrier amplitude.

 A complete oscillation occurs whenever the angle θi (t) changes by 2π radians. If
θi (t) increases monotonically with time, then the average frequency in Hz, over a
small interval from t to t+Δt is given by

 When Δt approach zero leads to definition for the instantaneous frequency of the
angle-modulated signal s(t),
 Phase modulation (PM) is that form of angle modulation in which the
instantaneous angle θi (t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t),

the constant kp represents the phase sensitivity factor of the modulator,

expressed in radians per volt on the assumption that m(t) is a voltage
waveform.

 Frequency modulation (FM) is that form of angle modulation in

which the instantaneous frequency fi (t) is varied linearly with the
message signal m(t),

the constant kf represents the frequency-sensitivity factor of the

modulator, expressed in hertz per volt on the assumption that m(t) is a
voltage waveform.
 Integrating above eqn with respect to time and multiplying the result by 2π we
get

 where the second term accounts for the increase or decrease in the instantaneous
phase θi (t) due to the message signal The frequency-modulated wave is
Summary of Basic Definitions in Angle Modulation
 Properties of Angle-Modulated Waves

 Constancy of transmitted power: the average transmitted power of angle-

modulated waves

where it is assumed that the load resistor is 1 ohm

 Nonlinearity of the modulation process: violate the principle of superposition.

For eg.

Let s(t), s1 (t) and s2 (t) denote the PM waves produced by m(t), m1 (t) and m2 (t)
respectively. Therefore,
 Irregularity of zero-crossings: the zero-crossings of a PM or FM wave no
longer have a perfect regularity in their spacing across the time-scale. The
irregularity of zero-crossings in angle-modulated waves is also attributed to the
nonlinear character of the modulation process

 Visualization difficulty of message waveform

 Tradeoff of increased transmission bandwidth for improved noise

performance: the transmission of a message signal by modulating the angle of a
sinusoidal carrier wave is less sensitive to the presence of additive noise than
transmission by modulating the amplitude of the carrier. The improvement in
noise performance is, however, attained at the expense of a corresponding

increase in the transmission bandwidth requirement of angle modulation.

Illustration of AM, PM, and FM
waves produced by a single
tone. (a) Carrier wave. (b)
Sinusoidal modulating signal.
(c) Amplitude-modulated
signal. (d) Phase-modulated
signal. (e) Frequency modulated
signal.
 Relationship Between PM and FM Waves
Narrow-Band Frequency Modulation

 FM wave is a nonlinear function of the modulating wave, which makes the spectral
analysis of the FM wave a difficult task than that of the corresponding AM wave.

 How then can we tackle the spectral analysis of an FM wave?

 First consider the simple case of a single-tone modulation that produces a

Narrowband FM Wave.

 Next consider the more general case also involving a single-tone modulation, but
this time the FM Wave Is Wide-band.
 Consider a sinusoidal modulating wave

 The instantaneous frequency of FM wave,

 Δf is called the frequency deviation, representing the maximum departure of the

instantaneous frequency of the FM wave from the carrier frequency

 Frequency deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal and is

independent of the modulating frequency
 the angle θi (t) of the FM wave

 The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulation frequency is called as the
modulation index of the FM wave (β).

 Therefore,

 the parameter β represents the phase deviation of the FM wave i.e. the maximum
departure of the angle θi (t) (radians) from the angle 2πfc t of the unmodulated carrier.
 The FM wave is

 For narrow-band FM wave, β << 1 radian. Therefore, the following two

approximations for all times t,
 Above eqn. defines the approximate form of a narrow-band FM wave produced by the
sinusoidal modulating wave and corresponding modulator is given,

Fig. Block diagram of an Indirect Method for generating a narrow-band

FM wave.
 we may expand further sinusoidal FM wave into three frequency components,

 This expression is somewhat similar to the corresponding one defining sinusoidal

AM wave

 Comparing above Eqs., the Relation Between AM Wave And A Narrow-band FM

wave is

 the algebraic sign of the lower side-frequency in the narrow-band FM is

reversed.

 a narrow-band FM wave requires essentially the same transmission bandwidth

(i.e., for sinusoidal modulation) as the AM wave
Phasor interpretation

 The carrier phasor consider as

reference.

 The resultant of the two side-frequency

phasors is always at right angles to the
carrier phasor. The effect of this
geometry is to produce a resultant
phasor representing the narrow-band
FM wave that is approximately of the
same amplitude as the carrier phasor,
but out of phase with respect to it.

 The resultant phasor corresponding AM

wave has a different amplitude from
that of the carrier phasor, but always in
phase with it.
WIDE-BAND FREQUENCY MODULATION
 Next, Determine the spectrum of the single-tone FM wave defined for an arbitrary
value of the modulation index,

 Using the complex baseband representation of a modulated signal and assume that the
carrier frequency is large enough (compared to the bandwidth of the FM wave)

is the complex envelope of the FM wave and is a periodic function of time with a
fundamental frequency equal to the modulation frequency fm
 Expand in terms of complex fourier series

 Therefore,

 The nth order Bessel Function of the first kind and argument β is defined as,
 the complex envelope of the FM wave

 Is the desired form for the Fourier series expansion of the single-tone FM signal for
an arbitrary value of modulation index β. The discrete spectrum of s(t) is obtained by
taking the Fourier transforms,

 the spectrum of s(t) consists of an infinite number of delta functions spaced at

f =fc ±n fm for n=0,1.2….
Properties of Single-tone FM for Arbitrary Modulation Index
 Bessel function Jn (β) versus the modulation index for different positive
integer values of n,
Properties of Bessel’s Function
Observations:

 The spectrum of an FM wave contains a carrier component and an infinite set of

side frequencies located symmetrically on either side of the carrier at frequency
separations of fm ,2 fm , 3fm , ……

 For the special case of β <1, only the Bessel coefficients J0 (β) and J1 (β)
have significant values (from properties of Bessel’s Fn. ), so that the FM
wave is effectively composed of a carrier and a single pair of side-
frequencies at fc ± fm This situation corresponds to the special case of
narrow-band FM
 The amplitude of the carrier component varies with β according to J0 (β). When
the carrier is modulated to generate the FM wave, the power in the side-
frequencies may appear only at the expense of the power originally in the carrier,
thereby making the amplitude of the carrier component dependent on β. The
average power of an FM wave may also be determined

Or (from properties of Bessel’s Fn. )

 Transmission Bandwidth of FM Waves
CARSON’S RULE
Theoritically, an FM wave contains an infinite number of side-frequencies so the
bandwidth required to transmit such a modulated wave is infinite. In practice, the FM
wave is effectively limited to a finite number of significant side-frequencies
compatible with a specified amount of distortion.

 For large values of the modulation index, the bandwidth approaches slightly
greater than the total frequency excursion 2 Δf.

 For small values of the modulation index, the bandwidth approaches 2fm

Carson’s rule define an approximate rule for the transmission bandwidth of an FM

wave generated by a single-tone modulating wave of frequency fm as
Generation of FM Waves

fi (t) of FM wave varies linearly with m(t).

Direct Method

 A Sinusoidal Oscillator, with one of the reactive elements (e.g., Capacitor) in the
tank circuit of the oscillator being directly controllable by the m(t).

 Providing large frequency deviations.

 Limitation :carrier frequency drift, which is usually unacceptable for commercial

radio applications.

To overcome this limitation, frequency stabilization of FM generator is required,

which is realized through the use of feedback around the oscillator
Indirect Method: Armstrong Modulator

 The message signal is first used to produce a narrow-band FM, which is followed by
frequency multiplication to increase the frequency deviation to the desired level.

 The carrier-frequency stability problem is alleviated by using a highly stable

oscillator (e.g., crystal oscillator) in the narrowband FM generation; this modulation
scheme is called the Armstrong wide-band frequency modulator
 In order to minimize the distortion inherent in the phase modulator, the maximum
phase deviation or modulation index is purposely kept small, thereby resulting in a
narrow-band FM wave

 The narrow-band FM wave is next multiplied in frequency by means of a frequency

multiplier so as to produce the desired wide-band FM wave.

 A frequency multiplier consists of a memoryless nonlinear device followed by a

bandpass filter

Block diagram of frequency multiplier

 where a1, a2, … are coefficients determined by the operating point of the device, and
n is the highest order of nonlinearity (the memoryless nonlinear device is an nth
power-law device)

Demodulation of FM Signals

 Frequency modulator:

 output signal whose instantaneous frequency varies linearly with the amplitude
of the input message signal

 Frequency demodulation:

 output amplitude is sensitive to variations in the instantaneous frequency of the

input FM wave in a linear manner
Frequency Discriminator :

 Relies on slope detection followed by envelope detection.

 The FM Signal is given by

 The derivative is a band-pass signal with amplitude modulation defined by

[fc + kf m(t)].

 If fc is large enough such that the carrier is not overmodulated, then we can
recover the message signal with an envelope detector .

 Frequency discriminator is a demodulator that consists of a differentiator followed

by an envelope detector
 However, there are practical issues to implement differentiator which corresponds to
a linear transfer function

 Difficult to construct a circuit that has a transfer function for all frequencies. Instead,
we construct a slope circuit that approximates this transfer function over the band-
pass signal bandwidth

Where BT is the transmission bandwidth of the incoming FM signal s(t).

Frequency response of
an ideal slope circuit
 Block diagram of balanced frequency discriminator
 The output of the envelope detectors

 An overall output
 Phase-locked loop

 Major components:

 Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), which performs frequency modulation on

its own control signal.

 Multiplier, which multiplies an incoming FM wave by the output of the

voltage-controlled oscillator.

 Loop filter of a low-pass kind, the function of which is to remove the high-
frequency components contained in the multiplier’s output signal and thereby
shape the over-all frequency response of the system.

Block diagram of the phase-locked loop

FM demodulator
 The incoming FM wave is defined by

 The FM wave produced by the VCO as

Where kv is the frequency-sensitivity factor of the VCO.

 s(t)*r(t) produce,

Where km is the multiplier gain.

 Loop-filter suppress the high-frequency components in the multiplier’s output, we
may henceforth discard the double-frequency term. Doing this, we may reduce the
signal applied to the loop filter

where Φe(t) is the phase error defined by

when Φe(t)=0, is phase lock condition.

when Φe(t)<1 radian is near phase lock condition,

Where loop-gain parameter of the phase-lock loop,

 The error signal acts on the loop filter to produce the overall output. Let h(t) is the
impulse response of the loop filter

 When the system operates in the phase-lock mode or near phase lock
and the loop-gain parameter K0 is large compared with unity,
frequency demodulation of the incoming FM wave is accomplished; that
is, the original message signal m(t) is recovered from s(t).

 A first-order phase-locked loop is seldom used in practice. Rather, a

second-order phase-locked loop is recommended .
FREQUENCY CONVERSION & SUPERHETERODYNE
RECEIVERS
Frequency Mixer or Converter

 A frequency mixer, or frequency converter, used to change the carrier angular

frequency of a modulated signal m(t)cos ωct from ωc to another intermediate
frequency (IF) ωI..

 The product x(t) is

 A bandpass filter at the output, tuned to ωI , will pass the term m(t)cosωIt and suppress
the other term, Thus, the carrier frequency has been translated to ωI from ωc.

 The operation of frequency mixing/conversion (also known as heterodyne) is basically

a shifting of spectra by an additional ωmix .
 When we select the local carrier frequency ωmix = ωc +ωI, the operation is called
superheterodyne, and when we select ωmix = ωc − ωI, the operation is subheterodyne.

Superheterodyne Receivers

 The radio receiver used in broadcast AM/ FM/ TV systems, is called the
superheterodyne receiver.

 It consists of an RF (radio-frequency) section, a frequency converter, an

intermediate-frequency (IF) amplifier, an envelope detector, and an audio
amplifier.

 The RF section consists of a tunable filter and an amplifier that picks up

the desired station by tuning the filter to the right frequency band.
Superheterodyne receiver.
 The frequency mixer (converter):

 translates the carrier from ωc to a fixed IF frequency of ωIF .

 uses a local oscillator whose frequency fLO is exactly fIF above the incoming
carrier frequency fC, i.e.

 The simultaneous tuning of the local oscillator and the RF tunable filter is
done by one joint knob. Tuning capacitors in both circuits are ganged
together and are designed so that the tuning frequency of the local
oscillator is always fIF Hz above the tuning frequency fC of the RF filter.
 Typical Frequency Parameters of AM and FM Radio Receivers

 Translation of all stations to a fixed intermediate frequency allows to obtain

adequate selectivity.

 The RF filter cannot provide adequate selectivity against adjacent channels because it
is difficult to design precise bandpass filters center at fc . But when this signal is
translated to an IF frequency, it is further amplified by an IF amplifier (usually a
three-stage amplifier), which does have good selectivity because IF frequency is
reasonably low.

 Hence, the IF section can effectively suppress adjacent-channel interference because

of its high selectivity. It also amplifies the signal for envelope detection.
 fLO > fc because this leads to a smaller tuning ratio of the maximum to minimum
tuning frequency for the local oscillator. The AM broadcast-band frequencies
range from 530 to 1710 kHz. The superheterodyne fLO ranges from 1005 to 2055
kHz (ratio of 2.045), whereas the subheterodyne range of fLO would be 95 to 1145
kHz (ratio of 12.05). It is much easier to design an oscillator that is tunable over a
smaller frequency ratio.

 Image Stations

 the entire selectivity for rejecting adjacent bands is practically realized

in the IF section; the RF section plays a negligible role. The main
function of the RF section is image frequency suppression.

 the output of the mixer, or converter, fIF =|fLO – f c|

Now, consider the AM example. If the incoming
Frequency-division multiplexing

 Signal multiplexing allows the transmission of multiple signals on the same

channel.

 In FDM, several signals share the band of a channel.

 Each signal is modulated by a different carrier frequency. The various carriers are
adequately separated to avoid overlap (or interference) among the spectra of
various modulated signals. These carriers are referred to as subcarriers.

 Each signal may use a different kind of modulation (e.g., DSB-SC, AM, SSB-SC,
VSB-SC, or even FM/PM).

 The modulated-signal spectra may be separated by a small guard band to avoid

interference and to facilitate signal separation at the receiver.
Block diagram of frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) system
 Analog L-carrier hierarchical frequency division multiplexing for long-haul
telephone systems.

Voice frequencies transmitted over telephone systems, for example, range from 300 to 3100
Hz.
The analog telephone hierarchy that utilizes FDM and SSB modulation
 When all the modulated spectra have been added, we have a composite signal that
may be considered to be a baseband signal to further modulate a radio-frequency
(RF) carrier for the purpose of transmission.

 At the receiver, the incoming signal is first demodulated by the RF carrier to retrieve
the composite baseband, which is then bandpass-filtered to separate each modulated
signal. Then each modulated signal is demodulated individually by an appropriate
subcarrier to obtain all the basic baseband signals.
In the analog L−carrier hierarchy:

 12 each voice channel is modulated using SSB+C. Twelve voice channels form Group
occupying the bandwidth between 60 and 108 kHz.

 five groups form a Super-group via FDM.

 Multiplexing 10 super-groups generates a Master-group, and multiplexing 6 super-

groups forms a Jumbo Group, which consists of 3600 voice channels over a
frequency band of 16.984 MHz in the L4 system.

 The multiplexed signal can be fed into the baseband input of a microwave radio
channel or directly into a coaxial transmission system.
NOISE IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
 Noise may be defined as any unwanted signal interfering with or distorting the signal
being communicated.

 The noise analysis of communication systems is often based on an idealized noise

process called white noise. The power spectral density (PSD) of white noise is
independent of frequency and defined as,

Where ½ indicate that half the power is associated with positive frequencies and half
with negative frequencies

 Unit of No are watts per hertz.

 The autocorrelation function is the inverse Fourier transform of the power spectral
density

 Any two different samples of white noise, no matter how close together in time they
are taken, are uncorrelated.
Characteristics of white noise. (a) Power spectral density, (b) Autocorrelation
function

There is no delta function at the origin in the power spectral density, therefore
white noise has no dc power or its mean or average value is zero.
  White noise has infinite average power and, as such, it is not physically realizable

 The effect of white noise is observed only after passing through a system of finite
bandwidth. We may therefore state that as long as the bandwidth of a noise
process at the input of a system is appreciably larger than that of the system itself,
we may model the noise process as white noise. This is usually the case in
practical communication systems.

Characteristics of low-pass filtered white noise. (a) Power spectral density. (b)
Autocorrelation
NOISE IN AM
 The noise power at the output of a filter of equivalent-noise bandwidth is

 The bandwidth BT is referred to as the transmission bandwidth of the signal. Smaller

the bandwidth the smaller the noise power N will be. The received signal

Block diagram of signal plus noise before and after filtering, showing spectra at
each point.
 The signal after initial filtering, x(t)=s(t)+n(t), where n(t) is narrowband noise,
w(t) is white noise.

 Signal-to-Noise Ratios : measure of quality for analog systems

SNR= average signal power / average noise power

 measured at the receiver

High-level block diagram of a communications

receiver
 Pre-detection SNR is measured before the signal is demodulated.

 Post-detection SNR is measured after the signal is demodulated

 Reference SNR is defined on the basis of a baseband transmission model.

Reference transmission model

Assumptions:

 The message power is the same as the modulated signal power of the
modulation scheme under study.

 The baseband low-pass filter passes the message signal and rejects out-of-
band noise.

The reference signal-to-noise ratio,

SNRref =average power of the modulated message signal/ average power of noise
measured in the message bandwidth

 The reference signal-to-noise ratio used to compare different modulation–

demodulation schemes by using it to normalize the post-detection signal-to-noise
ratios.
 Figure of merit for a particular modulation–demodulation scheme

 The higher the value that the figure of merit has, the better the noise performance of
the receiver will be.
Noise in Linear Receivers Using Coherent Detection

 The DSB-SC modulated signal is

 The received RF signal is the sum of the modulated signal and white Gaussian
noise

 The received RF signal is down-converted to an IF signal by multiplication with a

sinusoid of frequency fc –fRF. . After band-pass filtering, the resulting signal is

A linear DSB-SC receiver using coherent demodulation.

Where s(t): undistorted modulated signal; n(t):Narrow band band-pass noise at the
output of the IF section (Superheterodyne receiver) filter.

 The assumed power spectral density of the band-pass noise is

 Assumes:

 The band-pass filter has a sufficiently wide and flat passband that does not
cause any significant distortion to the modulated signal.

 The gain of the filter is unity

Pre-detection SNR:

 The average power of the signal= expected value of the squared magnitude.

 Since the carrier and modulating signal are independent,

 If we let P be the average signal (message) power

 Therefore, the average received signal power

 If the band-pass filter has a noise bandwidth BT , then the noise power
 The pre-detection signal-to-noise ratio of the DSB-SC system

Post-detection or Output SNR of the DSB-SC system

 Is the ratio of the message signal power to the noise power after
demodulation/detection.

 The post-detection SNR depends on both the modulation and demodulation

techniques

 Using the narrowband representation of the band-pass noise, the signal at the input
to the coherent detector,

where nI(t)and nQ(t) are the in-phase and quadrature components of n(t) with respect to
the carrier.
The output of mixer 2 in fig.

High-frequency components are removed with a low-pass filter

With respect to y(t),

Signal power= ¼(Ac)2P

 The In-phase component has a noise spectral density of No over the bandwidth –BT /2
to BT /2. If the low-pass filter has a noise bandwidth W, corresponding to the message
bandwidth, which is less than or equal to BT /2 then the output noise power is

 The post-detection SNR

Figure of Merit

 For the reference transmission model,

 The average noise power for a message of bandwidth W is No W

 For DSB-SC modulation, the average modulated message power is (Ac)2p/2

 The reference SNR

 Figure of merit

 We lose nothing in performance by using a band-pass modulation scheme

compared to the baseband modulation scheme.
Noise In AM Receivers Using Envelope Detection

 The envelope-modulated signal is

Model of AM receiver using envelope detection.

Pre-detection SNR

The average signal (s(t)) power,

The average power of the carrier= Ac2/2

The power in the modulated part of the signal

where we assume the message signal has zero mean.

The received signal power =

The pre-detection signal-to-noise ratio

Post-detection SNR

The input to the envelope detector,

The envelope detector recover the low-frequency amplitude variations of the high-
frequency signal. Conceptually, this can be represented in a phasor diagram as,

Envelope detector.

Envelope on high-frequency carrier

 Phasor diagram for AM wave plus narrowband noise.

 The output of the envelope detector is the amplitude of the phasor representing x(t),
 If we assume, the signal is much larger than the noise, then using the approximation

 Under high SNR conditions.

 The demodulated signal has three components: dc component, signal component,

and noise component. The dc term can be removed with a capacitor, leaving just the
signal and noise terms.
 The post-detection SNR for the envelope detection of AM, using a message
bandwidth W,
 The output or post-detection SNR is only valid,
 The SNR is high.
 Ka is adjusted for 100% modulation or less, so there is no distortion of the
signal envelope

 Reference SNR =

 Figure of merit,
 Ka2P is always less than unity (otherwise the signal would be over modulated),

the figure of merit for this system is always less than 0.5.

 Hence, the noise performance of an envelope-detector receiver is always inferior

to a dSB-SC receiver, the reason is that at least half of the power is wasted
transmitting the carrier as a component of the modulated (transmitted) signal

 With low signal-to-noise conditions, nonlinear effects appear. Synchronous

detection does not have this nonlinear behavior, but the quality of the voice is still
poor at low post-detection SNR.
Noise in SSB Receivers

 Coherent receiver with an incoming SSB wave.

 Assume that only the lower sideband is transmitted,

 The m(t) and are uncorrelated with each other. Therefore, their power spectral
densities are additive.

 m(t) and have the same average power P

 Pre-detection SNR

 Post-detection SNR

 The output of mixer of coherent detector,

 After low-pass filtering,

 The band-pass noise will also be of single sideband nature. Therefore,

 The reference SNR =

 Figure of merit

 SSB transmission has the same figure of merit as DSB-SC.

 The performance of vestigial sideband with coherent detection is similar to that of

SSB.
Frequency Modulation (FM)

Frequency-modulated signal

The received FM signal s(t) has a carrier frequency fc and a transmission bandwidth BT
such that a negligible amount of power lies outside the frequency band fc ± BT /2.

Model of an FM receiver
 Pre-detection SNR

 Post-detection SNR
Noisy FM signal after band-pass filter

n(t) in terms of its envelope and phase,

Where the envelope is

The phase is

The phase φn(t) is uniformly distributed between 0 and 2π radians.

The phase of s(t)

The noisy signal at the output of the band-pass filter

 represent x(t) by means of a phasor diagram

Phasor diagram for FM signal plus narrowband noise assuming high carrier-to-
noise ratio.
Post-detection SNR
Noise analysis of FM receiver. (a) Power
spectral density of quadrature component of
narrowband noise (b) Power spectral density at
discriminator output. (c) Power spectral density
of noise at receiver output (after LPF)

Reference SNR=
Figure of Merit

the transmission bandwidth

Therfore,

FM system allows us to trade bandwidth for improved performance in accordance with

a square law.
FM Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
Thank You