Structure of the Nervous System

Nervous System
Definition: Senses: Receives: Processes:
 Responds:
1. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
a. Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
b. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
i. Sympathetic Nervous System
ii. Parasympathetic Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
a. Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
Components:
Motor Neurons:
Sensory Neurons: Control: Examples of Actions:
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
a. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
b. Parasympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
2. Central Nervous System (CNS)
a. Brain
b. Spinal Cord
Brain Outline
1. Hair
2. Skin
3. Skull Bones
o 4.1. Cranial Bones (e.g., frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital)
4. Meninges (protective membranes covering the brain)
o 5.1. Dura Mater (outermost tough layer)
o 5.2. Arachnoid Mater (middle layer)
o 5.3. Pia Mater (innermost delicate layer)
5. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) (fluid cushioning the brain and spinal cord)
o 6.1. Ventricles (four interconnected cavities filled with CSF, located within the
brain)
6. Brain
1. Size and Structure
 Tiny but Mighty: The brain makes up only about 2% of body weight.
 Billions of Neurons: It contains over 86 billion neurons, with more connections than
stars in our galaxy!
2. Power and Energy
 Electric Power: The brain sends electrical signals fast enough to power a light bulb!
 Energy Hungry: Though small, it consumes about 20% of the body’s energy.
3. Speed and Efficiency
 Quick Communication: Signals travel at speeds up to 268 miles per hour (431 km/h).
 Memory Capacity: The brain can store up to 2.5 petabytes of data, equal to millions of
hours of video.
4. Activity and Adaptability
 Always Active: Even when we’re asleep, the brain never stops—processing memories
and managing body functions.
 Neuroplasticity: The brain can rewire itself after learning new skills or experiencing an
injury.
5. Uniqueness and Creativity
 Human Advantage: Our brains enable abstract thought, creativity, and complex
problem-solving.
 Flexible Learning: The brain continually builds new connections, allowing lifelong
learning and adaptation.

o 7.1. Forebrain

The forebrain is the frontmost and largest part of the brain, responsible for
complex mental processes, sensory perception, and voluntary actions. Here’s a
breakdown:
 Higher Thinking and Decision-Making: The forebrain lets us reason, make choices,
solve problems, and plan ahead. It’s where critical thinking and complex thoughts
happen.
 Sensory Perception: It processes information from our senses — sight, sound, touch,
taste, and smell — so we can make sense of our surroundings.
 Emotion and Memory: This area of the brain is closely tied to our emotions and
memories, giving us a sense of who we are based on past experiences.
 Movement Control: It also plays a role in voluntary movement, helping us perform
actions like speaking, walking, and writing.
In essence, the forebrain gives us our ability to think deeply, interact with the
environment meaningfully, and respond emotionally to experiences. It’s essential
for everything from feeling emotions to making thoughtful decisions.

 7.1.1. Cerebrum

"The cerebrum is like the brain's command center, the biggest and
busiest part of the forebrain. It's where all the magic happens — from
your thoughts and ideas to your memories and decisions. Want to
remember your friend's birthday? That's the cerebrum at work. Need to
plan a surprise party? The cerebrum's got you covered. It helps you talk,
move, think, and even dream. Whether you're solving a puzzle or just
deciding what to have for lunch, your cerebrum is the one calling the
shots. It's the part of your brain that helps you understand the world,
interact with people, and even figure out your next big move!"
 7.1.1.1. Cerebral Hemispheres
 7.1.1.2. Cerebral Cortex
 7.1.1.3. Corpus Callosum

1. Cerebral Cortex
 Structure: The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the cerebrum, composed of gray
matter. It is folded into grooves called gyri (ridges) and sulci (grooves), which increase
the surface area and allow more neurons to fit inside.
 Function: The cerebral cortex is involved in higher brain functions, including:
 o Sensory processing: Interprets sensory information from the body, like touch,
temperature, and pain.
o Motor control: Sends signals to muscles to produce voluntary movements.
o Cognition: Facilitates thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-
making.
o Emotional regulation: Plays a role in controlling emotions, personality traits, and
social behavior.
2. Hemispheres of the Cerebrum
The cerebrum is divided into two halves, or hemispheres, which
are connected by the corpus callosum (a thick bundle of nerve
fibers). The hemispheres have some functions that are specialized
to each side.
 Left Hemisphere:
o Language: Dominates speech, reading, and writing skills.
o Logic and reasoning: Handles analytical thinking and problem-solving.
o Mathematics: Controls numerical and mathematical abilities.
o Motor control: Controls the right side of the body.
 Right Hemisphere:
o Creativity: Responsible for artistic and creative skills, such as drawing and
music.
o Spatial abilities: Helps with navigation, understanding of space, and visual
perception.
o Emotional processing: Recognizes emotions and facial expressions.
o Motor control: Controls the left side of the body.
3. Lobes of the Cerebrum
1. Frontal Lobe
 Location: Front part of the brain, directly behind the forehead.
 Function: Controls complex thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, emotions, and
voluntary movements. It's involved in decision-making, planning, and regulating social
behavior.
2. Parietal Lobe
 Location: Upper middle section of the brain, behind the frontal lobe.
 Function: Processes sensory information like touch, temperature, and pain. It helps us
interpret spatial relationships and is involved in body awareness and navigation.
3. Occipital Lobe
 Location: Back of the brain, beneath the parietal lobe.
 Function: Responsible for visual processing. It interprets input from the eyes, helping us
recognize colors, shapes, and motion.
4. Temporal Lobe
 Location: Sides of the brain, near the ears, below the frontal and parietal lobes.
 Function: Processes auditory information, language comprehension, and memory. It’s
also involved in recognizing faces and emotions linked to memories.
4. Corpus Callosum
 Structure: A large bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of
the brain.
 Function: It allows communication between the two hemispheres, enabling the brain to
function as a coordinated whole. This communication is essential for tasks that require
input from both sides of the brain, such as language and problem-solving.
5. Basal Ganglia
 Structure: A collection of deep brain structures within the cerebrum, including the
caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus.
 Function: The basal ganglia play a key role in controlling and coordinating our
movements. Think of them like traffic controllers for motor signals—they help manage
and fine-tune our motions so that they’re smooth and precise. For example:
o Motor Control: They help us start and stop movements, like picking up an object
or stopping a step.
o Motor Learning: They assist us in learning and remembering repeated
movements, like riding a bike or typing on a keyboard.
o Coordination and Balance: They work with other parts of the brain to keep our
posture steady and our actions balanced.
If the basal ganglia are not functioning properly, it can lead to
movement problems. In Parkinson’s disease, for example, people
may experience shaking or stiff movements due to disrupted
signals in the basal ganglia.
 In simple terms, the basal ganglia act like the body’s "motion
smoothers" that help turn rough, jerky actions into smooth,
coordinated movements.

 7.1.2. Limbic System

 7.1.2.1. Hippocampus
 7.1.2.2. Amygdala
The Limbic System: Emotional and Memory Central
The limbic system is a special group of interconnected brain structures
that play a huge role in managing our emotions, memories, and even our
survival instincts. Let's break down its core members and their unique
roles:
 Hippocampus:
o Role: Often called the “memory maker,” the hippocampus is in charge of creating
and organizing new memories. When you learn a fact, experience something
memorable, or study for a test, your hippocampus is hard at work converting
those short-term moments into long-term memories.
o Think of It This Way: Imagine the hippocampus as a diligent librarian who
carefully catalogs your experiences, helping you recall them later. Without it,
you’d struggle to retain anything that’s not right in front of you.
 Amygdala:
o Role: Known as the brain’s “emotional center,” the amygdala is especially
important for detecting and responding to emotions like fear, excitement, and
anger. It’s responsible for alerting you when something is emotionally significant
—whether it’s a big exam, a scary movie, or the joy of a celebration.
o Think of It This Way: Picture the amygdala as an internal alarm system. When
you sense danger, it kicks into gear, triggering a fight-or-flight response. It helps
you react quickly to emotional situations and remembers past experiences so you
can recognize similar scenarios in the future.
 Thalamus:
o Role: Acting like the brain’s relay station, the thalamus receives sensory
information from the body and directs it to the appropriate brain areas for
processing. It plays a role in both memory and emotions by filtering sensory
information and deciding what needs immediate attention.
 o Think of It This Way: The thalamus is like an air traffic controller, managing
signals so they get to the right destination efficiently. Without it, your brain would
be flooded with sensory info, making it hard to focus.
 Hypothalamus:
o Role: The hypothalamus manages many of our basic drives and survival needs,
like hunger, thirst, and body temperature. It’s also a big player in our emotional
responses and stress reactions, often working alongside the amygdala to kickstart
responses when we’re under pressure.
o Think of It This Way: Picture the hypothalamus as the body’s “thermostat” and
control center, helping maintain balance and responding to your needs. It’s always
on alert, making sure you stay safe and healthy.

Together, these structures form the limbic system, creating a powerful network that enables us to
feel, remember, and respond to our world. This system makes experiences meaningful by
blending memory and emotion—letting you remember not just what happened but how you felt
about it.

Both the thalamus and hypothalamus are located in the diencephalon, which is part of the
forebrain. However, they are also key components of the limbic system because they play
crucial roles in regulating emotions, memory, and survival functions.
Both the thalamus and hypothalamus are primarily considered part of the diencephalon, but
because they are involved in regulating emotions, memory, and survival mechanisms, they are
also considered key components of the limbic system.
 7.1.3. Diencephalon
 diencephalon is a part of the brain that includes both the thalamus and
the hypothalamus. It also contains other structures, although the thalamus
and hypothalamus are the most well-known and important ones. The
diencephalon acts as a bridge between the brainstem and the cerebrum and
plays a key role in sensory processing, regulating bodily functions, and
controlling emotions.
 7.1.3.1. Thalamus
 7.1.3.2. Hypothalamus
.1.3.1. Thalamus
 Location: Found in the center of the brain, just above the brainstem.
 Function: Acts as the brain's relay station. It processes and transmits sensory information
from the body to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. It also plays a role in
regulating sleep, alertness, and consciousness.
7.1.3.2. Hypothalamus
 Location: Situated below the thalamus, just above the brainstem.
  Function: Regulates key body functions like hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sleep.
The hypothalamus is also responsible for controlling the pituitary gland, which in turn
controls hormone release. It plays a critical role in the body's response to stress and
emotions, helping maintain balance (homeostasis).

 7.1.4. Basal Ganglia

The Basal Ganglia is a group of structures located deep within the brain that play a crucial role
in controlling and coordinating movement. It helps regulate voluntary motor activities and is
involved in various functions related to movement, learning, and emotional processing. Here’s a
simple breakdown:

Location:

7. The basal ganglia are located deep inside the cerebral hemispheres, surrounding the
thalamus.


Functions:
1. Motor Control: The basal ganglia help plan and control voluntary movements such as
walking, talking, and any purposeful actions. They ensure that movements are smooth
and coordinated.
2. Movement Regulation: They prevent excessive or unwanted movements, allowing for
precise and intentional actions.
3. Motor Learning: The basal ganglia are also involved in learning new motor skills, such
as riding a bike or playing an instrument.
4. Habit Formation: They're key in forming habits, allowing for repeated and automatic
behaviors.
5. Emotional and Cognitive Functions: Beyond movement, the basal ganglia also
contribute to emotional and cognitive processes, helping with reward processing and
motivation.
Example of Dysfunction:
 Parkinson's Disease: A disorder caused by damage to the substantia nigra (a part of the
basal ganglia), leading to tremors, stiffness, and difficulty controlling voluntary
movements.
In short, the basal ganglia is the brain's "movement manager," ensuring that motor
commands are executed smoothly and without interruptions.
  7.1.5. Pituitary Gland
Pituitary Gland:
 Location: The pituitary gland is a small, pea-sized structure located at the base of the
brain, just beneath the hypothalamus, in a bony cavity called the sella turcica.
 Function:
o The pituitary gland is often referred to as the "master gland" because it regulates
the function of other endocrine glands in the body.
o It controls important processes such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction by
releasing hormones that signal other glands to perform their functions.
o It helps manage stress, regulate body temperature, and balance water levels, and
plays a significant role in mood regulation.

 7.1.6. Pineal Gland

Pineal Gland
Location:
 It is a small, pea-shaped structure located deep in the brain, near the center, between the
two hemispheres of the brain.
Functions:
 Regulation of Sleep-Wake Cycle: The pineal gland plays a key role in controlling the
body’s sleep and wake patterns, helping the body know when it's time to sleep and when
to wake up.
 Body's Internal Clock: It helps synchronize the body's internal clock with day and night,
ensuring that your biological processes follow a natural rhythm.
 Influence on Mood and Seasonal Changes: The pineal gland also helps regulate mood
and may affect how the body adapts to seasonal changes in light exposure.

o 7.2. Midbrain
o

 7.2.1. Tectum
  7.2.2. Tegmentum

Midbrain

The midbrain is a small but important part of the brain located above the pons and beneath the
thalamus. It plays a key role in processing sensory information and controlling motor functions,
especially related to vision, hearing, and movement.

Midbrain
The midbrain is the part of the brain located between the forebrain and
hindbrain. It is responsible for many important functions, including
sensory processing, motor control, and regulating consciousness. It acts as
a relay station, connecting different parts of the brain and helping them
work together efficiently.
7.2.1. Tectum
 Location: The tectum is the upper part of the midbrain, located just beneath the cerebral
hemispheres.
 Function: The tectum plays a crucial role in processing sensory information, particularly
related to vision and hearing. It helps in coordinating reflexive movements, such as:
o Visual Reflexes: The tectum helps the body react to visual stimuli, like moving
your head to follow a moving object or responding to a bright light.
o Auditory Reflexes: It also helps with auditory processing, like turning your head
toward a sound, without needing to consciously think about it.
 Why Important: The tectum helps the body quickly and automatically respond to
important sensory inputs, like sudden movements or noises, which is vital for survival.
7.2.2. Tegmentum
 Location: The tegmentum is located beneath the tectum in the midbrain and extends to
the pons and medulla.
 Function: The tegmentum has several important roles:
o Motor Control: It is involved in regulating motor movements, particularly those
related to posture and the initiation of voluntary movements.
o Pain Processing: The tegmentum plays a role in processing and modulating pain
signals, helping to control how we experience pain.
o Regulating Consciousness: It is involved in controlling levels of alertness and
consciousness, playing a role in the sleep-wake cycle.
 o Reward and Motivation: The tegmentum helps regulate motivation and reward,
contributing to our drive for activities that bring pleasure or satisfaction.
 Why Important: The tegmentum is essential for maintaining basic bodily functions like
movement, pain response, and alertness. It ensures we respond to both internal and
external stimuli, allowing us to function in daily life.
Both the tectum and tegmentum are vital for the processing of sensory
information, motor control, and regulating consciousness, ensuring we can
interact effectively with our environment and maintain balance.

o 7.3. Hindbrain
 7.3.1. Cerebellum
 7.3.2. Brainstem
 7.3.2.1. Pons
 7.3.2.2. Medulla Oblongata
 7.3.2.3. Cranial Nerves (nerves that emerge from the brain,
primarily from the brainstem; responsible for various sensory and
motor functions)

Hindbrain

The hindbrain is the lower part of the brain and is responsible for regulating basic life functions
like breathing, heart rate, and motor control. It includes several vital structures that help maintain
balance, coordination, and autonomic functions.

Cerebellum
 Location: The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain, beneath the occipital lobe,
and behind the brainstem.
 Function:
o Motor Control: The cerebellum is mainly responsible for coordinating voluntary
movements, ensuring that actions are smooth, precise, and balanced.
o Balance and Posture: It helps in maintaining balance by fine-tuning motor
activity and adjusting body posture.
o Motor Learning: The cerebellum plays a key role in learning new motor skills,
like riding a bike or playing an instrument.
  Why Important: Without the cerebellum, movements would be uncoordinated and
imprecise, leading to difficulties with balance and everyday activities.
Brainstem
The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord and regulates many basic life functions
necessary for survival. It is composed of several parts, each with distinct roles.
7.3.2.1. Pons
 Location: The pons is located above the medulla oblongata, in front of the cerebellum.
 Function:
o Sleep Regulation: The pons plays a key role in regulating sleep patterns,
particularly the transition between sleep stages.
o Facial Sensory and Motor Control: It helps control facial muscles and processes
sensory information from the face.
o Respiratory Regulation: The pons also helps control breathing, working with the
medulla to regulate the rate and depth of respiration.
 Why Important: The pons helps with critical functions like sleep, breathing, and facial
sensations. Damage to the pons can affect basic life functions and coordination.
7.3.2.2. Medulla Oblongata
 Location: The medulla oblongata is located at the bottom of the brainstem, just above the
spinal cord.
 Function:
o Autonomic Functions: The medulla controls vital involuntary functions such as
heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.
o Reflexive Actions: It is involved in reflexes like coughing, sneezing, and
swallowing.
o Crossing of Motor Pathways: The medulla is also where motor control pathways
cross from one side of the brain to the opposite side of the body (known as
decussation), which is why one side of the brain controls the opposite side of the
body.
 Why Important: The medulla is critical for life-sustaining functions. Damage to this
area can be fatal as it directly controls heart rate, breathing, and other autonomic
functions.
8. Spinal Cord (starting from the medulla oblongata of the brainstem down the vertebral
column)
o 7.1. Nerve Roots (spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord, branching out to
innervate the body)