UNIT-II [SIMPLE NOTES]

PROJECT EVALUATION
Projects can be grouped into programmes. The benefits of projects and
programmes should be identified and managed. Finally, some methods of
evaluating the costs and benefits of individual projects must be explored.
Project Evaluation -Why
• Want to decide whether a project can proceed before it is too late
• Want to decide which of the several alternative projects has a better
success rate, a higher turnover, a higher...
• Is it desirable to carry out the development and operation of the software
system?
Project Evaluation – Who
• Senior management
• Project manager/coordinator
• Team leader
Project Evaluation – When
• Usually at the beginning of the project
o e.g. Step 0 of Step Wise Framework

Project Evaluation – What

• Strategic assessment
• Technical assessment
• Economic assessment
Project Evaluation – How
• Cost-benefit analysis
• Cash flow forecasting
• Cost-benefit evaluation techniques
• Risk analysis
 Strategic Assessment
In the context of software project management, a strategic
assessment evaluates how projects align with organizational goals,
identifies potential risks, and ensures projects contribute effectively to the
overall business strategy. It involves assessing internal and external factors
to make informed decisions.
 Alignment with Organizational Goals:
A crucial aspect is assessing whether a software project supports the
company's broader objectives, vision, and mission.
 Identifying Risks:
Strategic assessment helps anticipate potential challenges and risks
associated with a project, allowing for proactive risk management.
 Resource Allocation:
It guides decision-making on which projects to prioritize and allocate
resources to, ensuring that projects align with the company's strategic
priorities.
 Internal and External Analysis:
 Internal Analysis: Examining internal resources, capabilities, strengths, and
weaknesses to understand the company's capabilities in relation to the
project.
 External Analysis: Assessing market trends, competition, customer needs,
and technological advancements to understand the external factors
influencing the project.

 Tools and Techniques:

 SWOT Analysis: Evaluating Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and
Threats to gain a comprehensive view of the project and its environment.
 Feasibility Studies: Assessing the technical, economic, and operational
viability of the project.
 Benefits Management: Determining how a project will create and deliver
benefits in alignment with organizational goals.

 Benefits of Strategic Assessment:

 Improved Decision-Making: Provides a foundation for making informed
decisions about project scope, resources, and priorities.
 Enhanced Project Success: By aligning projects with strategic goals and
addressing potential risks, strategic assessment increases the likelihood of
project success.
 Program management
Focuses on coordinating a group of related projects to achieve a specific
strategic outcome, while portfolio management oversees all projects and
programs within an organization to ensure alignment with overall
business goals and maximize value.
Program Management
 Focus:
Coordinating a group of projects that are related and contribute to a
specific strategic goal.
 Goal:
To achieve the benefits of the program as a whole, rather than just
individual projects.
Key Activities:
 Coordination: Ensuring that projects within the program are aligned and
working together effectively.
 Resource Allocation: Optimizing resources across the program to ensure
projects are completed on time and within budget.
 Risk Management: Identifying and mitigating risks that could impact the
entire program.
 Communication: Keeping stakeholders informed about the program's
progress and any issues that may arise.

Portfolio Management
 Focus:
Overseeing all projects and programs within an organization to ensure
they align with the overall business strategy and goals.
 Goal:
To maximize the value of the organization's investments in projects and
programs.
 Example:
A portfolio might include projects to develop new products, improve
existing processes, and implement new technologies, as well as programs
to manage these projects.
Key Activities:
 Strategic Alignment: Ensuring that projects and programs are aligned with
the organization's strategic goals.
 Resource Allocation: Optimizing resources across the entire portfolio to
ensure that the most important projects and programs are funded.
 Risk Management: Identifying and mitigating risks that could impact the
entire portfolio.
 Performance Monitoring: Tracking the performance of projects and
programs to ensure they are delivering the expected results.
 Project Selection: Evaluating and selecting the projects and programs that
will best contribute to the organization's strategic goals.

Technical assessment

A Technical assessment in software project management is a process

that evaluates the technical aspects of a product or program(H/W,S/W). It's
used to identify areas for improvement and optimization.
Why is a technical assessment performed?
 To identify areas for improvement and optimization in computer systems
 To provide a fact-based understanding of the current level of product
knowledge
 To understand the technical maturity of a program
 To understand the technical risk of a program

How can you prepare for a technical assessment?

 Create a PowerPoint presentation on a tech topic
 Write code in real-time
 Work out a tech problem on a whiteboard in front of a group
 Practice regularly
 Showcase your soft skills
 Manage your time effectively

Economic Assessment
An Economic Assessment involves analyzing the financial costs and
benefits of a project, policy, or decision, often using methods like cost-
benefit analysis or economic impact analysis, to determine feasibility and
value for money.
 Definition:
Economic assessment is a systematic process of evaluating the economic
implications of an activity or proposal.
 Purpose:
It aims to identify the economic benefits and costs, assess the project's
value, and make informed decisions based on available evidence.
 Applications:
It can be used in various contexts, including healthcare, infrastructure,
public policy, and business strategy.
Types of Economic Evaluation:
 Cost-minimisation: Focuses on which option has the lowest cost, while
achieving the same outcome
 Cost-benefit: Places a monetary value on both the costs and benefits of a
project or intervention, allowing for a direct comparison.
 Economic impact analysis: Estimates the total economic costs of an issue
like a disease or illness.
Key Steps in Economic Assessment:
 Define the Scope: Clearly state the purpose, objectives, and scope of the
analysis.
 Identify Costs and Benefits: Determine all relevant costs (monetary and
non-monetary) and benefits (direct and indirect).
 Quantify the Costs and Benefits: Estimate the monetary value of the
costs and benefits.
 Analyze the Alternatives: Compare the costs and benefits of different
options or interventions.
 Assess Risks and Uncertainties: Consider potential risks and
uncertainties and their impact on the outcome.
 Present Findings: Clearly communicate the findings and
recommendations.

Examples of Economic Assessments:

 Healthcare: Evaluating the cost-effectiveness of a new treatment or
intervention.
 Infrastructure: Assessing the economic impacts of a new highway
project.
 Business Strategy: Determining the economic viability of a new product or
service.
 Cost/Benefit Analysis




Cost Benefit analysis is thing that everyone must do so as to think of a

powerful or an efficient system. But while thinking out on cost and benefit
analysis, we also need to find out factors that really affect benefits and
costs of system. In developing cost estimates for a system, we need to
consider some of cost elements. Some elements among them are
hardware, personnel, facility, operating and supply cost. The following are
the cost factors :
1. Hardware cost –
Hardware cost includes actual purchase and peripherals (external
devices) that are connected to computer. For example, printer, disk
drive etc. Actually, finding actual cost of hardware is generally more
difficult especially, when system is shared by various users so as to
compared to a system which dedicated stand alone . In some case,
best way is to treat it as operating cost.
2. Personnel costs –
Personnel costs includes EDP staff salaries and benefits as well as pay
for those who are involved in process of development of system. Cost
occurred during development of system which are one time costs and
are also called development cost. Once system is installed, cost of
operating and maintaining system becomes recurring cost that one has
to pay very frequently based on requirement.
3. Facility cost –
Facility cost is amount of money that is spent in preparation of a site
that is physical where application or computer will be in operation. This
includes wiring, flooring, lighting and air conditioning . These costs are
treated as one- time costs and are included into overall cost estimate
of candidate system.
4. Operating costs –
These includes all costs associated with day-to-day(everyday)
operation of system and amount depends on number of shifts, nature
of applications. There are various ways of covering operating costs.
One approach is to treat operating costs as an
overhead[INSURANCE). Another approach is to charge money from
each authorized user for amount of processing they require from
system. Amount charged is based on computer time or time they spend
on system, staff time ad volume of output produced .
5. Supply costs –
Supply cost are variable costs that increase with increased use of
 paper, disks and like. They should be estimated and included in overall
cost of system.
A system is also expected to provide health benefits. First task is to
identify each benefit and then assign some value to it for purpose of cost/
benefit analysis. Benefits may be tangible and intangible, direct or indirect.
Two major benefits are improving performance and minimizing cost
of processing of system. The performance category emphasizes
improvement in accuracy of or access to information and easier access
to system by authorized users. Minimizing costs through an efficient
system – error control or reduction of staff- is a benefit that should be
measured and included in cost/benefit analysis.

The determination of costs and benefit entails following steps :

1. Identify the costs and benefits pertaining to given project.
2. Categorize the various costs and benefits for analysis.
3. Select a method of evaluation.
4. Interpret the results of the analysis.
5. Take action.

Cash Flow Forecasting

Cash flow forecasting is the estimation of the cash flow over some time.
It is important to do cash flow forecasting to ensure that the project has
sufficient funds to survive.
 It gives an estimation of when income and expenditure will take place
during the software project’s life cycle.
 It must be done from time to time, especially for start-ups and small
enterprises.
 However, if the cash flow of the business is more stable then
forecasting cash flow weekly or monthly is enough.

Cash Flow Forecasting

 Types of Cash Flow Forecasting
1. Positive Cash Flow: If an organisation expects to receive income
more than it spends then it is said to have a positive cash flow and the
company will never go low on funds for the software project’s
completion.
2. Negative Cash Flow: If an organisation expects to receive income
less than it spends then it is said to have a negative cash flow and the
company will go low on funds for the software project’s completion in
future.
Importance of Cash Flow Forecasting
1. It allows the management to plan the expenditures based upon the
income in future.
2. It helps the organization to analyse its expenditures and incomes.
3. Makes sure that the company can afford to pay the employees and
suppliers.
4. Helps in financial planning.

COST-BENEFIT EVALUATION TECHNIQUES

NET PROFIT
Is a company's total earnings after subtracting all expenses.
Expenses subtracted include the costs of normal business
operation as well as depreciation and taxes.

THE PAYBACK PERIOD

Is the time it takes for an investment to generate enough cash flow to
recover its initial cost; a shorter payback period indicates a faster return
on investment.
Here's a simple example:
 Scenario:
You invest $100,000 in a new machine that's expected to generate
$20,000 in profit each year.
 Calculation:
Payback Period = Initial Investment / Annual Cash Flow = $100,000 /
$20,000 = 5 years.
 Meaning:
It will take 5 years for the machine to generate enough profit to cover the
initial $100,000 investment.

RETURN ON INVESTMENT (ROI)

Measures the profitability of an investment by comparing the gain or loss
to the cost of the investment, often expressed as a percentage.
Here's a simple example:
 Scenario:
You invest $100 in a business venture and, after a year, the venture
generates a profit of $20.
 Calculation:
 Gain: $20 (profit)
 Cost: $100 (initial investment)
 ROI: ($20 / $100) * 100% = 20%
 Interpretation:
Your ROI is 20%, meaning you earned a 20% return on your initial
investment.

NET PRESENT VALUE (NPV)

Is a method to determine the profitability of an investment by
comparing the present value of future cash inflows and outflows,
considering the time value of money.
A simple example is:
if you invest $100 today and expect to receive $110 in one year, the NPV
calculation determines if that $110 is worth more than the initial $100,
considering the time value of money.
 Time Value of Money:
NPV recognizes that money today is worth more than money in the future
due to the potential for earning interest or returns.
 Cash Flow Analysis:
It analyzes the difference between the present value of all expected cash
inflows (money coming in) and the present value of all expected cash
outflows (money going out) over a period of time.
 Investment Decision:
NPV helps determine if an investment is likely to be profitable by
comparing the present value of future returns to the initial investment
cost.
Simple Example
Let's say you have two options:

 Option A: Receive $100 today.

 Option B: Receive $110 in one year.
To calculate the NPV, we need to consider the time value of money
(discount rate):
 Discount Rate:
Let's assume a discount rate of 10% (this represents the expected rate of
return or interest rate).
 Present Value of Option B:
The present value of $110 received in one year, discounted at 10%, is
calculated as: $110 / (1 + 0.10) = $100.
 NPV Calculation:
 Option A: NPV = $100 (the present value of the cash inflow) - $0 (initial
investment) = $100
 Option B: NPV = $100 (present value of $110) - $0 (initial investment) =
$100
In this scenario, the NPV for both options is the same ($100). This means
that, given a 10% discount rate, both options are equally valuable, as the
future cash flow of $110 is worth the same as $100 today.

THE INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN (IRR)

Is the discount rate at which the net present value (NPV) of all cash flows
from a project or investment equals zero, essentially the rate at which an
investment breaks even.

Here's a simple example:

 Scenario:
You invest ₹1000 and expect to receive ₹200, ₹300, and ₹400 over the
next three years.
 IRR Calculation:
 The IRR is the discount rate that makes the present value of those future
cash flows equal to the initial investment of ₹1000.
 In simpler terms:
It's the annual rate of return that the investment is expected to generate,
considering the timing of cash flows.
 Calculation:
You would need to use a financial calculator or spreadsheet software to
find the exact IRR, which would likely be around 14% in this case.

 Internal Rate of Return (IRR): Formula and Examples

Example of IRR Calculation Assume a project has an initial

investment of ₹1,000 and is expected to generate cash flows of
₹200, ₹300, and ₹400 over the next three years. The project's IRR
would be calculated as follows: IRR = [₹200 + ₹300 + ₹400] / [3 *
₹1,000] = 0.14. In this example, the project has an IRR of 14%.

RISK EVALUATION
Risk evaluation and profile analysis using decision trees, you first identify
potential risks, then build a tree where nodes represent decision points and
branches show outcomes, assigning probabilities and impacts to each
outcome for a quantitative assessment.
1. Risk Identification:
 Identify potential risks: Begin by brainstorming and listing all possible
risks relevant to the project or situation.
 Categorize risks: Group similar risks together to facilitate analysis.
 Examples: Scope changes, resource constraints, technology issues,
communication breakdowns, etc.

2. Constructing the Decision Tree:

 Start with a root node: Represent the initial decision or situation.
 Create branches: For each possible decision or outcome, create a branch
leading to a new node.
 Nodes: Represent decision points, outcomes, or events.
 Branches: Represent different paths or scenarios.
 3. Assigning Probabilities and Impacts:
 Probability: Estimate the likelihood of each outcome occurring.
 Impact: Assess the potential consequences of each outcome (e.g.,
financial, reputational, schedule).
 Quantify risk: Combine probability and impact to determine the overall risk
level for each branch.

4. Analyze the Decision Tree:

 Identify critical paths: Focus on branches that lead to high-risk
outcomes.
 Prioritize mitigation strategies: Develop plans to address the most
critical risks.
 Optimize resource allocation: Use the analysis to allocate resources
effectively to reduce risk.
 Sensitivity analysis: Assess how changes in probabilities or impacts
affect the overall risk profile.

5. Risk Profile Analysis:

 Risk profile:
A summary of the identified risks, their probabilities, impacts, and potential
mitigation strategies.
 Visualize the risk profile:
Use charts or tables to present the risk profile in a clear and concise
manner.
 Decision-making:
Use the risk profile to inform decisions about project planning, resource
allocation, and risk management strategies.

SELECT AN APPROPRIATE PROJECT APPROACH,

Consider project objectives, constraints, team capabilities, and risk
factors; then, evaluate different methodologies like Agile, Waterfall
choosing the one that best aligns with your project's needs and
organizational goals.
1. Understand Your Project:
 Define Project Objectives: Clearly articulate what the project aims to
achieve and what success looks like.
  Identify Constraints: Determine any limitations, such as budget, time,
resources, or technical capabilities.
 Assess Project Complexity: Is it a simple, one-off project, or a complex,
ongoing undertaking?
 Evaluate Organizational Context: Consider the company's culture,
values, and strategic goals.
 Analyze Stakeholders: Understand the needs and expectations of all
stakeholders involved.

2. Evaluate Project Management Methodologies:

 Agile:
Emphasizes iterative development, flexibility, and collaboration, suitable
for projects with evolving requirements.
 Waterfall:
A sequential approach, where each phase must be completed before the
next begins, suitable for projects with well-defined requirements and
minimal changes.
 PRINCE2:
A structured, certified methodology for managing projects in controlled
environments, often used in IT projects.
 Other Methodologies:
Consider other options like Scrum, Lean, or Rapid Application
Development (RAD).

3. Assess and Compare Methodologies:

 Pros and Cons:
Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each methodology,
considering your project's specific needs.

 Team Capabilities:
Ensure the team has the skills and experience to effectively use the
chosen methodology.
 Risk Assessment:
Identify potential risks associated with each methodology and develop
mitigation strategies.
 Stakeholder Input:
 Involve stakeholders in the decision-making process to ensure buy-in and
alignment.

4. Make a Decision:
 Choose the Best Fit:
Select the methodology that best aligns with your project's objectives,
constraints, and organizational context.
 Document Your Choice:
Clearly document the rationale for choosing a particular methodology and
the expected benefits.
 Communicate Effectively:
Communicate the chosen methodology to the team and stakeholders,
ensuring everyone understands the approach.

CHOOSING TECHNOLOGIES FOR A PROJECT,

Consider aligning technologies with project goals, ensuring

scalability, prioritizing security and data privacy, and evaluating community
support and long-term sustainability

An outcome of project analysis will be the selection of the most

appropriate methodologies and technologies. Methodologies include
techniques like the various flavors of object-oriented (OO) development.
SSADM (Structured System Analysis and Design Method) and Human–
Centred Design,

Technologies might include an appropriate application automatic

testing environments. As well as the products and activities, the chosen
technology will influence the following aspects of a project:

 The training requirements for development staff;

 The types of staff to be recruited;

 The development environment - both hardware and software:

 System maintenance arrangements.

PROJECT IS OBJECT-DRIVEN OR PRODUCT-DRIVEN,

Consider the timeframe, focus, team structure, and success
metrics. Object-driven projects focus on specific deliverables within a
 defined timeframe, while product-driven projects focus on continuous value
delivery and evolution.
Object-Driven (Project-Oriented):
 Focus: Delivering specific tasks and outcomes within a defined timeframe
and budget.
 Timeframe: Finite, with a clear start and end date.
 Team Structure: Often temporary, assembled for a specific project.
 Success Metrics: Completion of tasks, adherence to budget and timeline,
and quality of deliverables.
 Example: Building a new website, writing a book, or developing a specific
software feature.

Product-Driven:
 Focus: Delivering continuous value to customers and evolving based on
market needs.
 Timeframe: Ongoing, as long as there's customer demand and profitability.
 Team Structure: Typically a permanent team focused on product
development.
 Success Metrics: Customer satisfaction, market share, and profitability.
 Example: Maintaining and improving a software application, a website, or a
physical product.

Analyse other project characteristics

 The sorts of question that would need to be asked include the

following.

 Is a data orientated or a control orientated system to be

implemented?

 Will the software that is to be produced be a general tool or

application specific?

 Does it involve concurrent processing? (the ability of a system to

handle multiple tasks or processes seemingly at the same time)
 Will the system to be created be A Knowledge-based?
  Will the system to be produced make heavy use of computer
graphics?
 Is the system to be created safety-critical?

 Is the System designed primarily to carry out predefined services or

to be engaging and entertaining

 What is the nature of the hardware/software environment in which

the system will operate?

Identify high level project risks

 Identify high level project risks At the beginning of the project ,

 Some managers might expect elaborate plans even though we
are ignorant of many important factors that will affect the
project.
 For example, until we do a detailed investigation of the users'
requirements we will not be able to estimate how much effort
will be needed to build a system to meet those requirements.
 The greater the uncertainties at the beginning, the greater the
risk that the project will be unsuccessful.
 Once we recognize a particular area of uncertainty we can ,
however, take steps to reduce its uncertainty.

PRODUCT-PROCESS-RESOURCE UNCERTAINTY
Refers to the inherent unpredictability and variability in various aspects of a
product's lifecycle, from design and production to resource availability and
market demand.
Product Uncertainty:
This includes uncertainties related to the product itself, such as:
 Demand Uncertainty: Fluctuations in customer demand, market trends, and
competitive pressures.
 Product Design Uncertainty: Difficulty in predicting the final product's
performance, features, and functionality.
 Product Complexity: The intricate nature of a product can lead to
unforeseen challenges during development and production.

Process Uncertainty:
This refers to uncertainties related to the production process, such as:
 Operational Yield Uncertainty: Variations in the efficiency and output of
production processes.
 Production Lead Time Uncertainty: Unpredictable delays or variations in
the time it takes to manufacture a product.
 Quality Uncertainty: The possibility of defects or variations in product quality
during production.
 Failure of Production System: Unexpected breakdowns or malfunctions in
equipment or processes.
 Changes to Product Structure: Modifications or adjustments to the product
design during the production process.

Resource Uncertainty:
This relates to the availability and reliability of resources needed for
production, including:
 Supply Uncertainty: Disruptions or delays in the supply chain, including raw
materials and components.
 Resource Availability: Shortages or unexpected limitations in the availability
of resources, such as labor, equipment, or materials.
 Technology Uncertainty: Rapid advancements or unexpected changes in
technology that can impact production processes.

Need for Robust Strategies:

Organizations need to develop robust strategies and processes to
mitigate the impact of uncertainty and ensure smooth operations.

A GENERAL LIFE CYCLE APPROACH

Considers the entire lifespan of a product or process, from raw material
extraction to final disposal, encompassing all stages to assess and manage
environmental, social, and economic impacts.
Scope:
A life cycle approach examines all stages of a product or process,
including:
 Preproduction: Raw material extraction, resource acquisition, and supply
refinement.
 Production: Processing, assembly, and finishing.
 Distribution: Packaging, transportation, and storage.
 Use: Consumption of resources, maintenance, and operation.
 End-of-life: Recycling, reuse, and disposal.

Purpose:
This approach aims to:
 Identify and address potential issues related to sustainability, economic
growth, and social responsibility at each stage.
 Make informed choices that balance trade-offs and positively impact the
economy, environment, and society.
 Promote sustainable practices throughout the entire value chain.
Benefits:
 Enables a holistic view of impacts, avoiding shifting problems from one stage
to another.
 Facilitates better decision-making by considering all environmental media (air,
water, land).
 Promotes innovation and development of more sustainable products and
processes.
Examples:
 Project Management: Using a life cycle approach to manage projects from
initiation to closure.
 Financial Planning: Understanding the different stages of a person's
financial life cycle (formative years, early career, etc.).
 Systems Development: Considering the entire lifecycle of a system, from
conception to disposal.

A CONTROL SYSTEM
Is a set of devices that regulates the behavior of other systems or
devices. Control systems are used in many industries, including production
and distribution.
Components of a control system
 Sensor: Detects a physical quantity like temperature or pressure and
converts it into an electrical signal
 Controller: Processes the signal and generates an output signal
 Actuator: Translates the output signal into a physical action, such as
opening a valve or turning a motor on or off
 An information system (IS)
Is a collection of interconnected components, including hardware, software,
data, people, and processes, that work together to collect, store, process,
and distribute information for analysis and decision-making.
Key Components of an Information System:
 Hardware:
Physical devices like computers, servers, storage devices, and network
equipment.
 Software:
Programs and applications that enable the system to function, such as
operating systems, databases, and application software.
 Data:
Raw facts and figures that are collected and processed by the system.
 People:
Individuals who interact with the system, including users, developers, and
IT professionals.
 Processes:
The procedures and workflows that define how data is collected,
processed, and used.

"GENERAL APPLICATIONS"
Refers to software designed for a wide range of common tasks, like
creating documents, managing data, or designing presentations, rather
than being specialized for a specific industry or purpose.
 Definition:
General application software, sometimes called "off-the-shelf" software, is
designed to perform a variety of fundamental functions that users need on
a daily basis.
 Examples:
Common examples include word processors (like Microsoft Word or
Google Docs), spreadsheets (like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets),
presentation software (like Microsoft PowerPoint or Google Slides), and
database management systems (like Microsoft Access or MySQL
SPECIALIZED TECHNIQUES

Are methods or practices specifically designed for a particular purpose or

field of expertise, requiring in-depth knowledge and skill in that area.

A HARDWARE ENVIRONMENT

Refers to the physical computing devices and their configurations, including

components like the CPU, RAM, storage, and peripherals, that form the
foundation for running software and applications.

A SAFETY-CRITICAL SYSTEM

Is one where a failure or malfunction can lead to severe consequences like

loss of life, serious injury, significant property damage, or environmental
harm. These systems are crucial in industries like healthcare, aviation, and
nuclear power, requiring rigorous safety measures and reliability.

A "CHOICE OF PROCESS MODEL"

Refers to the selection of a specific methodology or approach to guide a

particular process, such as software development or business operations,
based on its unique characteristics and goals.

 WATERFALL MODEl

Is a linear, sequential approach to project management and software

development where each phase (requirements, design, implementation,
testing, deployment, and maintenance) must be completed before the next
begins, resembling a waterfall where water flows in one direction.

The spiral model

Is a risk-driven, iterative approach that divides development into multiple

cycles or "spirals," each consisting of planning, risk analysis, engineering,
and evaluation phases, allowing for flexibility and adaptation to changing
requirements.

THE V-MODEL
Is a development approach that emphasizes early and thorough testing
throughout the software development life cycle, with each development
phase paired with a corresponding testing phase. It's known as the
 Verification and Validation Model and is visually represented as a "V"
shape.
 Verification and Validation:
The V-model focuses on both verification (ensuring the product is built
correctly) and validation (ensuring the right product is built).
Software prototyping
A prototype is a working model of one or more aspects of the projected
system. It is constructed and tested quickly and inexpensively in order to
test out assumptions. Prototypes can be classified as throw-away
evolutionary or incremental.
Throw-away prototypes:
The prototype is used only to test out some ideas and is then discarded
when the development of the operational system is commenced.
Evolutionary Prototypes:
The prototype is developed and modified until it is finally in a state where it
can become the operational system.

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