menses | Figute 1.3 shows a circu where tho variation inl ‘oue 13 sh 2 vatation in light intensity incident p the LOR over @ Period of time can be represented as an analogue volla3e, The varaiog with ime of Voltage folows that ofthe ight intensity * votimeter reading Fig. 1.3 The thermistor “The thermistor Is a temperature-dependent resistor which is manufactured ina number of diferent chapes and sizes using the oxices of various met Negative temperature coetticent typos have a resistance wihictrbecomes Salle ag the temperature increases. The symbol for a thermistor is shown in Fig... } Fig. 14 Figure 1.5 shows a circuit where the variation in tempeature ofa thermist time can be represented by an analogue voltage. The variation with t {ollows that of the temperature. over a period ot of this voltage —— i | ir ~] ae vatimetr ce _- | time Fig. 1.5Rp ol te plastic is stretched fh rene ee | Fig. 1.6 sia 5 rain gauges itor a AY glued very securely to the material which isfp be put under stross two aan gauges a connec n sates wines nec ae henge We ‘wo gauges are both unstrained, the variable resistor can te adjusted to give zero el strain gauge 1 cantilever load Fig. 1.7 When a load is applied to the cantilever, it bends and strain hauge 1 increases in resistance, thus causing the potential at A to change. The voltmetef|shows a reading. The greater the load, the greater the p.d. measured on the voltmeter. {This is the principle of |means of a suitably modem electronic balances where weight can be measured calibrated digital voltmeter.)Weer (©) Carididates shuld be able to recal and undorstand the use of th (LED), the buzzer and the relay as output devices. eae The lont-emiting code (LED) ‘his is a one-way conduction device made from gallum arsenide phosthide "°° hic amt iat won a atom passes tought canons Sharaceriie are so narinea hat doc a condos te ea bot 18 vote mre pete than so cathoge Once than becneny io onaicion te. betwen te anodes cade sy aes Constant at 8V, no maar wna he cue happora be The sen for an LED is shown in Fig. 1.8, pen " \hon ved na tel as sown in P18 he LED mist be potty sare east, | SS cathoge Fig. 1.8 otherwise there is an excessively large current whict causes heating ahd thus desvays tne device. The value of ths resistor may be caleulated as follows: Y-18 A 7 where /is, in general, about 10mA, The buzzer ‘The buzzer is an electronic oscllator circuit connected toa solid-state sounder which is wired and sealed inside a smal plastic case. The lea which emerge from the case must be connected to a power supply for the buzzer to sound. The symbol for a buzzer is shown in Fig. 1.10. The relay ‘The relay is made up of one or more sels of switch 2ontacts which are opened or clased by means of an electromagnet. The electromagnet is simply a coil of wire wound around a soft iron core. When a current is passed through the cof, the relay is ‘said to be energised and the switch contacts move. The symbol for a relay is shown in Fig. 1.11\ are 288d contacts (n.c.) v Saute separator or roth eee ype "ese Gate whan the ist intensity is ous POE! amp can be x 7 | co |Sr0om oe i: Be a ee Note that the diode shor-circu energising current is switched of si Cs Switched off. This protects the sensitive trans! (©) Candidates should be abie to describe the properties ofthe idea! ‘The operational ampiitier (op-amp) is an integrated circuit (IC) of about twenty transistors with a few resistors and capacitors, formed on a tiny piece of tS the large e.m.. induced across the} relay coll when the Ors inside the logic inverting input —f erational ampli supply output silicon and sealed in a package from which various connections emerge. ‘Some of these connections and the ‘op-amp symbol are shown in Fig. 1.13. non-nverting input —| supply Fig. 1.1 The device is termed “operational amplifier” because it can easily be mi different operations. For example, it can be made 10 “i ‘comparison, (ii) amplify direct and alternating voltages by 2 mutiplying factor whic 1de to perform many compare wo separate votagas and give an SupUt which depends on th esl of is easy to contro, jpedance load, (i) butfer a high impedance source of voltage wich is to drive a low iBatreyer (iv) add two or more voltages together, (%) operate as a Schmitt tigger When connected to appropriate power supplies, an cp-amp produc which is proportional to the diference between the voltage V* at the noninverting ingut ea the voltage V~ at the inverting input. Thus, As(Ve= V9, where Asis known as the open-loop gain of the op-amp. The ideal operational amplifier has the following proferties: (an infinite input impedance (Le. no current flows into either of the (i) infinite open-loop gain (i.e. if there is only the sightest ditferande voltages, the output wil be saturated, see page 7), two inputs), between the two wnput (i) zero output impedance (i.e. the amplifer can provide the corfpet current for any 029, ‘no matter how smallits resistance), (i) Infinite bandwidth (i.e. it amples all frequencies by the same noun). (¥)_ infinite slew rate (.0. if the input suddenly changes, the output suddenl) changes step, without any time delay) Note that rea/ operational amplifiers deviate from this ideal in the fo (i) the input impedance is usually between 10°Q and 100, (ii) the open-loop gain is usually about 10° for de. signals, (ii) the output impedance is usually about 100.2, (iv) there is a limited bandwidth (see section 1()), (v)_ there is a limited slew rate. jowing ways:1) Candidates 5 comparatos “POU be able 10 understand the use of an operatitoal ampiiior as’ moitier is to Be used in a circu, its usually copnected to spl, or 1 enable the output voltage to swing positively 4r negatively. Such ied to be composed af two sess of batteries art4nged as Shown in ; ommon tink is termed the zoro-val line, Tris frm the reference ine "put and output voltages ara measured an be ag whore hoa town a ve line line (ear) ~eTine Fig. 1.14 Figure 1:14 also shows two sources of voltage applied to the two Irputs, This simple arrangement is termed open-loop mode because there is no feedback connection between {he output of the op-amp and either of ts inputs. The output votage of the bp-amp is given by Vou = Av (V"~V"), where Asis known as the open-loop gain (typically 10° for direct voltages) Now consider the output voltage in the follawing two examples: Example 1 ve supply ling = 412 | ve supplying = —12V Ves 14V v= 13V | Thus, Vay) = 10x (1.4 — 1.3) = 410000 volts! But this is impossible as, trom energy considerations, the butput voltage can never exceed its own power supply voltage. Thus, the output voltage is as near as it can get to +10000 volts which is +12V and the cutput is said to be saturated,- eee q Hence the name inverting voltage and vice versa \ 19 ampiitor, 6, @ postive input votagd causes a negat the op-amp i in By Ohm's law, : : where Fy and A are the resistances of resitors R, and R, respecte. Mn=9 = Vow z a (potential at P= 0) ‘Thus, the overall vottage gain is given by volage goin -—- Va R The non-inverting amplitor Annon-inverting amplifier is shown in Fig, 1.20 where an input signal Vj is applied direct tte non-inverting input (+). Negative feedback is applied by medns of resistors Ry and A. R, Vou R, +—ov Fig. 120 I te outputs not saturate, than the wo input vokagos fo opamp must be eftec the same. The non-inverting input (+) is equal to Vq whereas the inverting input (-) is by the potential divider formula. R, ~ Vol A+R, Where R, and A, are the resistances of resistors Ry and R, respectively."esrranging, the overalvetage Gain of the amps gven by Yo A vonage gan Sey, 3 ioe were Ton-ovetngampkerpces an aput watage which iin “Pat voltage, hence ihe namo noMinvering ernie hase withthe © Cancicates shoud be able to recat and ‘explain the effect of negative feedback on the oneute 1-21 shows a cicuit which could bo used to measure the open-gop acura 8 number of ern ease eee, ‘measure the input and output voltages ' Sn) &) —_ tH Fig. 1.21 {The signal generator would be set tothe frequency “equted and then its \c be adjusted to an extremely low value. This is because the open loop gf ‘might be as high as 10° and iit is not to saturate the gain of wn sor gain of a real uid be used to jutput would have in of the op-amy fier can only b Smasured if It is not saturated), then the input votage must be lese lan the maximun 10V = 10% = 0.1 mv. ©p-amp output voltage = 10° Figure 1.22 shows the variation with frequency of the openioop gain fo} ‘The graph is said to show the frequency response of the amplifier B typical op-amy