Extreme Value Theorem:

The Extreme Value Theorem states that if 𝑓(𝑥) is a continuous function on a closed
interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then:

 𝑓(𝑥) attains an absolute maximum value at some point 𝑐 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏].

 𝑓(𝑥) attains an absolute minimum value at some point 𝑑 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏].
These extreme values can occur either at the endpoints of the interval or at critical
points where the derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is zero or does not exist.

Note: Absolute extreme values may not exist for functions defined on open intervals or
unbounded domains.

Absolute Maximum
In calculus, an absolute maximum (or global maximum) of a function is the largest
value that the function attains over its entire domain. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a function defined on a
domain 𝐷, and 𝑓(𝑎) is the maximum value of the function, then for every point 𝑥 in 𝐷, we
have:

𝑓(𝑎) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥)

Steps to Find Absolute Maxima

To find the absolute maximum of a function, follow these steps:

These are the points where the derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is either zero or undefined. To find them,
solve:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0
′
or find where 𝑓 (𝑥) does not exist.
Plug each critical point back into the original function 𝑓(𝑥) to get its value.
If the function is defined on a closed interval, also check the values of the function at the
endpoints of the domain.
The largest value from all the critical points and endpoints is the absolute maximum.

Example
Find absolute maxima of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 over the domain 𝑥 ∈ [−1,3].

Find the derivative:

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 4
Find critical points:
Solve 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0:
−2𝑥 + 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2
Evaluate the function at critical points and end points:
At 𝑥 = 2, 𝑓(2) = −(2)2 + 4(2) + 1 = −4 + 8 + 1 = 5
At 𝑥 = −1, 𝑓(−1) = −(−1)2 + 4(−1) + 1 = −1 − 4 + 1 = −4
At 𝑥 = 3, 𝑓(3) = −(3)2 + 4(3) + 1 = −9 + 12 + 1 = 4
Compare the values:

𝑓(−1) = −4, 𝑓(2) = 5, 𝑓(3) = 4

Thus, the absolute maximum is 5, which occurs at 𝑥 = 2.

Absolute Maxima: Step-by-Step Solutions

Example 1: Find absolute maxima of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 on the
interval [0,3]
Step 1: Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥):

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 4

Step 2: Find critical points by solving 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0:

−2𝑥 + 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2

Step 3: Evaluate the function at critical points and endpoints:

𝑓(0) = −(0)2 + 4(0) + 3 = 3

𝑓(2) = −(2)2 + 4(2) + 3 = −4 + 8 + 3 = 7

𝑓(3) = −(3)2 + 4(3) + 3 = −9 + 12 + 3 = 6

Step 4: Compare the values:

𝑓(0) = 3, 𝑓(2) = 7, 𝑓(3) = 6

Thus, the absolute maximum is 7, which occurs at 𝑥 = 2.

Example 2: Find absolute maxima of the function 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 2 on

the interval [−1,4]
Step 1: Find the derivative of 𝑔(𝑥):

𝑔′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9

Step 2: Find critical points by solving 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 0:

3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9 = 0
Divide the equation by 3:

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0

Factoring:

(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) = 0

Thus, the critical points are 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 3.

Step 3: Evaluate the function at critical points and endpoints:

𝑔(−1) = (−1)3 − 6(−1)2 + 9(−1) + 2 = −1 − 6 − 9 + 2 = −14

𝑔(1) = (1)3 − 6(1)2 + 9(1) + 2 = 1 − 6 + 9 + 2 = 6

𝑔(3) = (3)3 − 6(3)2 + 9(3) + 2 = 27 − 54 + 27 + 2 = 2

𝑔(4) = (4)3 − 6(4)2 + 9(4) + 2 = 64 − 96 + 36 + 2 = 6

Step 4: Compare the values:

𝑔(−1) = −14, 𝑔(1) = 6, 𝑔(3) = 2, 𝑔(4) = 6

Thus, the absolute maximum is 6, which occurs at 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 4.

Example 3: Find absolute maxima of the function ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 5

on the interval [−2,2]
Step 1: Find the derivative of ℎ(𝑥):

ℎ′ (𝑥) = 8𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 − 24𝑥

Step 2: Find critical points by solving ℎ′ (𝑥) = 0:

8𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 = 0

Factor out 𝑥:

𝑥(8𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 24) = 0

So, 𝑥 = 0 is one critical point. Now, solve 8𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 24 = 0 using the quadratic formula:

−(−9) ± √(−9)2 − 4(8)(−24)

𝑥=
2(8)

9 ± √81 + 768
𝑥=
16

9 ± √849
𝑥=
16
 9 ± 29.13
𝑥=
16

This gives the two critical points:

9 + 29.13 9 − 29.13
𝑥= ≈ 2.38, 𝑥 = ≈ −1.26
16 16

However, we are interested in the interval [−2,2], so we discard 𝑥 ≈ 2.38 because it's
outside the domain.

Thus, the critical points within the interval are 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 ≈ −1.26.

Step 3: Evaluate the function at critical points and endpoints:

ℎ(−2) = 2(−2)4 − 3(−2)3 − 12(−2)2 + 5 = 2(16) + 3(8) − 12(4) + 5 = 32 + 24 − 48 + 5

= 13

ℎ(0) = 2(0)4 − 3(0)3 − 12(0)2 + 5 = 5

ℎ(−1.26) ≈ 2(−1.26)4 − 3(−1.26)3 − 12(−1.26)2 + 5 ≈ 5.04 + 6.00 − 19.08 + 5 = −3.04

ℎ(2) = 2(2)4 − 3(2)3 − 12(2)2 + 5 = 2(16) − 3(8) − 12(4) + 5 = 32 − 24 − 48 + 5

= −35

Step 4: Compare the values:

ℎ(−2) = 13, ℎ(0) = 5, ℎ(−1.26) ≈ −3.04, ℎ(2) = −35

Thus, the absolute maximum is 13, which occurs at 𝑥 = −2.

Absolute Minima:
The absolute minimum (or global minimum) of a function is the point where the
function attains its smallest possible value over the entire domain. In other words, it's
the lowest point on the graph of the function, and there are no other points on the
domain where the function takes a smaller value.

Mathematically, for a function 𝑓(𝑥), the absolute minimum occurs at a point 𝑥 = 𝑐 if:

𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ domain of 𝑓.

This means that the function value at 𝑐 is less than or equal to the function values at any
other point in the domain.

Absolute Minima: Step-by-Step Solutions

Example 1: Find absolute minima of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 on the
interval [0,3]
Step 1: Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥):

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 4

Step 2: Find critical points by solving 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0:

2𝑥 − 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2

Step 3: Evaluate the function at critical points and endpoints:

𝑓(0) = (0)2 − 4(0) + 5 = 5

𝑓(2) = (2)2 − 4(2) + 5 = 4 − 8 + 5 = 1

𝑓(3) = (3)2 − 4(3) + 5 = 9 − 12 + 5 = 2

Step 4: Compare the values:

𝑓(0) = 5, 𝑓(2) = 1, 𝑓(3) = 2

Thus, the absolute minimum is 1, which occurs at 𝑥 = 2.

Example 2: Find absolute minima of the function 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 on

the interval [−2,2]
Step 1: Find the derivative of 𝑔(𝑥):

𝑔′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2

Step 2: Find critical points by solving 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 0:

3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2 = 0

Solve this quadratic equation using the quadratic formula:

6 ± √36 − 24 √3
𝑥= ⇒ 𝑥 =1±
6 3

Step 3: Evaluate the function at critical points and endpoints:

𝑔(−2) = −25, 𝑔(2) = −1

Step 4: Compare the values:

𝑔(−2) = −25, 𝑔(2) = −1

Thus, the absolute minimum is −25, which occurs at 𝑥 = −2.

Applications of Extreme Values in
Various Fields
1. Software Engineering
Extreme values are used in optimization problems (such as minimizing cost or
maximizing performance). Algorithms like gradient descent and simulated annealing
rely on finding local or global extreme values to optimize software performance or
resource usage.
In software testing and debugging, finding the minimum error or deviation between
expected and actual outputs helps improve code reliability and performance.

2. Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Extreme values play a key role in training models. For example, algorithms like gradient
descent aim to minimize the cost function (finding the absolute minimum) during
training to improve model accuracy.
In reinforcement learning, the goal is often to maximize cumulative rewards, which can
be considered as maximizing the extreme values of reward functions over time.

3. Robotics
Robots use extreme values to optimize paths, avoiding obstacles and minimizing travel
time or energy consumption while maximizing efficiency.
In robotic control, extreme values help minimize error in the feedback loop, optimizing
movement and ensuring precise and accurate actions.

4. Computer Science
Many algorithms, such as those used in search problems or graph traversal, involve
finding extreme values (e.g., the shortest path or maximum flow) to solve optimization
problems efficiently.
In data mining, extreme values are used to identify anomalies (outliers), optimize data
storage, or identify important features in large datasets.

5. Other Fields
In financial modeling, extreme value theory helps model rare events (like financial
crashes or market spikes), providing insights into risk management and prediction.
Extreme values are used to determine the maximum strength or load a material can
handle, or to optimize design parameters in various engineering applications (e.g.,
minimizing energy consumption in systems).
Exercise: Absolute Extreme Values
For each of the following functions, find the absolute minimum and maximum values on
the given domain. If the function does not have absolute extreme values on the domain,
explain why.

1 Find the absolute extreme values of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 on the

interval [0,4].
2 Determine the absolute maximum and minimum of the function 𝑔(𝑥) = sin(𝑥) on
the interval [0,2𝜋].
1
3 Find the absolute extreme values of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 on the interval [1,3].

4 Determine the absolute minimum of the function 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 2 on the

interval [−2,2].
5 For the function 𝑚(𝑥) = ln(𝑥), find the absolute maximum and minimum on the
domain (0,5].