1.

Introduction
Irrigation engineering is the analysis and design of systems that optimally supply the
right amount of water to the soil at the right time to meet the needs of the plant system.
2. Necessity
1- Less Rainfall
2- Non-uniform Rainfall
3- Growing a number of crops during a year.
4- Growing Perennial crops.
5- Commercial crops with additional water.
6- Controlled water supply.
3. Advantage of application of water by modern methods
1- It adds water to the soil to supply the moisture essential for the plant growth.
2- It saves the crops from drying during short duration droughts.
3- It cools the soil and the atmosphere, and thus makes more favorable environment
for healthy plant growth.
4- It washes out or dilutes salts in the soil.
5- It reduces the hazard of soil piping.
6- It softens the tillage pans.
4. Scope of irrigation science
The scope of irrigation is not limited to the application of water to the soil. It deals with
all aspects and problems extending from the watershed to the agricultural farms. It
deals with the design and construction of all works, such as dams, weirs, head
regulators etc. in connection with the storage or diversion of water, as well as he
problems of subsoil drainage, soil reclamation and water-soil-crop relationships, An
irrigation engineer is also required to have the knowledge of cultivation of various
crops, their maturing and protection from pests. Briefly speaking, the scope of
irrigation can be divided into two heads:
a-Engineering aspect
1- Storage, Diversion, or lifting of water
2- Conveyance of water to the Agricultural fields.
3- Application of water to Agricultural fields.
4- Drainage and relieving water-Logging.
5- Development of water power.
b-Agricultural Aspect
the agricultural aspect deals with the thorough study of the following points.
1- Proper depth of water necessary in single application of water for various crops.
2- Distribution of water uniformly and periodically.
3- Capacities of water uniformly and periodically.
4- Reclamation of waste and alkaline lands, where this can be carried out through the
agency of water.

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 5. Benefits of irrigation
1- Increase in food production.
2- Protection from famine .
3- Cultivation of cash crops.
4- Elimination of mixed cropping.
5- Addition to the wealth of the country.
6- Increase in prosperity of people.
7- Generation of Hydro-Electric power.
8- Domestic and industrial water supply.
9- Inland navigation .
10- Improvements of communication.
11- Canal plantations.
12- Improvement in the Ground water storage.
13- Aid in Civilization.
14- General Development of the country .
6. Basic Design Factors
1- Consumptive Use (or Evapotranspiration) ‫نتح‬-‫االستهالك المائي او التبخر‬
Consumptive use refers to the water needs of a crop in a specified time and is the sum of
the volume of transported and evaporated water.
2- Root-zone soil water ‫مياه التربة في المنطقة الجذرية‬
Water serves the following useful functions in the process of plant growth:
(i) Germination of seeds، ‫ إنبات البذور‬,
(ii) All chemical reactions,
(iii) All biological processes,
(iv) Absorption of plant nutrients through their aqueous solution,
(v) Temperature control,
(vi) Tillage operations‫ عمليات الحرث‬, and
(vii) Washing out or dilution of salts.
Soil water can be divided into three categories:
(i) Gravity (or gravitational or free) water,
(ii) Capillary water, and
(iii) Hygroscopic water.
Gravity water is that water which drains away under the influence of gravity. Soon after
irrigation (or rainfall) this water remains in the soil and saturates the soil, thus preventing
circulation of air in void spaces.
The capillary water is held within soil pores due to the surface tension forces (against
gravity) which act at the liquid-vapour (or water-air) interface.

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Water attached to soil particles through loose chemical bonds is termed hygroscopic
water. This water can be removed by heat only. But, the plant roots can use a very small
fraction of this moisture under drought conditions.
‫ وبالتالي‬، ‫مياه الجاذبية هي تلك المياه التي تستنزف تحت تأثير الجاذبية بعد الري (أو هطول األمطار) يبقى هذا الماء في التربة ويشبع التربة‬
‫يمنع دوران الهواء في فراغات‬.
‫يتم االحتفاظ بالمياه الشعرية داخل مسام التربة بسبب قوى التوتر السطحي (ضد الجاذبية) التي تعمل على واجهة بخار السائل (أو الماء‬
‫ والهواء) المياه المرتبطة بجزيئات التربة من خالل الروابط الكيميائية السائبة تسمى الماء االسترطابي‬. ‫يمكن إزالة هذا الماء بالحرارة فقط‬.
‫ يمكن أن تستخدم جذور النباتات صغيرة جدا جزء من هذه الرطوبة تحت ظروف الجفاف‬، ‫ولكن‬.

The water remaining in the soil after the removal of gravitational water is called the field
capacity. Field capacity of a soil is defined as the moisture content of a deep, permeable,
and well-drained soil several days after a thorough wetting.
‫ويسمى الماء المتبقي في التربة بعد إزالة المياه الجاذبية بـ السعة الحقلية‬. ، ‫يتم تعريف السعة الحقلية للتربة على أنها محتوى الرطوبة العميقة‬
‫ والتربة جيدا استنزفت عدة أيام بعد ترطيب شامل‬، ‫ونفاذية‬.

Permanent wilting point is defined as the soil moisture fraction, Wwp at which the plant
leaves wilt (or droop) permanently and applying additional water after this stage will not
relieve the wilted condition.

Fig 1. Different stages of soil moisture content in a soil

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 1- Crop and Crop seasons.

One of the primary drivers in irrigation system selection is crop type. For example,
vegetable crops cannot be flooded. the crops was divided into four general categories .

Category 1. Row or bedded crops: sugar beets, sugarcane, potatoes, pineapple, cotton,
soybeans, corn, sorghum, milo, vegetables, vegetable and flower seed, melons, tomatoes, and
strawberries.

Category 2. Close-growing crops (sown, drilled, or sodded): small grain, alfalfa, pasture,
and turf.

Category 3. Water flooded crops: rice and taro.

Category 4. Permanent crops: orchards of fruit and nuts, citrus groves, grapes, cane berries,
blueberries, cranberries, bananas and papaya plantations, hops, and trees and shrubs for windbreaks,
wildlife, landscape, and ornamentals.

1-1 Multiple Cropping

There are two forms of multiple cropping:

(i) intercropping, and (ii) sequential cropping. When two or more crops are grown
simultaneously on the same field, it is termed intercropping. Crop intensification is in both time
and space dimensions. There is, obviously, strong intercrop competition in this form of multiple
cropping. On the other hand, when two or more crops are grown in sequence on the same field in a
year, it is termed sequential cropping. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has
been harvested. Crop intensification is only in time dimension and there is no intercrop competition
in sequential cropping.

2- consumptive use (OR EVAPOTRANSPIRATION)

The combined loss of water from soil and crop by vaporisation is identified as
evapotranspiration. Crops need water for transpiration and evaporation. During the growing period
of a crop,there is a continuous movement of water from soil into the roots, up the stems and leaves,
and out of the leaves to the atmosphere. This movement of water is essential for carrying plant food
from the soil to various parts of the plant. Only a very small portion (less than 2 per cent)of water
absorbed by the roots is retained in the plant and the rest of the absorbed water, after performing its
tasks, gets evaporated to the atmosphere mainly through the leaves and stem. This process is called
transpiration. In addition, some water gets evaporated to the atmosphere directly from the adjacent
soil and water surfaces and from the surfaces of the plant leaves(i.e., the intercepted precipitation on
the plant foliage). The water needs of a crop thus consists of transpiration and evaporation and is
called evapotranspiration or consumptive use.

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Consumptive use refers to the water needs of a crop in a specified time and is the sum of the volume
of transpirated and evaporated water. Consumptive use is defined as the amount of water needed
to meet the water loss through evapotranspiration. It generally applies to a crop but can be
extended to a field, farm, project or even a valley. Consumptive use is generally measured as
volume per unit area or simply as the depth of water on the irrigated area.

Knowledge of consumptive use helps determine irrigation requirement at the farm which should,
obviously, be the difference between the consumptive use and the effective precipitation.

Evapotranspiration is dependent on climatic conditions like temperature, daylight

hours,humidity, wind movement, type of crop, stage of growth of crop, soil moisture
depletion, and other physical and chemical properties of soil. For example, in a sunny and hot
climate, crops need more water per day than in a cloudy and cool climate. Similarly, crops like rice
or sugarcane need more water than crops like beans and wheat. Also, fully grown crops need more
water than crops which have been just planted.

Potential evapotranspiration from a cropped surface can be estimated either by correlating potential
evapotranspiration with water loss from evaporation devices or by estimations based on various
climatic parameters. Correlation of potential evapotranspiration assumes that the climatic conditions
affecting crop water loss (Det) and vaporation from a free surface of water (Ep) are the same.
Potential evapotranspiration Det can be correlated to the pan evaporation Ep as ,

Det = KEp …1

in which, K is the crop factor for that period. The crop factor K depends on the crop as well as its
stage of growth (Table 1). The main limitations of this method are the differences in physical
features of evaporation surfaces compared with those of a crop surface.

In the absence of pan evaporation data, the consumptive use is generally computed as follows:

(i) Compute the seasonal (or monthly) distribution of potential evapotranspiration, which is defined
as the evapotranspiration rate of a well-watered reference crop which completely shades the soil
surface . It is thus an indication of the climatic evaporation demand of a vigorously growing crop.

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Usually, grass and alfalfa (a plant with leaves like that of clover and purple flowers used as food for
horses and cattle) are taken as reference crops.

(ii) Adjust the potential evapotranspiration for the type of crop and the stage of crop growth. Factors
such as soil moisture depletion are ignored so that the estimated values of the consumptive use are
conservative values to be used for design purposes.
Thus, evapotranspiration of a crop can be estimated by multiplying potential evapotranspiration by
a factor known as crop coefficient.

Potential evapotranspiration can be computed by one of the several methods available for the
purpose. These methods range in sophistication from simple temperature correlation (such as the
Blaney-Criddle formula) to equations (such as Penman’s equation) which account for radiation
energy as well. Blaney-Criddle formula for the consumptive use has been used extensively and is
expressed as (1)

u = kf …2
in which, u = consumptive use of crop in mm,
k = empirical crop consumptive use coefficient (Table 2), and
f = consumptive use factor.

The quantities u, k, and f are determined for the same period (annual, irrigation season,growing
season or monthly). The consumptive use factor f is expressed as

…..3

in which, t = mean temperature in °C for the chosen period, and

p = percentage of daylight hours of the year occurring during the period.
Table 3 lists the values of p for different months of a year for 0° north latitude. The value of the
consumptive use is generally determined on a monthly basis and the irrigation system must be
designed for the maximum monthly water needs. It should be noted that Eq.(2) was originally in
FPS system with appropriate values of k. Similarly, Eq. (3) too had a different form with t in
Fahrenheit.

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Table 4 gives typical values of the water needs of some major crops for the total growing period of
some of the crops . This table also indicates the sensitivity of the crop to water shortages or drought.
High sensitivity to drought means that the crop cannot withstand water shortages, and that such
shortages should be avoided.

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Example 1: Using the Blaney-Criddle formula, estimate the yearly consumptive use of water for
sugarcane for the data given in the first four columns of Table 5.
Solution:
According to Eqs 2 & 3

Values of monthly consumptive use calculated from the above formula have been tabulated in the
last column of Table 5. Thus, yearly consumptive use = Σu = 1.75 m.

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1- DUTY OF WATER:

For proper planning of a canal system, the designer has to first decide the ‘duty of water’ in the
locality under consideration. Duty is defined as the area irrigated by a unit discharge of
water flowing continuously for the duration of the base period of a crop. The base period of
a crop is the time duration between the first watering at the time of sowing and the last
watering before harvesting the crop. Obviously, the base period of a crop is smaller than the
crop period. Duty is measured in hectares/m3/s. The duty of a canal depends on the crop,
type of soil, irrigation and cultivation methods, climatic factors, and the channel
conditions.
By comparing the duty of a system with that of another system or by comparing it with the
corresponding figures of the past on the same system, one can have an idea about the
performance of the system. Larger areas can be irrigated if the duty of the irrigation system is
improved. Duty can be improved by the following measures:
(i) The channel should not be in sandy soil and be as near the area to be irrigated as possible so
that the seepage losses are minimum. Wherever justified, the channel may be lined.
(ii) The channel should run with full supply discharge as per the scheduled program so that
farmers can draw the required amount of water in shorter duration and avoid the tendency of
unnecessary over irrigation.
(iii) Proper maintenance of watercourses and outlet pipes will also help reduce losses, and
thereby improve the duty.
(iv) Volumetric assessment of water makes the farmer to use water economically. This is,
however, more feasible in well irrigation
Well irrigation has higher duty than canal irrigation due to the fact that water is used
economically according to the needs. Open wells do not supply a fixed discharge and, hence, the
average area irrigated from an open well is termed its duty. Between the head of the main canal
and the outlet in the distributary, there are losses due to evaporation and percolation. As such,
duty is different at different points of the canal system. The duty at the head of a canal system is
less than that at an outlet or in the tail end region of the canal. Duty is usually calculated for the
head discharge of the canal. Duty calculated on the basis of outlet discharge is called ‘outlet
discharge factor’ or simply ‘outlet factor’ which excludes all losses in the canal system.
Imagine a field growing a single crop having a base period B days and a Delta ∆ mm which
is being supplied by a source located at the head (uppermost point) of the field. The water being

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supplied may be through the diversion of river water through a canal, or it could be using
ground water by pumping. If the water supplied is just enough to raise the crop within D
hectares of the field, then a relationship may it found out amongst all the variables as:

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4
PLANNING OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS

These projects mainly consist of engineering (or hydraulic) structures which collect, convey,
and deliver water to areas on which crops are grown. Irrigation projects may range from a small
farm unit to those serving extensive areas of millions of hectares. A small irrigation project may
consist of a low diversion weir or an inexpensive pumping plant along with small ditches (channels)
and some minor control structures. A large irrigation project includes a large storage reservoir, a
huge dam, hundreds of kilometers of canals, branches and distributaries, control structures, and
other works. Assuming all other factors (such as enlightened and experienced farmers, availability
of good seeds, etc.) reasonably favorable, the following can be listed as conditions essential for the
success of any irrigation project.

(i) Suitability of land (with respect to its soil, topography and drainage features) for continued
agricultural production,

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(ii) Favorable climatic conditions for proper growth and yield of the crops,
(iii) Adequate and economic supply of suitable quality of water, and
(iv) Good site conditions for the safe construction and uninterrupted operations of the engineering
works.
Most of the irrigation projects divert stream flow into a canal system which carries water to
the cropland by gravity and, hence, are called gravity projects. In pumping projects, water is
obtained by pumping but delivered through a gravity system
A gravity type irrigation project mainly includes the following works:
(i) Storage (or intake) and diversion works,
(ii) Conveyance and distribution channels.
(iii) Conveyance, control, and other hydraulic structures,
(iv) Farm distribution, and
(v) Drainage works.
Development of an Irrigation Project
A small irrigation project can be developed in a relatively short time. Farmers having land suitable
for agriculture and a source of adequate water supply can plan their own irrigation system, secure
necessary finance from banks or other agencies, and get the engineering works constructed without
any delay. On the other hand, development of a large irrigation project is more complicated and
time-consuming. Complexity and the time required for completion of a large project increase with
the size of the project. This is due to the organizational, legal, financial administrative,
environmental, and engineering problems all of which must be given detailed consideration prior to
the construction of the irrigation works. The principal stages of a large irrigation project are: (i) the
promotional stage, (ii) the planning stage, (iii) the construction stage, and (iv) the settlement stage.
The planning stage itself consists of three substages: (i) preliminary planning including feasibility
studies, (ii) detailed planning of water and land use, and (iii) the design of irrigation structures and
canals. Engineering activities are needed during all stages (including operation and maintenance) of
development of an irrigation project. However, the planning and construction stages require most
intensive engineering activities. A large irrigation project may take 10–30 years for completion
depending upon the size of the project.

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IRRIGATION METHODS
Irrigation water can be applied to croplands using one of the following irrigation methods:
(i) Surface irrigation which includes the following:
(a) Uncontrolled (or wild or free) flooding method,
(b) Border strip method,
(c) Check method,
(d) Basin method, and
(e) Furrow method.
(ii) Subsurface irrigation
(iii) Sprinkler irrigation
(iv) Trickle irrigation

Each of the above methods has some advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of
the method depends on the following factors :
- Size, shape, and slope of the field,
- Soil characteristics,
- Nature and availability of the water supply subsystem,
- Types of crops being grown,
- Initial development costs and availability of funds, and
- Preferences and past experience of the farmer.

The design of an irrigation system for applying water to croplands is quite complex and
not amenable to quantitative analysis. Principal criteria for the design of a suitable
irrigation method are as follows :
(i) Store the required water in the root-zone of the soil,
(ii) Obtain reasonably uniform application of water,
(iii) Minimise soil erosion,
(iv) Minimise run-off of irrigation water from the field,
(v) Provide for beneficial use of the runoff water,
(vi) Minimise labour requirement for irrigation,
(vii) Minimise land use for ditches and other controls to distribute water,
(viii) Fit irrigation system to field boundaries,
(ix) Adopt the system to soil and topographic changes, and
(x) Facilitate use of machinery for land preparation, cultivating, furrowing, harvesting,
and so on.
1. Well and Tube Well Irrigation
- There are various types of wells – shallow wells, deep wells, tube wells, artesian wells,
etc. From the shallow wells water is not always available as the level of water goes down
during the dry months. Deep wells are more suitable for the purpose of irrigation as water
from them is available throughout the year.

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- At places where ground water is available, a tube-well can be installed near the
agricultural area. A deep tube well worked by electricity, can irrigate a much larger area
(about 400 hectares) than a surface well (half hectares).
- Merits: Well is simplest, cheapest and independent source of
irrigation and can be used as and when the necessity arises. Several
chemicals such as nitrate, chloride, sulphate, etc. found in well water
add to the fertility of soil. More reliable during periods of drought
when surface water dries up
- Demerits: Only limited area can be irrigated. In the event of a
drought, the ground water level falls and enough water is not
available. Tubewells can draw a lot of groundwater from its
neighbouring areas and make the ground dry and unfit for
agriculture.
2. Canal Irrigation
- Canals can be an effective source of irrigation in areas of low- level relief, deep fertile
soils, perennial source of water and extensive command area.
- The digging of canals in rocky and uneven areas is
difficult and uneconomic.
- Merits: Most of the canals provide perennial irrigation
and supply water as and when needed. This saves the
crops from drought conditions and helps in increasing the
farm production.
- Demerits: Many canals overflow during the rainy
season and flood the surrounding areas. Canal irrigation
is suitable in plain areas only.
3. Tank Irrigation
- A tank is developed by constructing a small
bund of earth or stones built across a stream.
The water impounded by the bund is used for
irrigation and other purposes.
- Merits: Most of the tanks are natural and do
not involve heavy cost for their construction
and have longer life span. In many tanks,
fishing is also carried on, which supplements

2
both the food resources and income of the farmer.
- Demerits: Many tanks dry up during the dry season and fail to provide irrigation when it
is required. Lifting of water from tanks and carrying it to the fields is a strenuous and costly
exercise.
4. Drip Irrigation
- In drip irrigation, water is applied near the plant root
through emitters or drippers, on or below the soil surface,
at a low rate varying from 2-20 liters per hour. The soil
moisture is kept at an optimum level with frequent
irrigations.
- Among all irrigation methods, drip irrigation is the most
efficient and can be practiced for a large variety of crops,
especially in vegetables, orchard crops, flowers and plantation crops.
- Merits: Fertilizer and nutrient loss is minimized due to localized application and reduced
leaching. Field leveling is not necessary. Recycled non-potable water can be used. Water
application efficiency increases. Soil erosion and weed growth is lessened.
- Demerits: Initial cost can be more, can result in clogging, wastage of water, time and
harvest, if not installed properly.
5. Sprinkler Irrigation
- In this method, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall on the ground surface
somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is developed by the flow of water under
pressure through small orifices or nozzles. The sprinkler irrigation system is a very
suitable method for irrigation on uneven lands and on shallow soils.
- Nearly all crops are suitable for sprinkler irrigation
systems except crops like rice, etc. The dry crops,
vegetables, flowering crops, orchards, plantation crops
like tea, coffee are all suitable and can be irrigated
through sprinklers.
- Merits: Suitable to all types of soil except heavy clay.
Water saving. Increase in yield. Saves land as no bunds etc. are required.
- Demerits: Higher initial cost. Under high wind conditions and high temperature
distribution and application efficiency is poor.

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Definitions of Irrigation concepts
Net depth of irrigation (dn ) : is the depth of water applied and stored in the root zone (It
is only water available for plant growth).
Leaching requirements (L.R) : is defined as the fraction of irrigation water that
must be leaching through the root zoon to control soil salinity at any specified level.
Gross depth of irrigation (dg ) : is the depth of water delivered to the farms, which
content the amount of net depth, water loss (run off + deep percolation), leaching
requirements, and rain fall.

𝑑𝑔= 𝑑𝑛 + water losses +LR – effective rainfall

Total depth of water (𝒅𝒕) : is that depth of water delivered from the water source
(reservoir, river, etc) for irrigation requirement.

𝑑𝑡=𝑑𝑔+𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒+𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Seepage losses from earth canals = 35%,
• Seepage losses from lining canals = 5.8%

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Application efficiency (Ea): The ratio between water stored in the soil root
zone during irrigation to water delivered to the farm.

Conveyance Efficiency (CE): It is the percentage ratio between depth of water at the
farm and depth of water delivered from irrigation source.

Overall Efficiency (OE) = Ea*CE

Example (1): given

✓Gross depth 150mm ,
✓Irrigation efficiency 80% ,
❖Find net depth of irrigation

❖ Find the depth of water lost during irrigation process.

Example (2): Given the following data of an irrigation project: 𝐸𝑎=85% and
𝐶𝐸=75%.Find the percentage of water from the total depth that useful for plants.

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1- CANAL IRRIGATION:

Irrigation conduits of a typical gravity project are usually open channels through earth or rock
formations. These are called canals.
A canal is defined as an artificial channel constructed on the ground to carry water from a
river or another canal or a reservoir to the fields. Usually, canals have a trapezoidal
crosssection.
2- Classification of canals

Canals can be classified in many ways:

Based on the nature of source of supply, a canal can be either a permanent or an inundation
canal. A permanent canal has a continuous source of water supply. Such canals are also called
perennial canals. An inundation canal draws its supplies from a river only during the high stages
of the river. Such canals do not have any headworks for diversion of river water to the canal, but
are provided with a canal head regulator.

Depending on their function, canals can also be classified as: (i) irrigation, (ii) navigation,
(iii) power, and (iv) feeder canals. An irrigation canal carries water from its source to
agricultural fields. Canals used for transport of goods are known as navigation canals. Power
canals are used to carry water for generation of hydroelectricity. A feeder canal feeds two or
more canals.
An irrigation canal system consists of canals of different sizes and capacities (Fig.1).
Accordingly, the canals are also classified as: (i) main canal, (ii) branch canal, (iii) major
distributary, (iv) minor distributary, and (v) watercourse.
The main canal takes its supplies directly from the river through the head regulator and acts as a
feeder canal supplying water to branch canals and major distributaries. Usually, direct irrigation
is not carried out from the main canal.

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Branch canals (also called ‘branches’) take their supplies from the main canal. Branch canals
generally carry a discharge higher than 5 m3/s and act as feeder canals for major and minor
distributaries. Large branches are rarely used for direct irrigation. However, outlets
are provided on smaller branches for direct irrigation.
Major distributaries (also called ‘distributaries’ or rajbaha) carry 0.25 to 5 m3/s of discharge.
These distributaries take their supplies generally from the branch canal and sometimes from the
main canal. The distributaries feed either watercourses through outlets or minor distributaries.
Minor distributaries (also called ‘minors’) are small canals which carry a discharge less than
0.25 m3/s and feed the watercourses for irrigation. They generally take their supplies from
major distributaries or branch canals and rarely from the main canals.
A watercourse is a small channel which takes its supplies from an irrigation channel (generally
distributaries) through an outlet and carries water to the various parts of the area to be irrigated
through the outlet.

Fig (.1) Layout of an irrigation canal network

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 Classification of canals based on discharge:

1. Main Canal (MC): It is the largest canal in the system which takes
off from a water source.

2. Lateral or branch canals (LC): the canals branches from MC to feed

the distributaries canal.

3. Distributary canals (DC): Smaller canals take off from the branch
canals and distribute their supply through outlets into water courses.

4. Water courses (WC): The smallest canals which feeds the water to
the farm units.

3- ALIGNMENT OF IRRIGATION CANALS

Desirable locations for irrigation canals on any gravity project, their cross-sectional designs
and construction costs are governed mainly by topographic and geologic conditions along different
routes of the cultivable lands. Main canals must convey water to the higher elevations of the
cultivable area. Branch canals and distributaries convey water to different parts of the irrigable
areas.

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 On projects where land slopes are relatively flat and uniform, it is advantageous to align
channels on the watershed of the areas to be irrigated. The natural limits of command of such
irrigation channels would be the drainages on either side of the channel. Aligning a canal (main,
branch as well as distributary) on the watershed ensures gravity irrigation on both sides of the canal.
Besides, the drainage flows away from the watershed and, hence, no drainage can cross a canal
aligned on the watershed. Thus, a canal aligned on the watershed saves the cost of construction
of cross-drainage structures. However, the main canal has to be taken off from a river which is
the lowest point in the cross-section, and this canal must mount the watershed in as short a distance
as possible. Ground slope in the head reaches of a canal is much higher than the required canal bed
slope and, hence, the canal needs only a short distance to mount the watershed. This can be
illustrated by Fig.2 in which the main canal takes off from a river at P and mounts the watershed at
Q. Let the canal bed level at P be 400 m and the elevation of the highest point N along the section
MNP be 410 m. Assuming that the ground slope is 1 m per km, the distance of the point Q (395 m)
on the watershed from N would be 15 km. If the required canal bed slope is 25 cm per km, the
length PQ of the canal would be 20 km. Between P and Q, the canal would cross small streams and,
hence, construction of cross-drainage
structures would be necessary for
this length. In fact, the alignment PQ
is influenced considerably by the
need of providing suitable locations
for the cross-drainage structures. The
exact location of Q would be
determined by trial so that the
alignment PQ results in an economic
as well as efficient system. Further,
on the watershed side of the canal
PQ, the ground is higher than the
ground on the valley side (i.e., the
river side). Therefore, this part of the
canal can irrigate only on one side
(i.e., the river side) of the canal.

Fig. (.2) Head reach of a main canal in plains

4
Once a canal has reached the watershed, it is generally kept on the watershed, except in certain
situations, such as the looping watershed at R in Fig.2. In an effort to keep the canal alignment
straight, the canal may have to leave the watershed near R. The area between the canal and the
watershed in the region R can be irrigated by a distributary which takes off at R1 and follows the
watershed. Also, in the region R, the canal may cross some small streams and, hence, some cross-
drainage structures may have to be constructed. If watershed is passing through villages or towns,
the canal may have to leave the watershed for some distance.
In hilly areas, the conditions are vastly different compared to those of plains. Rivers flow in valleys
well below the watershed or ridge, and it may not be economically feasible to take the channel on
the watershed. In such situations, contour channels (Fig.3) are constructed. Contour channels follow
a contour while maintaining the required longitudinal slope. It continues like this and as river slopes
are much steeper than the required canal bed slope the canal encompasses more and more area
between itself and the river. It should be noted that the more fertile areas in the hills are located at
lower levels only.

Fig.(.3) Alignment of main canal in hills

In order to finalise the channel network for a canal irrigation project, trial alignments of channels
are marked on the map prepared during the detailed survey. A large-scale map is required to work
out the details of individual channels. However, a small-scale map depicting the entire command of
the irrigation project is also desirable. The alignments marked on the map are transferred on the
field and adjusted wherever necessary. These adjustments are transferred on the map as well. The
alignment on the field is marked by small masonry pillars at every 200 metres. The centre line on
top of these pillars coincides with the exact alignment. In between the adjacent pillars, a small
trench, excavated in the ground, marks the alignment.

5
 4- CURVES IN CANALS

Because of economic and other considerations, the canal alignment does not remain straight all
through the length of the canal, and curves or bends have to be provided. The curves cause
disturbed flow conditions resulting in eddies or cross currents which increase the losses. In a curved
channel portion, the water surface is not level in the transverse direction. There is a slight drop in
the water surface at the inner edge of the curve and a slight rise at the outer edge of the curve. This
results in slight increase in the velocity at the inner edge and slight decrease in the velocity at the
outer edge. As a result of this, the low-velocity fluid particles near the bed move to the inner bank
and the high-velocity fluid particles near the surface gradually cross to the outer bank. The cross
currents tend to cause erosion along the outer bank. The changes in the velocity on account of cross
currents depend on the approach flow condition and the characteristics of the curve. When separate
curves follow in close succession, either in the same direction or in the reversed direction, the
velocity changes become still more complicated.

Therefore, wherever possible, curves in channels excavated through loose soil should be
avoided. If it is unavoidable, the curves should have a long radius of curvature. The
permissible minimum radius of curvature for a channel curve depends on the type of channel,
dimensions of cross-section, velocities during full-capacity operations, earth formation along
channel alignment and dangers of erosion along the paths of curved channel. In general, the
permissible

minimum radius of curvature is shorter for flumes or lined canals than earth canals, shorter for
small cross-sections than for large cross-sections, shorter for low velocities than for high velocities,
and shorter for tight soils than for loose soils. Table 1 indicates the values of minimum radii of
channel curves for different channel capacities.

Table 1 Radius of curvature for channel curves

6
 5- CANAL LOSSES

When water comes in contact with an earthen surface, whether artificial or natural, the surface
absorbs water. This absorbed water percolates deep into the ground and is the main cause of the loss
of water carried by a canal. In addition, some canal water is also lost due to evaporation.

The loss due to evaporation is about 10 percent of the quantity lost due to seepage. The
seepage loss varies with the type of the material through which the canal runs. Obviously, the loss is
greater in coarse sand and gravel, less in loam, and still less in clay soil. If the canal carries silt-
laden water, the pores of the soil are sealed in course of time and the canal seepage reduces with
time. In almost all cases, the seepage loss constitutes an important factor which must be accounted
for in determining the water requirements of a canal.

Between the headworks of a canal and the watercourses, the loss of water on account of seepage
and evaporation is considerable. This loss may be of the order of 20 to 50 percent of water
diverted at the headworks depending upon the type of soil through which canal runs and the
climatic conditions of the region.

For the purpose of estimating the water requirements of a canal, the total loss due to evaporation
and seepage, also known as conveyance loss, is expressed as m3/s per million square metres of
either wetted perimeter or the exposed water surface area. Conveyance loss can be calculated using
the values given in Table.2., the total loss (due to seepage and evaporation) per million square
metres of water surface varies from 2.5 m3/s for ordinary clay loam to 5.0 m3/s for sandy loam. The
following empirical relation has also been found to give comparable results .

Table.2 Conveyance losses in canals

In this relation, ql is the loss expressed in m3/s per kilometre length of canal and B and h are,
respectively, canal bed width and depth of flow in metres.

7
1- Canal drops:

Definition: Whenever the available natural ground slope is steeper than the designed bed slope
of the channel, the difference is adjusted by constructing vertical 'falls' or 'drops' in the canal
bed at suitable intervals, as shown in Fig..1. Such a drop in a natural canal bed will not be stable
and, therefore, in order to retain this drop, a masonry structure is constructed. Such a pucca
structure is called a canal fall or a canal drop.

Fig.1

Proper location: The location of a fall in a canal depends upon the topography of the country
through which the canal is passing. In case of the main canal, which does not directly irrigate
any area, the site of a fall is determined by considerations of economy in 'cost of excavation and
filling' versus 'cost of fall'. The excavation and filling on two sides of a fall should be tried to be
balanced, because the unbalanced earthwork is quite costly. An economy between these two
factors has to be worked out before deciding the locations and extent of falls.

2- Types of drops:
Various types of falls have been designed and tried since the inception of the idea of 'falls
construction' came into being. The important types of such falls, which were used in olden days
and those which are being used in modern days, are described below

1
1- Ogee Falls: The 'Ogee type fall' was constructed in olden days on projects. The water was
gradually led down. by providing convex and cincave curves , as shown in fig.2

fig.2 Ogee Falls

2- Rapids: long rapids at slopes of 1 : 15 to 1 : 20.

3- Trapezoidal Notch Falls. The trapezoidal notch fall was designed by Ried in 1894. It
consists of a number of trapezoidal notches constructed in a high crested wall across the
channel with a smooth entrance and a flat.circular lip projecting downstream from each
notch to spread out the falling jet. Fig.3

2
 Fig.3 Trapezoidal Notch Falls
4- Well Type Falls or Cylinder Falls, or Syphon Well Drops. This type of a fall consists of
an inlet well with a pipe at its bottom, carrying water from the inlet well to downstream well
or a cistern. The downstream well is necessary in the case of falls greater than 1.8 m and for
discharges greater than 0.29 cumecs. The waterfalls into the inlet well, through a trapezoidal
notch constructed in the steining of the well, from where it emerges near the bottom,
dissipating its energy in turbulence inside the well fig .4

Fig.4 Syphon Well

3
5- Simple Vertical Drop Type and Sarda Type Falls. In the vertical drop type fall, the clear
nappe leaving the crest makes to impinge into a cistern below. When the cistern provides a
water cushion and helps to dissipate the surplus energy of the falling jet. (Fig. 5).

Fig.5 Simple Vertical Drop

6- Straight Glacis Falls in this type of a modern fall: a 'straight glacis' (generally sloping
2 : 1) .is provided after a 'raised crest' (see Fig .6). The hydraulic jump is made to occur on
the glacis, causing sufficient energy dissipation. This type of falls gives very good
performance if not flumed, although they may be flumed for economy. They are suitable for
up to 60 cumecs discharge and 1.5 m drop.

Fig .6 'Straight Glacis fall (without fuming), without Regulator and Bridge Details.

7- Montague Type Falls. The energy dissipation on a straight glacis remains incomplete due
to vertical component of velocity remaining unaffected. An improvement in energy
dissipation may be brought about in this type of fall [see Fig. .7 (a)], by replacing the
straight glacis with a parabolic glacis', commonly known as 'Montague Profile'

4
 Fig.7. Montague Type fall.

8- Inglis Falls or Baffle Falls: A straight glacis type fall when added with a baffle platform
and a baffle wall as shown in Fig. 12.8, was developed by Englis, and is called 'Englis Fall'
or 'Baffle Fall'. They are quite suitable for all discharges and for drops of more than 1.5 m.
They can be flumed easily as to affect economy. The baffle wall is provided at a calculated
height and a calculated distance from the toe of the glacis, so as to ensure the formation of
the . jump on the baffle platform, as shown in Fig.8

Fig.8 Inglis Falls or Baffle Falls

5
 9- Stepped Fall : The stepped falls were the modified form of rapid falls in this respect that the
long glacis of the rapid falls was replaced by floors in steps in the stepped falls. However,
the cost of construction of the steeped falls was also very high.

Design principles of various types of falls

1- Design of a Trapezoidal Notch Fall.

As pointed out earlier, a notch fall provides a proportionate fall, in the sense that there is no
heading up or drawdown of water level in the canal near the fall. The whole width of the channel is
divided into several notches. The crest (i.e. the sill level or the level of the bottom of the notch) may
be kept higher than the bed level of the canal, which will tend to increase the length of the weir, but
in no case, the total length of the weir openings should exceed the bed "width of the canal upstream,
and may well be reduced to about 7/8th of the bed width

Discharge Formula. The discharge passing through one notch of a notch fall can be obtained by
adding the discharge of a rectangular notch and a V-notch

The discharge passing .through a trapezoidal notch such as shown in Fig..9 is given by

6 fig 9
The above discharge equation contains two unknowns l and n. For solving this equation,two values
of Q and corresponding values of H must be assumed. It is a common practice to design notches for
full supply discharge (Q100) and half supply discharge (Q50) with values of H equal to the normal
water depths in the channel in the 'respective cases. Let the normal water depths in the channel at
full discharge and half discharge be represented by Y100 andy50 respectively. Then H100 =Y100,
and H50 = Y50·

The depth of water in the channel at 50% discharge (i.e. y50 can be approximately evaluated in
terms of full supply depth (y100) as follows :

Number of Notches. The number. of notches should be so adjusted by the hit and trial method that
the top width of the notch lies between to full water depth above the ill of the notch. This hit and
trial procedure would become clear when we solve a numerical example.

7
Notch Piers. The thickness of notch piers should not be less than half the water depth and maybe
kept more if they have to carry a heavy super structure. The top length of piers should not be less
than their thickness. In plan, the notch profile is set back by 0.5 m from the downstream face of the
notch . fall for larger canals, and by 0.25 m for distributaries. All curves are circular arcs, and all
centers lie in the plane of the profile. The splay upstream from the notch section is 45°, and the
downstream splay is kept at 22.5°. The lip is circular and is corbelled 'out by 0.8 m on larger canals,
and by 0.6 m on distributaries.

Example 1. Design the size and number of notches required for a canal drop with the following
particulars.

Full supply discharge =4cumecs

Bed width =6.0m

F.S. depth. =I.5m

Half supply depth =I.0m

Assume any other data if required.

Solution. The bed width of the canal is 6 m. Each potch at top should be roughly equal to F.S.
depth i.e. 1.5 m. So let us, in the first trial, provide 3 notches.

Full supply discharge through e.ach notch=4/3= 1.33 cμmecs

8
To increase the top width, and to make it near 1 to 3/4th FSD, it is necessary to increase l and n
which can be done by reducing the number of notches. The values of l and n obtained for 3 notches
will increase in direct proportion, when number of notches are reduced. In other words, the values l
of and n will become 3 times, when number of notches are reduced 3 times. Thus, when we provide
only one notch instead of 3 notches, the values of n and l will triple. Similarly, when we use 2
notches against 3, i.e., 1/5 times the values n and l will become 1.5 times of those obtained for 3
notches.

Hence when we use 2 notches, values will be:

Since the width is still quite low, we may use only one notch .

When we use only one notch, the values will be:

Since this condition gives us top width = 1.35 m, which is O.K., we may pro-vide one notch,
centrally placed in the given channel of 6 m width. The section of the. notch to be adopted is also
shown in Fig.10

9
 Fig 10

Check for raised crest if possible. It has also been noticed that when lesser number of notches are
Provided, with their. bottoms kept at U/S DBL of canal the concentration of flow gets increased
considerably.to avoid such an eventuality,its preferable to increase the number of notches, and this
may sometimes be. achieved by providing the notches in the raised crest. In other words, the bottom
of notch opening will be kept higher than U/S DBL of canal. This raising may be between 10% to
30% of full depth. The design calculations are hence to be repeated to compute n and l with a
raised crest, whenever a detailed designing is being done, and number of notches determined are
low.

These calculations for the above question will be as follows :

This gives a negative value of n, which is not feasible, and hence such a raised crest may not be
feasible in this particular case. Hence, the design made earlier, and shown in Fig. 10, holds good.

10
2- Design of a Syphon Well Drop
A syphon well drop, such as shown in Fig.4, is generally adopted for smaller discharges and larger
drops. The main features of the design involve determining the size of the inlet well and that of the
pipe. Suitable size for the outer well, a proper provision of water cushion at the bottom of the inlet
well, the bed and side slope pitchings in the canal upstream as well as downstream for suitable
lengths, are also provided. The size of the inlet well and that of the syphon pipe are determined on
the following considerations w .r. to Fig. 11.

Fig.11

First of all, the size of the trapezoidal notch is determined to pass the designed discharge·by using
eq. (12.4) in the same way, as is done for a trapezoidal notch. Then let V1 be the velocity over the
notch, V2 be the velocity of entry in the pipe, and V3 be the velocity through the pipe. All these
values of velocities can be determined easily as below :

The head loss between the inlet well and the d/s FSL is then given by HL1 as

1
Knowing all the above values, HL1 can be determined, and thus the R.L. of water surface inlet well
(i.e. d/s FSL + HL) can be determined.
Now, approximate R.L. of the centre of pressure (C.P,) of the trapezoidal waterway through the
notch

Then, the height (Y) of the centre of pressure above the water level in the inlet well

Now using the eq.

where X and Y are the coordinates· of the jet·

(issuing from centre of pressure) . t. the
water surface level in the inlet well as fig.12

Fig .12
The value of X can be determined. Finally, the dia of the inlet well may be kept at about 1.5 times
the value of X. The entire procedure will become more clear when we solve. the following
numerical example.

Example .2. Design the salient dimensions of a syphon well drop for the following particulars :
Fall =3.8m , General ground level = + 163.36 m , Full supply depth = 75 cm , Bed level upstream =
+ 162.83 , Discharge = 1 cumec , Bed width upstream and downstream = 2.4 m
Solution. For a trapezoidal notch, we have the discharge eq. as
Q = 2.22 · H3/2 [l + 0.4 n H]
At full supply discharge, we have
Q100 = 2.22 (y100)3/2 [l + 0.4 n Y100]

2
where y100 = F.S.D. = 0.75 m , Q100= F.S.Q= 1 cumec
1 = 2.22 (0.75)3/2 [l + 0.4n (0.75)]
0.71=l+0.3n ……(i)
At 50% full discharge, we have
Q50 = 2.22 y50 [l + 0.4n y50]
where y50= 0.66 y100
=0.66x0.75
=0.5 m
Q50 = 0.5 cumec
0.5 = 2.22 (0.5)312 [l + 0.4n (0.5)]
0.64= l + 0.2 n ….(ii)
Subtracting (ii) from (i) we get
0.07=0.l n
n=0.7

Substituting this value of n in (ii), we get

l=0.64-0.14=0.50
Hence, provide a trapezoidal notch in the staining of the inlet well, with 0.5 m bottom width and
each side inclined to an angle of 19.3° with the vertical.
Now, the width of water (at FSL) flowing over notch
= 0.5 + 0.7 x (0.75) = 0.5 + 0.525 = 1.025 m.
Velocity (V1) over the notch

Let us now assume that the diameter of the pipe used to be 1 m fig .13
Velocity V3 through the pipe

Let us assume that the diameter of the opening at the inlet of pipe be 0.5 m
The velocity of entry into the pipe (V2)

Loss of head between the inlet well and the dis FSL is given by Eq.

Let us assume that the length of the pipe is kept as 12m and =Darcey's coefficient of friction
be taken as equal to 0.012, we than have

3
R.L. of the water surface in the inlet well

Approximate R.L. of the centre of pressure (C.P.) of the trapezoidal waterway through a notch

Height Y of C.P .. above the water level in the inlet well

= 163.08-161.30= 1.78 m.

Now, the dia. of the inlet well may be kept at about 1.5 X, i.e. l.5 x 1.05 = 1.575 m, say 1.6 m. Keep
the dia. of the d/s outlet well, as say 1.2 m. Also, provide a water cushion at the bottom of the inlet
well. Bed and sides of the channel for suitable lengths on the u/s as well as d/s side are protected by
dry brick pitching. The complete details are shown in Fig.14.

Fig.14

4
3- Design of Simple Vertical drop Fall

In a vertical drop fall, the energy of the flowing water is dissipated by means of impact and by
sudden deflection of velocity from the vertical to the horizontal direction. A water cushion is
provided at the toe of the drop, so as to reduce the impact of falling jet and thus to save the
downstream floor from scour. The water cushion is formed by depressing the floor below the
downstream bed of the canal, as shown in Fig 1

Fig. 1

The following dimensions for the cistern have been suggested by U.P. Irrigation Research Institute:

……………..eq.1&2

where Lc= The length of the cistern in metres.

X = Cistern depression below the downstream bed in metres.
H= Head of water over the crest, including velocity head, in metres, i.e. = (u/s TEL - Crest level).
4- Design of a Sarda Type Fall

The design criteria for various components of such a fall, based on. the recommendations of
Bahadarabad Research Station, are given below :

Length of the Crest: Since fluming is not permissible in this type of falls, the length of the crest is
kept equal to the bed width of the canal. Sometimes, for future expansion, the crest length may be
kept equal to (bed width +depth).

Shape of the Crest: A rectangular crest with both faces vertical has been suggested for discharges
under 14 cumecs . the top width is kept equal to and the minimum base width is kept equal
to where d is the height of the crest above the downstream bed level and h is
the head over the crest [see fig.2-a]

1
 Fig.2-a: Rectangular Crest for Sarda Type fall

For discharges over 14 cumecs. a trapezoidal crest with top width equal to with upstream
side slope of 1:3 and downstream side slope of 1:8 is adopted [see fig.2-b]

Fig.2-b: Trapezoidal crest for Sarda Type fall

Crest level: The. following discharge formula is used to determine the height of the crest .

where Cd= 0.415 for rectangular crest ,

2
 = 0.45 for trapezoidal crest

L = Length of the crest

Bt = Top width of crest

Height of the crest above bed = y – h

≈ y-H (assuming h≈ H i.e. neglecting velocity of approach)

where y is the normal depth of channel(upstream).

Upstream Wing Wall. For trapezoidal crest, the upstream wing walls are kept segmental with
radius equal to 5 to 6 times H and subtending an angle of 60° at centre, and then carried tangential
into the berm as shown fig.3 The foundations of the wing walls are laid on the impervious concrete
floor itself. For rectangular crest (i.e. discharge Jess than 14 cumecs), the approach wings may be
splayed straight at an angle of 45°.

Fig.3 : Upstream wing walls for Trapezoidal crest of Sarda Type fall

Upstream Protection: Brick pitching in a length equal to upstream water depth may be laid on the
upstream bed, sloping towards the crest at a slope of 1 : 10. Drain pipes should also be provided at
the u/s bed level in-the cresr so as to drain out the·u/s bed during the closer of the channel.

Upstream Curtain Wall: brick thick upstream curtain wall is provided, having

a depth equal to of water depth.

Impervious Concrete Floor. The total length of impervious floor can be. Determined by Bligh's
theory for small works and by Khosla's theory for large works. The minimum length of floor on d/s
of the. toe of the crest wall should be = [2(water depth + 1.2 m) + drop]. The balance can be
provided under the crest and on upstream.

3
The floor thickness required on the downstream side can be worked out for uplift pressures (using
minimum thickness of 0.4 m to 0.6 metre) and only a nominal thickness of 0.3 metre is provided on
the upstream side. The maximum seepage head will occur when water is stored upto top of crest on
u/s side and there is no flow on the downstream side.

Cistern. The length and depth of cistern can be worked out from equations 1&2

Downstream Protection. The dis bed may be protected with dry brick pitching, about 20 cm thick
resting on 10 cm thick ballast. The length of the d/s pitching is given by the values of Table.1; or 3
times the depth of downstream water, whichever is more. The pitching may be provided between

two or three curtain walls. The curtain walls may be brick thick and of depth equal to the
downstream depth; or as given in Table .1 (minimum= 0.5 m).

Table.1

Slope Pitching. After the return wing, the sides of the channel are pitched with one brick on edge.

The pitching should rest on a toe wall brick thick and of depth equal to half the downstream
water depth. The side pitching may be curtailed at an angle of 45 ° from the end of the bed pitching,
or extended straight from the end of the bed pitching.

Downstream Wings. Downstream wings are kept straight for a length of 5 to 8 time and
may then be gradually wrapped. They should be taken upto. the end of the pucca floor.

All wing walls must be designed as retaining walls, subjected to full pressure of submerged soil at
their back when the channel is closed. Such a wall generally has base width equal to its height.

Example. Design a 1.5 metres Sarda type fall for a canal having a discharge of 12 cumecs, with the
following data:

Bed level upstream = 103.0 m, Side slopes of channel = 1 : 1 m, Bed level downstream= 101.5 m,
Full supply level upstream= 104.5 m, Bed width u/s and d/s= 1.0 m, Soil= Good loam, Assume
Bligh's Coefficient=6.

4
Solution:

Length of crest. Same as d/s bed width = 10 m

Crest level. A rectangular crest is provided, since the discharge is less than 14cumecs. The
discharge formula is given by

Assume top width of the crest as 0.8 m.

Velocity of approach:

Use crest level of 103.77 metres

Height of the crest above d/s floor

Shape of the crest.

Width of the crest (Bt)

where d =Height of the crest above d/s bed

5
Keep 0.85 m width of the crest

The top shall be capped with 20 cm thick C.C. 1 : 2: 4

Upstream wing. It shall be splayed straight at an angle of 45o from the u/s edge of the crest and shall
be embedded by 1.0m into the berm. On the d/s side, wing walls are kept straight and parallel up to
the end of floor and joined to return walls, as shown in fig .4

Upstream protection 1.5m long brick pitching (equal to u/s water depth) is laid on the u/s bed,
sloping down towards the crest at 1:10, and three drain pipes of 15cm diameter at the u/s bed level
should be provided in the crest so as to drain out the u/s bed during the closure of the canal.

Upstream curtain wall. Maximum depth of u/s curtain wall.

Provide 0.4 m x 0.8 m deep curtain wall on the u/s.

Cistern. Depth of cistern, is given by:

Provide 5.5 m long cistern at R.L. 101.2 m.

Impervious floor.

Maximum Static Head

Total floor length required

Minimum d/s floor length required

6
Provide 7m d/s floor and the balance 6.7m under and upstream of crest ,as shown in fig 5.

Fig.5

Floor Thicknesses.H.G.1ine for the maximum static head is shown in Fig.5

Maximum unbalanced uplift at the dis toe of the crest

Provide 1.1 m thick concrete overlain with .0.2 m thick brick pitching.

Unbalanced head at 3 m from the toe of the crest.

Use 0.6 m thick concrete with 0.2 m brick layer.

Unbalanced head at 5 m from the toe

Thickness required

7
Use 0.35 m thick concrete with 20 cm thick brick layer, as shown in Fig.4

Fig.4 Details of the Sarda Type fall(rectangular crest)of example

D/S Curtain Wall. The curtain wall at the d/s end of the floor should be 0.75 m deep (for H = 0.76
m in Table .1)

Provide 0.4 m x 1.65 m deep curtain wall at d/s end of floor, i.e. upto a level of 101.5- 1.65 = 99.85
metres, i.e. the deepest foundation level.

Downstream pitching. From 'Fable .1

Total length of d/s pitching

=9+2x 1.5= 12metres.

Pitching is kept sloped at 1 : 10. A curtain wall of 0.4 m x 0.75 m shall be provided at the end of the
pitching, as shown in Fig.4

8
5- Design of a Baffle Fall or Inglis Fall
Certain flumed type ordinary straight Glacis falls constructed in Punjab were later found to give
some serious troubles, which gave rise to the conclusion that considerable surplus energy might
remain in water even after the jump formation. One major cause of these troubles was found to be,
too, rapid expansion after fluming, which may generate cork screw eddies causing deep scours.
Research was carried out to eliminate these defects and Baffle fall was evolved.

A baffle fall makes use of the principle of horizontal impact for energy dissipation. The jump is
held stable on a horizontal platform by means of a baffle wall (called baffle).

Baffle Platform. The horizontal platform. Is provided at the level at which the jump would
normally form. This can be determined. by Blench curves in case them is no expansion of the wings
in the region of supercritical jet. If the supercritical jet is splayed, the optimum level at which the
baffle platform should be provided, can be determined by designer's curves (given in C.B.I.
publication No, 10). In the absence of curves, the values can be determined by using the formulas
given below.

Subcritical depth (y2) required. for jump formation in ordinary cases without fluming is very nearly
given by:

where q = the discharge intensity in cumecs/metre

HL= Drop in metres.

y2 = the subcritical depth in metres.

The subcritical depth [y2 (flumed)] required for jump formation, in case there is a fluming, is given
by:

where Hx is the calculated drop in metres given by

where K is the fluming ratio (more than 1),i.e.

The R.L of the baffle platform then be given by

(i) for unflumed fall= d/s FSL- y2

(ii) For flumed fall =d/s FSL -y2 (flumed)

1
Baffle Wall. Height of the baffle wall = hb =yc - y1
where yc is the critical depth, given by

and y1 is prejump super critical depth, given by:

Hx =HL when there is no fluming

Thickness of the baffle wall =

Length of baffle platform =
Cistern. A cistern of length equal to 5 y2 (flumed) (equal to 5 y2, for without fluming) may be
provided after. the baffle wall. The depth of the cistern below the downstream bed should be 10%
of the downstream water depth (yd), subject to a minimum of 15 cm for distributaries and minors
and 30 cm for main canals and branches.
Upstream Wings. The upstream wings can be curved with a radius equal to (where His the
total head over the crest) when His more than 0.3 m, and equal to 2H when His less than 0.3 m. The
circular wings are continued till they subtend an angle of 60° at the centre, and afterwards they can
be extended tangentially for the required length into the berm or bank.
Downstream Wings. The downstream divergence for flumed meter falls can be provided at a slope
of 1 in 3 to 1 in 4.
A milder divergence is preferable for straight Glacis fall as well as for Baffle fall (1 in 4 to 1 in 10
depending upon the bed width depth ratio of the downstream channel) but that will make the
structure costlier. Hence, a divergence of 1 in 3 is generally used for meter falls of both types. The
dis wings of the unflumed baffle fall are kept as are kept for unflumed straight Glacis fall.
Downstream Glacis. The dis glacis for unflumed baffle falls is kept at 2/3 : 1; but for flumed meter
falls, it is kept as 2 : 1. The glacis is joined to crest at the u/s end and to the floor at the dis end with
a radius equal to H, as was done in the case of a glacis fall.
All other details of pitching, etc. remain the same as for straight glacis fall.
The friction blocks are either not provided (upto 2 m fall); or provided as explained earlier (for
drops of more than 2 m.)

Example .Design an unflumed non-meter baffle fall for the· canal having the
following data :

Full supply discharge = 30 cumecs , Bed level u/s = 203.0 m , Bed level d/s = 201.2
m , FSL u/s= 204.3 m , FSL d/s= 202.5 m , Bed width= 28m , Drop (H L)= 1.8m ,
Side slopes of channel = 1: 1.

Solution.
Crest Length. Equal to bed width : Provide 28 m. crest length

Crest level. A sharp narrow crest is provided, for which

2
Or

Or

Velocity of approach

Adopt crest level = 203.6 m.

Width of the crest is kept equal to

Provide crest width = 0.47 m.

U/s Glacis. Glacis of 1/2 : 1 joined tangentially to the crest with a radius equal to H/2 =0.35m shall
be provided.

D/s Glacis. Glacis of 2/3: 1 joined tangentially to the baffle platform with a radius equal to H =
0.70 m. shall be provided.

Upstream Wings. The u/s wing walls shall be splayed at an angle of 45° from the u/s end of the
floor and shall be embedded into the bank by 1.0 m beyond FSL line.

Downstream Wings. Parallel vertical sides up to the end of pucca floor shall be provided, which
shall be connected with the return walls at 90°.

Upstream Protection. No pitching is required in bed and· on sides. Depth of u/s curtain wall
required is.

Provide 0.4 m x 0.6 m deep curtain wall over 0.3 m foundation concrete, thus making its overall
depth as 0.9 m.

3
Baffle Platform and Raffle Wall

Baffle Platform. Since there is no fluming,

Now

R.L. of baffle platform

Provide Baffle platform at R.L. = 201.35 in

Baffle Wall. Height of the baffle wall

Where

:. Height of the baffle wall

hb=yc-y1

=0.49-0.16= 0.33m.

Thickness of baffle wall =2/3*hb =0.22m.

Length of baffle platform

= 5.25 hb = 5.25 x 0.33 = l.73 m. ; say 1.8 m.

Cistern. Depth of cistern below d/is bed

= 0.1yd=0.1x1.3 = 0:13 m.

R.L. of cistern= 201.2- 0.13 =.20l.07m

Length of cistern = 5 · y2

4
=5 X l.15=5.75m; say 5.8m.

D/s Curtain Wall. Depth of the downstream curtain wall required

or from Table .1, the depth for the curtain wall is equal to 0.6 m.

Provide 0.4 m x 1.0 m deep .curtain wall, over 0.3 m thick foundation concrete, thus making a total
depth of curtain wall= 1.3 m

Height of deflector above d/s bed

Hence, the d/s curtain wall shall be raised by 0.13 m above d/s bed.

D/s Bed Pitching. No pitching is required.

D/s Side Slope Pitching. Is required in a length equal to

3 . yd= 3 x 1.3 =.3.9 m.

Provide 0.2 m thick dry brick pitching over 0.1 m thick brick ballast in a length equal to 3.9 m. The
slope pitching shall rest on a toe wall 0.4 m thick and 0.8 m deep (overall) constructed in the bed at
the junction of bed and sides. A solid profile wall called 'Dhamali' shall be constructed at the end of
pitching. It shall be 0.4 m thick and plastered n cement mortar.

Friction Blocks. Not required

Total Floor Length from Exit Gradient

Considerations

Safe exit gradient = 1/5

Maximum static head(H) is exerted when

water is stored upto crest level on u/s and
there is no water on d/s.

H = 203.6- 201.2 = 2.4 m.

Depth of dis curtain wall = d = 1.3 m

Now,

Plate 1

5
Or

From Plate 1

:. Total floor length required= α.d= 16.5 x 1.3 = 21.45 m;

Provide 22 m overall length

The floor length already provided (12.365 m) is shown in Fig. 1 ; the balance, i.e. 9.635 m is now
provided .on the u/s, as shown in Fig. 1 ·

Fig.1: Dimensions of the baffle fall of example

Calculations for Uplift Pressures

(i) Upstream curtain wall

From Plate .2

Assume upstream floor thickness.= 0.3 m. plate.2

(ii) Downstream curtain wall

6
From Plate .2

Assume dis floor thickness near d/s curtain wall= 0.7 m

Uplift pressure at the toe of the glacis

Floor Thicknesses
U/s Floor. Provide a nominal thickness .of 0.3 m on the upstream side and extend it up to .dis
end of crest. Its bottom level shall be at R.L. 202.7m
Toe of Glacis
Level of H.G. line at toe of glacis
= 201.2+ 41.9% x 2.4
= 201.2 + 1.0 = 202.2 m
:. Unbalanced. head due to this maximum static head of 2.4.m
= 202.2 - 201.35 = 0.85m
Unbalanced head due to dynamic condition may be taken as

Thus, at toe of glacis, the head due to dynamic condition is more than that due to static
condition. Hence, minimum thickness required at toe . Provide 1.35 m thickness in
the entire length of baffle platform, thus keeping its bottom at R.L. 201.0m.
Thickness at the start of cistern: Percentage pressure at 2.02 m from toe of glacis (i.e. start
point of cistern)

7
Maximum unbalanced head at this point
= 2 02.07 - 201.07 = 1.0 m

Fig.2

Floor thickness required at this point

Provided thickness = 201.07 - 200.0 = 1.07 m.

Thickness required at 3 m beyond the baffle wall

Level of H.G. line at this point

= 201.2+ 28.05% (2.4)
= 201.2+ 0.67 = 201.87m
Maximum unbalanced head at this point
= 201.87 - 201.07 = 0.80 m
Floor thickness required at this point

Hence, provide 0.7 m thickness in the remaining portion, as shown in Fig.1

Full details of the fall are shown in the attached chart Fig.2

8
cross drainage works
Definition: A cross drainage work is a structure carrying the discharge from a natural stream across
a canal intercepting the stream. The canal comes across obstructions like rivers, natural drains, and
other canals .The various types of structures that are built to carry the canal water across the above-
mentioned obstructions or vice versa are called cross drainage works.

Types of cross drainage works

Depending upon levels and discharge, it may be of the following types:

a. Cross drainage works carry canals across the drainage.[ HFL < FSL]
the structures that fall under this type are:
1. Aqueduct
2. Siphon Aqueduct
1) Aqueduct: - When the HFL of the drain is sufficiently below the bottom of the canal such that the
drainage water flows freely under gravity, the structure is known as an Aqueduct

1
2) Siphon Aqueduct: In a hydraulic structure where the canal is taken over the drainage, but the
drainage water cannot pass clearly below the canal. It flows under siphon action. So, it is known as
a siphon aqueduct. This structure is suitable when the bed level of the canal is below the highest
flood level

b) Cross drainage works carrying drainage over a canal.[ HFL > FSL]

The structures that fall under this type are:

1. Super passage
2. Canal siphon

1) Super passage: -if the bed level of drainage is sufficiently above the F.S.L of the canal the
structure is known as super passage.

2
 2) canal syphon: -if the F.S.L of the canal is much above the bed level of the drainage through the
structure is known as canal syphon.

c) canal and normal drain intersecting each other.[ HFL = FSL]

The structures that fall under this type are:

1. level crossing

2. inlets and outlets

1) level crossing: - When the bed level of canal and the stream are approximately the same and quality of
water in canal and stream is not much different, the cross-drainage work constructed is called level crossing
where water of canal and stream is allowed to mix.

3
 3. inlets and outlets: -when irrigation canal meets a small stream or drain at same level, drain is
allowed to enter the canal as in inlet.at some distance from this inlet point a part of water is
allowed to drain as outlet which eventually meets the original stream. Stone pitching is required at
the inlet and outlet

Selection of suitable site for cross drainage works- :

The factors which affect the selection of suitable type of cross drainage works are:
• Relative bed levels and water levels of canal and drainage
• Size of the canal and drainage.
• The following considerations are important
• When the bed level of the canal is much above the HFL of the drainage, an aqueduct is the
obvious choice.
• When the bed level of the drain is well above FSL of canal, super passage is provided.
• The necessary headway between the canal bed level and the drainage HFL can be increased by
shifting the crossing to the downstream of drainage. If, however, it is not possible to change the
canal alignment, a siphon aqueduct may be provided.
• When canal bed level is much lower, but the FSL of canal is higher than the bed level of drainage,
a canal siphon is preferred.
• When the drainage and canal cross each other practically at same level, a level crossing may be
preferred. This type of work is avoided as far as possible.

Notes:- high flood level (HFL)

- full supply level (FSL)

4
Design Considerations for Cross Drainage Works:
The following steps may be involved in the design of an aqueduct or a siphon-aqueduct. The design of a
super passage and a siphon is done on the same lines as for aqueducts and siphon aqueducts, respectively,
since hydraulically there is not much difference between them, except that the canal and the drainage are
interchanged by each other.

- Determination of Maximum Flood Discharge

The high flood discharge for smaller drains may be worked out by using empirical formulas; and for
large drains, other reliable methods Such as Hydrograph analysis, Rational formula, etc. may be used.

- Fixing the Waterway Requirements for Aqueducts and Syphon-Aqueducts

An approximate value of the required waterway for the drain may be obtained by using Lacey's
equation, given by

where P is the wetted perimeter in meters and Q is the Total discharge in cumecs.

Example1. Design a suitable cross-drainage work, given the following data at the crossing of a
canal and drainage.
Canal: Drainage:
Full supply discharge = 32 cumecs High flood discharge = 300 cumecs
Full supply level = R.L. 213.5 High flood level = 210.0 m
Canal bed level = R.L. 212.0 High flood depth = 2.5 m
Canal bed width = 20 m General ground level = 212.5 m.
Trapezoidal canal section with 1.5 H: 1 V slopes.
Canal water depth = 1.5 m

Solution: Since the drainage is of large size, work of Type III will be adopted. Also, because the canal
bed level (212.0) is much above the HFL of drainage (210.0), an aqueduct will be constructed. To
affect economy, the canal shall be flumed.

1
Step 1: Design of Drainage Waterway:

Lacey’s regime perimeter =

Let the clear span between piers be 9 m and the pier thickness be 1.5 m.

Using 8 bays of 9 m each, clear waterway = 8×9=72

Using 7 piers of 1.5 m each, length occupied by piers = 7×1.5=10.5

Total length of waterway = 72 + 10.5 = 82.5 m

Step 2: Design of Canal Waterway:

Bed width of canal = 20.0 m

Let the width be flumed to 10.0 m

Providing a splay of 2: 1 in contraction, the length of contraction transition 10.0m

Providing a splay of 3: 1 in expansion, the length of expansion transition

Length of the flumed rectangular portion of the canal between abutments = 82.5 m

In transitions, the side slopes of the canal section will be warped in plan from the original slope of 1.5:
1 to vertical.

Step 3: Head loss and bed levels at different sections(fig .1):

At section 4-4

Area of trapezoidal canal section = (B + 1.5 y) y

2
R.L of TEL at 4-4 = 213.5 + 0.046 = 213.546 m

Figure 1. Plan and section of canal trough

At section 3-3
Keeping the same depth of 1.5 m throughout the channel, we have
Bed width = 10 m

3
R.L of TEL at section 3-3 = R.L of TEL at 4-4 + loss in expansion

= 213.546 + 0.056 = 213.602 m

R.L of water surface at 3-3 = R.L of TEL at 3-3 – velocity head

= 213.602 – 0.232 = 213.370 m

R.L of bed at 3-3 = 213.370 – 1.5 = 211.87 m

At section 2-2

From section 2-2 to 3-3, the trough section is constant. Therefore, area and velocity at 2-2 are same as
at 3-3, there is a friction loss between 2-2 and 3-3 which is given by manning’s formula

R.L of TEL at section 2-2 = R.L of TEL at 3-3 + friction loss

=213.602 + 0.079 = 213.681m

R.L of water surface at 2-2 = R.L of TEL at 2-2 – velocity head

= 213.681 – 0.232 = 213.449 m

R.L of bed at 2-2 = 213.449 – 1.5 = 211.949 m

At section 1-1

R.L of TEL at section 1-1 = R.L of TEL at 2-2 + Loss in contraction

4
 = 213.681 + 0.037 = 213.718 m

R.L of water surface at 1-1 = R.L of TEL at 2-2 – velocity head

= 213.718 – 0.046 = 213.672 m

R.L of bed at 1-1 = 213.672 – 1.5 = 212. 172 m

Step 4: Design of Transitions:

(a) Contraction transition: Since the depth is kept constant, the transition can be designed on the
basis of Mitra’s method.

The contraction transition can be plotted with these values.

(b) Expansion transition:

5
The expansion transition can be plotted with these values.

Step 5: Design of Trough:

The trough shall be divided into two compartments of 5 m each and separated by an intermediate wall
of 0.3 m thickness. The inspection road shall be carried on the top of left compartment as shown in
figure below.

A freeboard of 0.6 m above the normal water depth of 1.5 m is sufficient, and hence the bottom level
of bridge slab over the left compartment can be kept at 1.5 + 0.6 = 2.1 m above
the bed level of trough. The entire trough section can be constructed in monolithic reinforced concrete
and can be designed by usual structural methods.

6
Example1. Design a suitable cross-drainage work, given the following data at the crossing of two
streams of water
Irrigation channel: Natural Drainage:
Full supply discharge = 350 cumecs Drainage bed level = 203.9 m
Full supply level = R.L. 202.5 High flood level = 205.2 m
Canal bed level = R.L. 197.0 Catchment area of drainage up to crossing= 14.3 sq. km
Canal bed width = 35 m
Trapezoidal canal section with 0.5 H: 1 V slopes.
Canal water depth = 4.7 m

The dickens formula may be used for computing H.F.Q. with its coefficient as 18.

Solution: The high flood discharge of the drainage at the point of crossing may be obtained by using
the Dickens formula:

Since the bed level of drainage (203.9) is much above the canal FSL (202.5), the canal water can be
taken below the drainage. Hence the CD work to be constructed at the crossing will be a super-
passage. The design of the super-passage is to be done on the same lines as other of an aqueduct

Step 1: Design of canal waterway:

This high velocity shows that the canal is already a lined canal, and much more lining cannot be
affected. Hence the original bed width of 35 m can be continued as canal barrels below the drainage
trough or slight fluming may be done. Let us adopt a clear waterway of 30 m in two spans, each of 15
m, with a central pier of width say 1.5 m, thus providing an overall linear waterway of 31.5 m between
abutments, and this will be the length of drainage troughs.

Providing a splay of 2: 1 in contraction, the length of contraction transition=

Providing a splay of 3: 1 in expansion, the length of expansion transition =

1
Length of the flumed rectangular portion of the canal will be equal to the width of the drainage troughs
= 50.5 m.

The piers, abutments, wing walls and return walls of the canal will be designed as those of a bridge
taking the load of drainage trough (including the load of water and inspection road, etc) instead of a
bridge deck slab.

Step 2: Design of drainage waterway:

Lacey’s regime perimeter =

The total length of the waterway is generally chosen equal to P, although it can be slightly reduced to
affect economy, but too much contraction of the drainage poses problems, and hence too much
fluming is never done.

Let us provide 6 RCC compartments, each of clear width equal to 8 m, thus giving

Clear waterway = 6×8=48m

Using 5 partition walls of 0.3 m thick each, length occupied by walls = 5×0.3=1.5m

Therefore, total length of waterway provided = 48 + 1.5 = 49.5 m

The two side walls of the RCC drainage trough may be kept 0.4 m thick each, with 49.5 m as
aggregate waterway between them. Thus,

End to end length of drainage trough = 49.5 + 0.8 ≈50.5 m.

Thus, the length of the rectangular portion of the canal will also be equal to 50.5 m

Since the drainage has also been slightly flumed and kept lesser than P, so let's design its contraction
and expansion lengths

Assuming 2: 1 convergence, the length of contraction transition=

Providing a splay of 3: 1 in expansion, the length of expansion transition= 7.5m

2
 Figure 1. Inductive plan of super passage crossing

The wing walls will be constructed to reduce the drainage waterway width from 54.5 to 49.5 m on u/s
and return walls will be constructed to expand the drainage waterway from 49.5 to 54.5 m on d/s.
These wings will be extended so as to enter the berms of the drain.

The length of the drainage pucca rectangular trough will be equal to 31.5 m (i.e. equal to the
rectangular waterway of canal).

Step 3: Head loss and Bed levels of different sections along the length of drainage trough:

At section 4-4

3
Figure 2. Plan and L-section of drainage trough carried over the canal

4
Area of natural drainage section = width (= perimeter)× depth

= 54.5× (205.2-203.9)=70.85m2

R.L of bed at 4-4 = 203.9 m (given)

R.L of water surface at 4-4 = 203.9 + 1.3 = 205.2 m

R.L of TEL at 4-4 = 205.2 + 0.16 = 205.36 m

At section 3-3

Keeping the same depth of 1.3 m throughout the channel, we have

= 0.3 [0.23 – 0.16] = 0.02 m

R.L of TEL at section 3-3 = R.L of TEL at 4-4 + loss in expansion

= 205.36 + 0.02 = 205.38 m

5
R.L of water surface at 3-3 = R.L of TEL at 3-3 – velocity head

= 205.38 – 0.23 = 205.15 m

R.L of bed at 3-3 = 205.15 – 1.3 = 203.85 m

At section 2-2

From section 2-2 to 3-3, the trough section is constant. Therefore, area and velocity at 2-2 are same as
at 3-3, there is a friction loss between 2-2 and 3-3 which is given by manning’s formula.

R.L of TEL at section 2-2 = R.L of TEL at 3-3 + friction loss

= 205.38 + 0.03 = 205.41 m

R.L of water surface at 2-2 = R.L of TEL at 2-2 – velocity head

= 205.41 – 0.23 = 205.18 m

R.L of bed at 2-2 = 205.18 – 1.3 = 203.88 m

At section 1-1

Loss of head in contraction transition from 1-1 to 2-2 =

= 0.2 [0.23 – 0.16] = 0.015 m

R.L of TEL at section 1-1 = R.L of TEL at 2-2 + Loss in contraction

= 205.41 + 0.015 = 205.425 m

R.L of water surface at 1-1 = R.L of TEL at 2-2 – velocity head

= 205.425 – 0.16 = 205.265 m

R.L of bed at 1-1 = 205.265 – 1.3 = 203.965 m

Step 4: Design of Transitions:

6
 (a) Contraction transition: Since the depth is kept constant, the transition can be designed on the
basis of Mitra’s method.

For various values of x lying between 0 to 5 m, various values of are worked out by using
the above equation as:

The contraction transition can be plotted with these values.

(b) Expansion transition:

For various values of x lying between 0 to 7.5 m, various values of are worked out by using the
above equation as:

7
The expansion transition can be plotted with these values.

Step 5: Design of Drainage Trough:

The RCC drainage trough has been divided into six compartments of 8 m each and separated by
intermediate walls (5 in no.) of 0.3 m thickness. The end walls of the trough have tentatively been kept
as 0.4 m wide each. The inspection road shall be carried on the top of end compartment as shown in
fig.

A freeboard of 0.6 m above the normal water depth of 1.3 m is sufficient, and hence the bottom level
of bridge slab over the end compartment can be kept at 1.3 + 0.6 = 1.9 m above the bed level of trough.
The entire trough section can be constructed in monolithic reinforced concrete and can be designed by
usual structural methods

8
CANAL HEADWORKS
An irrigation channel takes its supplies from its source which can be either a river (in the case of the
main canal) or a channel (in the case of branch canals and distributaries). The structures constructed
across a river source at the head of an offtaking main canal are termed “canal headworks” or
“headworks”. The headworks can be either diversion headworks or storage headworks.

Diversion headworks divert the required supply from the source channel to the offtaking channel.
The water level in the source channel is raised to the required level so as to divert the required
supplies into the offtaking channel. The diversion headworks should be capable of regulating the
supplies into the offtaking channel. If required, it should be possible to divert all the supplies (at
times of keen demand and low supplies) into the offtaking channel. The headworks must have an
arrangement for controlling the sediment entry into the channel offtaking from a river. By raising
the water level, the need of excavation in the head reaches of the offtaking channel is reduced and
the command area can be served easily by flow irrigation.

Storage headworks, besides fulfilling all the requirements of diversion headworks, store excess
water when available and release it during periods when demand exceeds supplies.

1
LOCATION OF HEADWORKS ON RIVERS
Larger rivers, generally, have four stages, viz., the rocky, boulder, trough (or alluvial) and delta
stages. Of these, the rocky and delta stages are generally unsuitable for siting headworks.

Usually, the command area is away from the hilly stage, and it would, therefore, involve avoidable
expenditure to construct a channel from headworks located in the hilly stage to its command area.
In the delta stage, the irrigation requirements are generally less and also the nature of the river at
this stage poses other problems

The boulder and alluvial stages of a river are relatively more suitable sites for locating headworks.
The choice between the boulder stage and the alluvial stage is mainly governed by the command
area. If both stages are equally suitable for siting the headworks from command area considerations,
the selection of the site should be made such that it results in the most economical alternative. The
following features of the two stages should be considered while selecting the site for headworks.

1- The initial cost of headworks in the boulder stage is generally smaller than that in the
alluvial stage because of: (a) local availability of stones, (b) smaller width of river (requiring
smaller length of weir), (c) smaller scour depths which reduce the requirements of cutoffs
and other protection works, and (d) close proximity of higher banks which requires less
extensive training works.
2- An irrigation canal offtaking from a river in the boulder region will have a number of falls
which may be utilised for generation of electricity. There is almost no scope for the
generation of electricity in this manner in the alluvial reach of a river.
3- If the existing irrigation demand is less but is likely to develop with the provision of
irrigation facilities, it is desirable to divert the river water into an irrigation channel by
constructing a temporary boulder bund across the river. This bund will be washed away
every year during the floods and will be reconstructed every year. This will, no doubt, delay
the Rabi crop irrigation, but it is worthwhile to use temporary bunds for a certain period;
when the irrigation demand grows, permanent headworks may be constructed. In this
manner, it would be possible to get returns proportional to expenditures incurred on the
headworks. Construction of temporary bunds is generally not possible in the alluvial stage
of the river.
4- An irrigation channel offtaking in the boulder stage of a river will normally require a large
number of cross-drainage structures.
5- Because of the nature of the boulder region, there is always a strong subsoil flow in the river
bed. This causes considerable loss of water and is of concern during the periods of short
supply. Similarly, there will be considerable loss of water from the head reach of the
offtaking channel. In alluvial reach of the river this loss of water is much less.
6- The regions close to the hills usually have a wet climate and grow good crops. The irrigation
demand in the head reach of the channel offtaking in the boulder stage is, therefore,
generally small. However, this demand would increase with the provision of irrigation
facilities. In alluvial regions, the demand for irrigation is high right from the beginning.

2
 Selection of Site for Head work

DIFFERENT UNITS OF HEADWORKS

Diversion headworks (Fig. 1) mainly consist of a weir (or barrage) and a canal head regulator. A
weir has a deep pocket of undersluice portion upstream of itself and in front of the canal head
regulator on one or both sides. The undersluice bays are separated from other weir bays by means of
a divide wall. In addition, river training structures on the upstream and downstream of weir, and
sediment excluding devices near the canal head regulator are provided. Detailed model
investigations are desirable to decide the location and layout of headworks and its component units.
A typical layout of diversion head works is shown in Fig.1

Fig. 1Typical layout of headworks

WEIR (OR BARRAGE)

A weir is an ungated barrier across a river to raise the water level in the river. It raises the water
level in the river and diverts the water into the offtaking canal situated on one or both of the river
banks just upstream of the weir. Weirs are usually aligned at right angles to the direction of flow in

3
the river. Such weirs will have minimum length and normal uniform flow through all the weir bays
thereby minimising the chances of shoal formation and oblique flow.

The procedure of design of a barrage is similar to that of a weir. Weirs are of the following three
types:

(i) Masonry weirs with vertical downstream face,

(ii) Rockfill weirs with sloping apron, and

(iii) Concrete weirs with glacis.

UNDER SLUICES
The construction of weir across a river results in ponding up of water and causes considerable
sediment deposition just upstream of the canal head regulator. This sediment must be flushed
downstream of the weir. This is done by means of under sluices (also called sluice ways or scouring
sluices). A weir generally requires deep pockets of under sluices in front of the head regulator of the
offtaking canal, and long divide wall to separate the remaining weir bays from the under sluices.
The under sluices are the gate-controlled openings in continuation of the weir with their crests at a
level lower than the level of the weir crest. The under sluices are located on the same side as the
offtaking canal. If there are two canals each of which offtakes from one of the banks of the river,
under sluices are provided at both ends of the weir.

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River Training works
River training works: -Any work constructed to contain the rivers in their specified path of flow.

Classification of rivers:
The rivers on alluvial soils may be classified into three types:

1 .The meandering type

2. The aggrading type

3. The degrading

Objects of river training:

1. To achieve safe and expeditious passage of flow through the river.

2. To achieve efficient transport of bed silt and suspended silt.

3. To achieve stable stream course with minimum bank erosion.

4. To achieve sufficient depth of flow for navigation.

Methods of river training works :

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1. Guide banks: they are used to guide the river to pass through the constrained width of the
river at the structure as bridge or diversion structures.

2. Pitched Islands: it is an artificially created in the river. It may be made of masonry or earth
embankment. but pitched all-round.

3. Spurs or Groynes : they are structures-built transverse to the river flow, extending from the
bank towards the river, they perform many functions as:
• Increase silting
• Cause scouring
• Deflecting the flow of water

4. Artificial and Natural cut-off: when meandering river develops very sharp horse-shoe bends,
a small cut is given to connect the peaks with slope more than the slope of the river ,then

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 less Q will pass through the curved river and silted ,then the shape of the river will change
after many years to straight river.

5. Retired embankments: Retired embankments are constructed at a distance from the river
banks. Thus, retired embankments are the intermediate type between the case of marginal
embankments and river with no embankments. Retired embankments are generally
constructed on a lower ground away from the bank.

Cross and head regulator:

The supplies passing down the parent canal and off take channel are controlled by cross
regulator and head regulator respectively:

Functions of Cross Regulators: -

1.Regulation of the canal system.
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2.Raising the water level in the main canal in order to feed the off-take channels.
3.To facilitate communication by building a road over the cross regulator with little extra cost.
4.To absorb the fluctuations in the canal system.

Functions of Head Regulators: -

1.To regulate and control supplies entering the off-take channel (distributary) from the main(parent)
canal.
2.To control silt entering into the distributary.
3.To serve for measurement of discharge.