Applied Physics

SEMICONDUCTORS
Syllabus : Introduction – Intrinsic semiconductor and carrier concentration – Equation for conductivity –
Extrinsic semiconductor and carrier concentration – Drift and diffusion – Einstein’s equation – Hall Effect –
direct & indirect band gap semiconductors – Electronic transport Mechanism for LEDs, Photo conductors and
solar cells.
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1. What are Semiconductors and different types of Semiconductors

Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical properties (such as energy gap, electrical
conductivity etc.) are intermediate between that of conductors and insulators.

Depending upon purity, the semiconductors are classified in to two types:

1) Intrinsic semiconductors
2) Extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductors:
 A semiconductor in its purest form is called Intrinsic semiconductor.
 In Intrinsic semiconductor, number of electrons and holes are equal.
 Each semiconductor atom has 4 valence electrons, hence they are
tetravalent. Each atom form four covalent bonds with four different
semiconductor atoms.
Extrinsic semiconductor
 Extrinsic semiconductors are impure semiconductors or doped semiconductors.
 When certain suitable impurities are added to pure semiconductors like silicon or germanium, then
semiconducting material is known as extrinsic semiconductor.
 The process of adding impurities to a host crystal is called doping.
Depending upon doping, Extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two types
i) n-type semiconductors
ii) P-type semiconductors

2. Derive the Expression for the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic
semiconductor .
Let dn be the concentration of electrons in the conduction band in the energy range E and E+dE. Then we can
write an expression for dn.
dn = Z(E) F(E) dE , 1
where Z(E) dE is the density of energy states in the energy interval E and E + dE and F(E) is the probability of
occupation by electrons, i.e., the probability that a state of energy E is occupied by an electron at temperature T.
The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is obtained by integrating the above equation from E c to ∞.
∞
n=∫ E Z ( E ) F( E) dE
c 2
(Energy E is measured with respect to the bottom of the conduction band E c).
The density of energy states in the conduction band in the energy range E and E + dE is given by
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4π ¿ 3/2
1
Z ( E) d E= 3 ( 2 m e ) E 2
dE
h 3
Since E starts at the bottom of the conduction band Ec ,

4π ¿ 3/2
1
Z ( E) dE= ( 2 m e ) ( E-E )
c dE
2

h3 4

Probability of an electron occupying an energy state is given by the Fermi-Dirac distribution

1
F e ( E )= ,

( )
E−E F
exp +1
KBT

where EF is the Fermi energy which lies midway between Ec and Ev in intrinsic semiconductors.

Ec+ Ev
Thus EF=
2 5
For electrons in the conduction band, E – E F >> KBT for all possible temperatures. The value of K BT at room
temperature is 0.026 eV, which is very small. So the above condition is justified at all possible operating
temperatures. So, F(E) may be written as

( )
E F −E
Fe ( E )=exp
KB T
6
Therefore Eq.2 becomes

4π
( ) E −E
∞ 1

n=∫E 3
¿ 3 /2 F
ch
( 2 m ) ( E-Ec ) exp K T
e
2
dE
B

4π
( ) EF −E
∞ 1
=
h3
¿ 3/2
(2 me ) ∫E c
( E-E c )2 exp KB T
dE

( )
EF
4π
( ) dE
−E
∞ 1
=
h3
(2 m¿e )
3/2
exp
K BT
∫E ( E-Ec )
c
2
exp
KB T
To solve this integral, let (E – Ec) be some x .
or E=Ec +x or dE= d x
The limits of the integral for x become 0 to ∞
EF
( ) [ ( Ec + x )
]
1
4π ∞
∴ n=
h3
( 2 m
¿ 3/2
e ) exp
KB T
∫ 0
x 2 exp −
KB T
dx

( ) ( )
4π E F −Ec ∞ 1
−x
¿ ( 2 m ¿ 3/2
e ) exp
K BT
∫0 x 2
exp
KB T
dx
h3

This is a standard integral which reduces to

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( )
−x √π
1
∞
∫0 x 2

KB T
dx =( K B T )
3/2
2
. Hence

( )(
4π ¿ 3/2 E F−E c √π
n= 3 ( 2 m e ) exp K B T ) 3/2
h K BT 2

Thus, the number density of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by

( ) ( )
¿ 3/2
2 π me K B T E F −Ec
n=2 exp
h2 KB T
7

( )
E F −Ec
n α T 3/2 and n α exp
KBT

3. Derive the expression for the concentration of holes in the Valence band of an intrinsic
semiconductor:

Let dp be the concentration of holes (absence of electrons) in the valence band in

the energy range E and E + dE. Then
dp = Z (E) [1-F(E)] dE , 9
where Z(E) dE is the density of states in the valence band in the energy range E and E + dE and [1-FE)] is the
Fermi-Dirac distribution for holes in the valence band.
Since F(E) is the electron occupancy probability, [1-F(E)] gives the probability of an electron not occupying the
state, i.e., presence of a hole. Thus, holes correspond to unoccupied electron states in the valence band. Realizing
that a hole is the absence of an electron, the F-D distribution for holes is given by

[ ]
E-E -1
1 F
F ( E ) = [ 1-F ( E ) ] =1− = 1- 1+exp

( )
h E-E K T
F B
1+exp
K T
B
Since for all possible temperatures, E-EF >> KBT

( )
E-E F
F h ( E )=[ 1-F ( E ) ] ≃ exp
K BT
10
The density of energy states in the valence band in the energy interval E and E+dE is given by
4π ¿ 3/2
Z ( E ) dE= ( 2 mh ) E1/2 dE
h3 11
Since E is measured with respect to the top of the valence band, we can write

4π ¿ 3/2 1/2
Z ( E ) dE= ( 2 m h) ( EV −E ) dE
h3 12
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( )
4π ¿ 3/2 1/2 E-EF
∴ dp = ( 2 m h) ( EV −E ) exp dE
h3 KB T
13
The concentration of holes in the valence band can be obtained by integrating the above equation from - ∞ to E v.
Thus

P=∫ -∞
EV 4π
h
3 ( 2 mh )
¿ 3 /2
( E V −E )
1 /2
exp
( )
E-EF
KBT
dE

( ) ( KET ) dE
4π -E F EV
= 3 ( 2 mh)
¿ 3/2
exp
K BT
∫ -∞ ( E- EV )1 /2 exp
h B

To solve the integral in the above equation, let us put

EV −E=x
or E=EV −x or dE=-d x

( )
1

( )
EV E 0 EV −x
∴ ∫- ∞ ( EV −E ) 1/2
exp
KB T
dE =−∫ ∞ x2 exp
KB T
dx

( )∫
1
EV
( )
−x
∞ 2
=exp x exp dx
K BT 0 K BT
………..
Making use of the standard integrals, we get
1

∫
∞ 2
0
x exp (−x )dx= √2 π
K BT
( K B T ) 3/2 . Thus

EV
∫−∞ ( EV − E )1 /2 exp ( )
E
KB T
dE=exp
EV
KBT ( ) √ π K T 3 /2
2
( B )
. Hence

( )
4π ¿ 3/2 EV −E F 3/2 √π
p= 3 ( 2 m h ) exp
KB T
(K B T) 2
h
The concentration of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor is thus given by

( ) ( )
¿ 3/2
2 π m h KB T EV −E F
p=2 exp
h2 K BT

( )
EV −E F
p α T 3/ 2 and p α exp .
KB T
Thus

Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductors

In intrinsic semiconductors, the concentration of electrons n in the conduction band is equal to the
concentration of holes p in the valence band. Hence n = p. Thus
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( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
¿ 3/2 ¿ 3/2
2 π m e KB T E F −Ec 2 π mh K B T E v −E F
2 2
exp =2 2
exp
h K BT h K BT

( )( ) ( )
3/ 2 E F −Ec 3/ 2 E v−E F
or ( m¿e ) exp
K BT
¿
= mh exp
K BT

( )
E F −Ec
exp

( ) ( ) ( )( )
K BT ¿ 3 /2 ¿ 3 /2
mh 2 EF Ev + Ec mh
or = or exp . exp − =

( )
¿ ¿
E v −E F me KB T KB T me
exp
K BT

( ) ( ) ( )
¿ 3/2
2 EF mh E v + Ec
or exp = exp
K BT m¿e KB T
Taking logarithms on both sides

( )( ) ( )( )
¿ ¿
2 EF 3 mh Ev+ Ec 3 KBT mh Ev + Ec
= log ¿ + or EF= log ¿ +
KB T 2 me K BT 4 me 2
23
If the energy is measured form the top of the valence band , then

( )
3 KB T m¿h Eg
EF = log ¿ +
4 me 2

4.Derive the expression for the Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of electrons n in the conduction band is equal to the
concentration of holes p in the valence band. Hence
n = p = ni , where ni is called the intrinsic carrier concentration. Thus

( ) ( )
3
2 π KBT ¿ 3/2
E c− Ev
n2i =n p=4 2 ( m¿e mh) exp −
KBT
h

( ) ( )
3
2 π KBT -E g
=4 ( me
¿
m ¿h )3 /2 exp ,
h2 KB T

where ( Ec −E v )=E g is the forbidden energy gap .

( ) ( )
3/2
2 π KBT Eg
n i=2 ( me
¿
m ¿h ) 3/4 exp −
h2 2 KB T
...

( )
-E g
Thus n i α T 3/ 2 and n i α exp
2 KBT
¿ ¿
If m e=mh =m (rest mass ), then

( ) ( )
3/2
2 π KB m -E g
n i =2 T 3 /2 exp
h2 2 KBT
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5. Derive the expression for Intrinsic electrical conductivity σi

The intrinsic electrical conductivity σi is given by
σi = neμe + pe μh ,
where μe and μh are the motilities of electrons and holes, respectively.
For intrinsic semiconductors, n = p = ni
∴ σi = ni e (μe + μh )
We know the expression for ni Thus

( ) ( )
3/2
2 π KBT Eg
ni =2 ¿
( me m ¿h )3/4 exp −
h2 2 KBT
Substituting for ni in the equation for σi, we get

( ) ( )
3/2
2 π kB T ¿ 3/4 Eg
σ i=2e ( μ e+ μ h ) 2 ( me m ¿h) exp −
h 2 kBT

6. Explain the Extrinsic semiconductor

 Extrinsic semiconductors are impure semiconductors or doped semiconductors.
 When certain impurities are added to pure semiconductors , it is known as extrinsic semiconductor.
Depending upon doping, Extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two types
i) n-type semiconductors
ii) P-type semiconductors

n-type semiconductor:
 When pentavalent atoms such as As, Bi are added to a pure semiconductor, then n-type semiconductor
is formed.
 Since these pentavalent impurity atoms donate electrons (negative charge), they are
called donors
 Electrons are the majority charge carriers in n-type semiconductor.

P-type semiconductors
 When trivalent atoms such as B,In, are added to an intrinsic semiconductor, then p- type semiconductor is
formed.
 Since these trivalent impurity atoms accepts electrons (negative charge), they are called acceptors
 Holes are the majority charge carriers in p-type semiconductor.

Carrier Concentration and Fermi level in n-type semiconductor

In n-type semiconductor, the Fermi energy level at OK lies midway between the donor level and the bottom of
the conduction band. The energy level diagram of an n-type semiconductor is shown in Fig.7.10. Nd is the donor
concentration and Ed is the donor energy level. At very low temperatures all the donor levels are filled with
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electrons. With increase of temperature more and more donor atoms get ionized and the density of electrons in the
conduction band increases. Density of electrons in the conduction band is given by (eq.7)

( ) ( )
¿ 3 /2
2 π me K B T E F −Ec
n=2 exp
h2 KBT
Assuming that EF lies more than a few KBT above the donor energy level Ed , the density of ionized donors is
given by

( )
E d −E F
N d [ 1-F ( E d ) ] ≃ N d exp
KB T
At very low temperatures, when electron-hole pairs are not created due to breaking of covalent bonds, the number
of electrons in the conduction band must be equal to the number of ionized donors.

( ) ( ) ( )
¿ 3/2
2 π me K B T E F −Ec E −E F
∴ 2 exp =N d exp d
h2 KB T K BT
Taking logarithms and rearranging, we get

( )( ) ( )
¿ 3/2
E F−E c Ed −E F 2 π me K B T
− =logNd −log 2
K BT K BT h2
Nd
or 2E F −( Ed + E c )= K B T log

( 2 π m ¿e KB T
)
3/2
2
h2
( Ed + E c ) K B T Nd
or EF = + log

( )
2 2 2 π me K B T
¿ 3/2
2
h2

At OK,
Ε F= ( Εd + Ε c
2 )
Hence, in n-type semiconductor Fermi energy level at OK lies exactly midway between the donor energy
level Ed and the bottom of the conduction band Ec as shown in Fig.7.10
Concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an n-type semiconductor
The density of electrons in the conduction is given by (eq.7)

( ) ( )
¿ 3/2
2 π me KB T E F −Ec
n =2 exp
h2 KBT
Substituting for EF from eq. 41 in the exponential term above and rearranging, we get

( ) ( )
[ ]
E F−E c Ed −Ec 1 Nd
exp = exp + log

( )
K BT 2 KBT 2 ¿
2 π mc KBT 3/2
2
h2
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[ ( )
]
E d−E c √N d
= exp +log ( 1
since log x=log √ x )
( )
2 kB T ¿
2 π mc KB T 3/2 2
2
h2

=
[ ( )]
exp
E d −Ec √N d ( since exp (a+b ) )=exp a .exp b

[ )]
1 /2
2 kB T 3/2

(
¿
2 π mc KBT
2 2
h

3/2

∴ n=2
( 2 π m¿c K B T
) √N d exp
( Ed −E c
)
[ )]
h 2 3/2 1/ 2 2 KB T
(
¿
2 π mc K B T
2 2
h or

( ) ( )
¿ 3/4
2 π mc K B T E d −E c
n=√ 2 N d exp
h2 2 KB T

Thus
n ∝√ N d at moderately low temperatures.
Variation of Fermi level with temperature in n-type semiconductor
The variation of Fermi level of an n-type semiconductor with temperature is shown in Fig. . Form the graph we
observe the following :
E c + Ed
E F= .
At OK, Fermi level lies midway between E d and Ec, i.e. 2 With
increase of temperature, EF slightly increases in the beginning. This can be
seen form the eq.. With a further increase in temperature, E F level begins to fall
down approaching gradually the intrinsic Fermi level Ei at higher temperatures.

Carrier concentration in p-type semiconductors

Density of holes in the valence band is given by (eq. 17)

( )
¿ 3/2
2 π mh K B T E v− E F
p=2 exp .
h2 K BT
Since EF lies below acceptor level, the density of ionized acceptors is given by

( )
EF -Ea
N a F( E a )= N a exp
KB T
Since the density of ionized acceptors is equal to the density of holes in the valence band
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( ) ( ) ( )
¿ 3/2
2 π mh k B T Ev -E F EF -E a
2 2
exp =N a
h KB T KB T

( )
EF + E a -2 E F N
or exp = a

( )
KB T ¿
2 π mh k B T 3/2
2
h2
Taking logarithms

( )
Ev + E a -2 E F N
=log a

( )
K BT 2 π m ¿h k B T 3/2
2 2
h

or EF = ( Ev+ Ea
) −
kB T
log
Na

( )
2 2 2 π mh kB T
¿ 3/2
2
h2
Εv+ Εa
ΟΚ , ΕF =
At 2
Hence, at OK, the Fermi level EF in p-type semiconductors lies at the middle between the acceptor energy level E a
and the top of the valence band Ev (see Fig.7.11).

The density of holes in the valence band is given by eq.17

( ) ( )
¿ 3/2
2 π mh k B T Ev −E F
p= exp
h2 K BT
Substituting for EF from eq.45 in the exponential term above, we get

( )
[ ]
E v−E F E v ( E v +Ea ) 1 N a
exp = exp - + log

( )
K BT K B T 2 KB T 2 2 π m¿h K B T 3/2
2 2
h

[ ]
= exp
( E v −Ea )
+log
√N a

[( )]
2 KBT 2 π m¿h K B T 3/2 1 /2
2 2
h
1
(since log x=log x √ x)
2
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( ) √N a
E v −Ea
= exp .

[( ]
2 KBT 3/2 1/2
2
2 π m ¿h K B T
h2 )
(since exp (a+b)=exp a . exp b

( ) [ ( )] √N a
¿ 3 /2
2 π mh KB T Ev −E a
∴ p=2 exp

[( ]
h2 2 KB T 3/2 1/2
2
2 π m ¿h K B T
h2 )
( ) ( )
1 ¿ 3/4
2 π mh k B T E v−E a
or p=( 2 N a ) 2
exp
h2 2 KBT

p∝ √ N a
7.Explain Drift and Diffusion currents.
Drift Current:
“The total current due to holes and electrons in a semiconductor in the presence of applied electric field is
called the drift current”.
According to Ohm’s law, the net current density is given by
J drift =( J n )drift + ( J p ) drift =ne μ n E+ pe μ p E

The drift current density for holes is(

J p ) =p e μ h E x
.

The drift current density for electrons is (

J n ) =n e μ e E x

Diffusion current:
The motion of charge carriers (holes and electrons) from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration constitutes diffusion
current. The diffusion current is proportional to concentration gradient

( dndx ) . No electric field is required for this motion.

According to Fick’s law of diffusion,

∴ Diffusion electron flux ∝ ( dd nx )= D dd nxn

,

where Dn is the diffusion coefficient for electrons.

dn
( J n ) =e Dn d x
Hence diffusion current density for electrons is
Similarly for holes, the diffusion current density is
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dp
( J p ) =- e D p d x ,
where Dp is the diffusion coefficient for holes.
∴ The diffussion current density due both electrons∧holes is given by
dn dp
J diff =( J n ) diff + ( J p ) diff =e Dn −e D p
dx dx
Total current density in a semiconductor:
Hence, the total current flow in a semiconductor in one dimension is given by
J=J drift +J diffusion

[
J x= J n +J p = n e μ e Ex +e Dn
dn
dx ][
+ p e μ h Ex −e D p
dp
dx ]
8.Derive Einstein’s relations.
Einstein’s relations:
Einstein’s equation relates the parameters describing the drift and diffusion process i.e. mobility and diffusion
coefficient.
Under thermal equilibrium, the drift and diffusion currents due to an excess density of charge carriers are equal.

d ( Δn ) e Dn d ( Δn )
( Δ n ) e μ e E=e Dn F=( Δ n ) e E= ,
dx or μe dx
where (∆n) eE is the force acting on the excess charge carriers ∆n to restore equilibrium.
d ( Δn )
KBT .
According to the kinetic theory of Gases, the force due to the pressure gradient is given by dx
Since these two are analogues to each other, we can compare the corresponding equations. Thus

d ( Δn ) e Dn d ( Δn ) e Dn μe K B T
KB T = or K B T = or Dn =
dx μe d x μe e
Similarly for holes,
μh K BT
D p=
e
Dn μ
∴ = e
Dp μh
The above relations are known as Einstein’s relations.

9.State and explain Hall Effect and determine the Hall coefficient.
Hall Effect:
Statement: “When a current carrying semiconductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, an electric field is
produced in a direction normal to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as the Hall
effect and the generated voltage is known as Hall Voltage.”

Consider a n-type semiconductor in which a current I is flowing in positive X direction and magnetic
field B along Y direction.
The Lorentz force is experienced by the electrons is given by
F l=−Be v d
Where v d is the drift velocity of electrons.
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Because of this force, the electrons will drift towards the upper surface. So the upper surface gets
negative charge and the bottom surface becomes positive which establishes an electric field E H .This
electric field exerts an downward force.
F H =−e E H ¿
¿
Under equilibrium conditions, F H =F l
⇒−Be v d =−e E H ¿

⇒ E H =B v d ⇒ v d= ------(1)
¿
EH
B
If J is the current density, then ⇒ v d= -------------(2)
−J
J=−ne v d
ne
Equations (1)&(2)⇒
−JB
EH=
The Hall effect is described in terms of Hall coefficient R H and is given by
ne

−1
RH=
ne
⇒ E H =R H JB or R H = =
EH −1
JB ne
By substituting the values of E H ,J and B, the Hall coefficient R H Can be found out.
E
Since R H = H , when J = 1 unit and B = 1 unit, then R H =¿ E H
JB
‘Hall coefficient is defined as the Hall electric field per unit current density per unit magnetic
induction.’
Determination of R H
Let ‘d’ be the width of the sample across which Hall voltage VH is measured.
VH
∴ EH=
d
EH V H
Therefore, R H = =
⇒
JB JBd
V H =R H JBd
If t is the thickness of the sample, then
I
Current density, J=
dt
⇒ V H=
R H I Bd
dt
V Ht
∴ RH=
IB
Knowing the values of t,I,B and VH , Hall coefficient is determined.
RH is negative for electrons, and is positive for holes.
Applications of Hall effect:
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Hall effect is used to determine

i) The sign of charge carriers
ii) The charge density(n)
iii) The mobility of charge carriers
iv) Nature of the material(conductor or semiconductor)