FHHM112 CRITICAL THINKING

【KAW KAW 笔记】

Mid-term (OCT 2023):

Section A – Argument or Non-argument (Topic 2)

Section B – Identifying premises and conclusion (Topic 3)

Section C – MCQ (Topic 1, 1d, 2, 3)

Final:
Section A – MCQ (Topic 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10)

Section B – Situational Texts (多注意 Topic 1 & 1d - standards and barriers)

Section C – 2 选 1 Essay
Topic 1

1) Critical Thinking Standard 突破思维的标准:

i. Clarity 资料要清晰，不要有误导性
Make sure information shared and received is not confusing
ii. Accuracy 正确(讲事实不讲废话)
Make sure information based on accurate facts
iii. Precision 精准(有详细的全部资料)
Make sure information has specific information (names, dates, locations)
iv. Consistency 持续性(对自己的看法坚定，不要跟着情况乱变)
Make sure actions do not contradict
v. Relevance 有关联性(讲出来的内容要和主题相关)
Make sure information is related to main idea
vi. Logical correctness 有逻辑的(不要讲车撞坏了是被猫用手锤坏的)
Information make sense (not ridiculous)
vii. Completeness 完整性(充分考虑各方)
Explore all sides before judging
viii. Fairness 公平
Treat all sides equally

Topic 1.b

Barriers to Critical Thinking 突破思维的阻碍:

A) Egocentrism 自我中心
• Tendency to see reality as centred on oneself
• I – Self-interested Thinking 只顾着利己
Tendency to accept beliefs that benefit to one’s own self-interest. (Exp:
Students with car ask for more parking instead of free bus service)
• II – Superiority Bias 过度自信(觉得自己可以 cover 完全部东西)
Tendency to overrate oneself (overconfidence)

B) Sociocentrism 群体中心
• Group-centred thinking
• I – Group Bias 我的比他更厉害
Tendency to see one’s group better than others. (Exp: My father is richer than
yours)
• II – Tribalism 爱国主义(爱国/爱民族爱过头，激进)
Strong feelings of loyalty to one’s clan or nation. (Exp: We are Malays. We
must ensure the rights as Malays are protected)
 • III – Conformism 羊群效应
Tendency to follow the crowd 跟风

C) Unwarranted Assumptions 胡乱猜想

• Something is believed without a good reason
• Stereotype 刻板印象
Assume everyone from a certain group is the same (Exp: Abunene will kidnap
naughty kids)

D) Relativistic Thinking 盲目式思考(你觉得对，那它就是对的)

• No truth, varies from individual to individual or from culture to culture.
• I – Subjectivism 个人的(我觉得这是对的，那我就继续这么做)
Whatever individual believes, it is truth for them
• II – Cultural Relativism 文化的(宗教说这个不行，那它就是不行)
Truth based on culture. (Exp: Non-Malays can drunk)

E) Wishful Thinking 一厢情愿(我想要它成真，就一直这么做)

Tendency to believe something simply because you wished it to be true.
Topic 2: Argument

Argument 为了说服别人:

- Statement with reasons which is to convince/persuade something to someone

- Premise indicator: since, because, as
- Conclusion indicator: therefore, thus, hence

Non-Argument

1) Report 报告(传达信息而已)
Statements to convey information (Exp: oil price dropped today, thus so did gas
prices)
2) Unstopped Assertion 个人看法
Statement about personal believes or thoughts without evidence. (Exp: I think, In my
opinion, I feel)
3) Conditional Statement 情况类的，有两个部分，前因后果
Statement made up of antecedent and consequent (2 parts), usually “If…, then…”
(Exp: In the event that, Provided, Supposing, Unless)
4) Illustration 比例
Statement providing examples. (Exp: For example, for instance)
5) Explanation 解释事情经过
Statement clarify what happened or why happened. (Exp: because)
Explanans (the cause 起因) – 会放在 because 后面
Explanandum (the event 事件) – 会放在开头
Topic 3

A. Deductive Argument
Indicator: is/are , certainly, definitely, conclusively (这些 indicator 可以在
conclusion 或者 premise 里看到，方便分辨种类)
B. Inductive Argument
Indicator: probably, likely, may, might

Common Pattern of Deductive Argument

*Syllogism 的意思是 three-line argument (2 Premise + 1 Conclusion)

1. Hypothetical Syllogism (If…, then…)

Contains at least one conditional statement (If…, then…) as the premise.
i. Modus Ponens 先 A 后 B. – Affirming Antecedent
If (she is nine – A), then (she is mine - B).
She is nine.
Therefore, she is mine
ii. Modus Tollens 不是 B，那 A 也不是 – Denying Consequent
If potato can sing Negaraku, then capybara can become a Stand user
Capybara could not become a Stand user.
Therefore, potato could not sing Negaraku.
iii. Chain Argument 消消乐，重复了的就拜拜(Chain Rule 概念)
If cat is a mammal, then it cannot lays egg. (If A, then B)
If cat cannot lays egg, then it gives birth to its kitten. (If B, then C)
Therefore, if cat is a mammal, then it gives birth to its kitten. (If A, then C)

小补充:
Affirming 意思是接受，Denying 意思是反对
Antecedent 意思是开头(也就是 A)，Consequent 意思是结果(也就是 B)
在考试里你会遇到不同的混合，比如：

I) Affirming Antecedent – Modus Ponens 先 A 后 B

II) Denying Consequent – Modus Tollens 先反 B 后反 A
III) Affirming Consequent 先 B 后 A
IV) Denying Antecedent 先反 A 后反 B
2) Categorical Syllogism 分类型(Chain Rule 概念)
Normally start with word “All”, “Some”, or “No”
Exp:
All cockroach are pests. (All A are B)
All pests are enemies of human. (All B are C)
Therefore, all cockroach are enemies of human (All A are C)

3) Argument by Elimination 排除法

Find the correct until single probability left.
Exp:
Either Timgei or ChingChong have ate the cake. (Either A or B)
ChingChong have not ate the cake. (Not B)
Therefore, Timgei have ate the cake. (Therefore, A)

4) Argument based on Mathematics 数学(就是数学问法) – 这种比较少见

Argument based on calculation or formula.
Exp:
If 2 is a prime number, then 3 is a prime number.
2 is a prime number.
Therefore, 3 is a prime number.

5) Argument from Definition 根据意思来得到结论 – 这种也比较少见

Conclusion is true because the definition of keyword in argument
Exp:
Siti is a mom of two.
Therefore, Siti is married.

6) Argument from Analogy 共同点

Exp:
Timgei has legs, eyes, big mouth and he is a mammals.
Common Patterns of Inductive Argument

1) Inductive Generalization (Stereotyping) 刻板印象

Exp: All strawberries so far discovered red. Therefore, probably all strawberries are
red.

2) Predictive Argument 预测
Argument has prediction as conclusion.

3) Argument from Authority 有人作证那么就是真的(周杰伦说这样吃没问题，所

以就这么吃)
Exp: According to Jim, he stole my bag. Therefore, he probably stole my bag.

4) Casual Argument 你猜出来的原因(due to limited evidence)

- Declaring or denying something is the cause.
- Exp: I cannot log in to UTAR Portal. Therefore, the server is probably down.

5) Statistical Argument 数据类型(percentages, ratio, average)

Use statistical evidence.

6) Argument from Analogy 靠共同点来推断他们的特征

Exp:
Monkey has legs, eyes, mouth and able to walk with two legs.
(A has characteristics V, W, X and Y.)
Human has legs, eyes, mouth and able to walk with two legs.
(B has characteristics V, W, X and Y.)
Monkey can use their tail to swing on the branch of tree.
(A has characteristics Z.)
Therefore, human probably can use their tail to swing on the branch of tree too.
(Therefore, B probably has characteristics Z too.)
Topic 4

Sound
(Accepted)
Valid
Unsound
Deductive (Rejected)
Argument
Unsound
Invalid
(Rejected)

Uncogent
Weak
(Rejected)
Inductive
Argument Uncogent
(Rejected)
Strong
Cogent
(Accepted)

1) Validity of Deductive Argument 分辨哪个才是合理的 DA (以下都是 Valid 的

argument pattern ↓)
i. Modus Pollens (Affirming the antecedent)
If A then B.
A.
Therefore, B.
ii. Modus Tollens (Denying the consequent)
If A then B.
Not B.
Therefore, not A.
iii. Chain Argument
If A, then B.
If B, then C.
Therefore, if A then C.

2) Sound / Unsound Deductive Argument 分辨正确错误

- Sound – DA that is both valid and has all true premises.
- Unsound – DA that is either invalid or has at least one false in premises.
 3) Strong / Weak Inductive Argument 分辨合理 (注意 conclusion 就好)
- Strong – Conclusion probably true
- Weak – Conclusion false

4) Cogent / Uncogent Inductive Argument 分辨正确错误

Cogent – Strong and premises all true.
Uncogent – Conclusion false or premises not true.

Topic 5 : Bad Argument 坏论点

Argument that contains manipulations, distractions and lack of evidence.

Appeals to Emotions 对情感上的

1. Appeal to Pity 装可怜

Make someone feel sorry for you to evoke feelings of pity or to win sympathy.
2. Appeal to Fear / Scare Tactics 恐吓
Make someone feel scared by threatening. (Exp: Vote me or the country will get
destroyed.)
3. Appeal to Anger 煽动情绪 (让别人不爽其他人)
Make someone angry (Raise anger within someone or turn someone against another)
4. Appeal to Spite 提起旧事勾引仇恨(因为过去的事情让别人反目成仇)
Ask someone to revenge as someone used to hurt you. (Exp: Why you help him?
Don’t you remember how he hurt you before?)
5. Appeal to Vanity / Flattery 拍马屁
Make someone feel good about themselves to get advantages.
6. Appeal to Popularity / Ad Populum 从众思想
Most people like it so you must like it as well. (Exp: Most teenagers love to drink
bubble milk tea, you should love it too!)
7. Appeal to Tradition 传统思想(不想要抛弃掉过往的传统信仰)
It must be true as it is traditional or always has been done. (Exp: People believed in
God for thousands years. God must be true.)
8. Appeal to Ridicule / Mockery 开玩笑但其实在讽刺你
Exp: Vegetarian is good for health? But you looks like a chopstick!
9. Appeal to Ignorance / Ad Ignorantiam 因为我知道，所以听我的准没错(假专家)
It must be true as no one can prove it or show someone with no knowledge about
certain things. (Exp: You should eat this to cure the diarrhea, I see this from the TV
show!!!)
Topic 6: Bad Argument Part 2

Fallacies of Relevance 缺乏关联性(logically irrelevant)

1. Personal Attack / Ad Hominem 人身攻击(对事不对人的反义词)

Reject argument by attacking the person’s characteristics instead of argument itself.
(Exp: You should not listen to Mr. Timgei’s argument since he is a bad guy.)
2. Two Wrongs Make A Right 其他人也有这么做，那我跟着做就没错了吧
Action is acceptable since someone act in similar way. (Exp: Look, everyone is just
stealing some gums from that store. What the problem if I just steal a chewing gum as
well?)
3. Look Who’s Talking / Tu Quoque 叫别人去做自己却不做
Rejects argument as that person fails to follow own advice. (Exp: Why you ask me to
sleep early if you are always stay up late?)
4. Straw Man 让别人的观点无懈可击(过度解读别人的观点)
To make someone argument sound weak. (Exp: A: 你支持大麻合法化吗? B: 在我
看来大麻是可以合法化啦 A: 噢我的天啊，看来你真的吸过大麻才会说这种
话！)
5. Red Herring 转移话题(带偏主题)
Argument to distract attention by raising irrelevant topic. (A: 能不能帮忙打扫卫
生？ 我工作回来已经很累了。 B: 你怎么这样对我说话？你是不是不爱我了？)
6. Begging the Question 词穷所以讲回去(复读机)
No actual proof for conclusion so repeat. (Exp: 为什么吃蔬菜能让我们健康?因为蔬
菜能让我们吃得健康)

Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence 缺乏证据(fail to provide proof)

1. Slippery Slope 雪球效应

Harmless action will lead to big outcome. (Exp: 如果你把垃圾乱丢在路边，那就会
有人不小心被绊倒，有人绊倒在马上就可能被车撞到，然后就会有越来越多的
人因为你丢的垃圾而受伤)
2. Loaded Question 进退两难的问题
Question that unfair or unwarranted assumptions (normally question) (Exp: 如果我和
你妈一起掉水里你会救谁？)
3. False Dilemma 残酷二选一
Presents only two alternatives. (Exp: 你要钱还是要命?)
4. Inappropriate Appeal to Authority 乱引用
Quotes is unreliable. (Exp: 鲁迅曾说过，如果是勇者欣梅尔肯定也会这么做)
 5. Weak Analogy 烂版 Argument from Analogy (把两个不同的性质的东西混为一
谈)
Compares two things that different features. (Killing animals is similar with killing
humans, so we should killing animals)
6. Hasty Generalization 烂版 Inductive Generalization – 一小部分的人的观点代表
全体
Sample too small or unrepresentative of the population. (Exp: We have get survey
result from Company X so as conclusion we should stop selling animal leather
product.)

Topic 7 – Argumentative Essay (这里会用 format 大略带过，lecturer 教会比较好)

Argumentative Writing (5 paragraph)

Introduction 开头

- Thesis statement/Stand (background, definition) 提到这个课题的意思，还是目

前的社会背景
- Your opinion

Body 内容(三段)

1. Topic sentence 1 (with two supporting details) 你的观点一(附上支持的点)

2. Topic sentence 2 (with two supporting details) 你的观点二
3. (i) Concession (with supporting details) 想象别人会怎么反对你的前两个观点(这个
方法的坏处)
(ii) Refuting Argument (prove the wrong) 虽然但是你的才是对的

Conclusion 结尾

- Reinforcement of thesis 重提你的起始主题

- Summary 总结(提到你的全部好处)
Topic 9 – Pseudoscience 假科学

Science – Way of searching for truth using scientific method (NOT TECHNOLOGY)

1) Limitations of Science
i. Questions of Meaning 生存的意义
Question about the meaning of our existence (What is the purpose of my life?)
ii. Question of Value (Normative Questions) 道德伦理
Question about good or bad, right or wrong. (Should LGBT be legalized?)

2) Pseudoscience 假科学
Exp: Fengshui, Tarot card…

3) Distinguish Science from Pseudoscience – 考试不会出

i. Absence of testability – Service is testable 假科学无法被试验
ii. Inconsistent with well-established scientific findings – Science is
cumulative and progressive 假科学有不同的说法
iii. Ignores falsifying evidence – Science is self-correcting and welcome new
evidence 假科学不接受反对的意见
iv. Uses vague language – Science use clear, precise and accurate language 假科
学用不清晰的语言
v. Lack progressiveness – Science is progressive 假科学古板
vi. Fails to conduct research – Science is well-confirmed facts, searchable 假科
学无法做研究
Topic 10 – Decision Making

1) Routine Decision 习惯性决定(习惯成自然，完全不必多想)

Habitual choices and eliminates the need of making choices. (Exp: eat Maggie goreng
in mamak)

2) Impulsive Decision 冲动型决定(比如氪金游戏)

Instant choice and not well thought out. (Exp: skip class without hesitation)

3) Reasoned Decision 理性决定

Alternatives are identified and weighted.

4) Problem-solving
Identify problem → Analyze problem → Formulate possible solutions →
Evaluate possible solutions → Choose solution → Evaluate solution