PH-1001 (Physics-1)

Dr. A. K. Singh
Department of Physics & Astronomy
National Institute of Technology
Rourkela-769008
 Time Table
Monday Wednesday Thursday Friday
8:00 -8:55 AM 4:15 - 3:10 PM 10:00-10:55 AM 9:00-9:55 AM

Section A

Time Slot: TA

2
 Topics
Special Relativity, Particle properties of Waves,
Wave properties of Particles, Quantum Mechanics.
Mark Distributions: GRADE Distributions:
Mid Term: 30%  90  Ex
End Term: 50%  80  A
TA: 20%  70  B
 60  C
TA: ATTENDANCE (5)  50  D
ASSIGNMENTS (10)  35  P
OVER ALL BEHAVIOUR (5)  35  F
References:
A. Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics (or Perspective of Modern Physics),
Tata-McGraw Hill, 2005
 PH-1001
160
No. of Students 23.8%
140 22.1%
120
100 16.6%
14.2%
80 11.0%
60
6.5% 6.1%
40
20
0
Ex A B C D P F
GRADE
We cannot know the future because we can
not know the present.
 Course details
SUB DISCIPLINE: CORE (THEORY)
PH1001: Physics -I (2-1-0)
Relativity: Galilean relativity and Galilean transformation, Special relativity,
Michelson Morley experiment and postulates of relativity, length contraction and time
dilatation, twin paradox, Doppler effect, Lorentz transformation & velocity addition,
relativistic momentum, mass-energy relation, brief introduction to general relativity.
Quantum Mechanics: INADEQUACIES IN CLASSICAL PHYSICS: Black body radiation,
photoelectric effect, X-ray diffraction, Compton Effect, pair production, photon and
gravity, Davisson-Germer experiment WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY: Particle nature of wave,
Wave nature of particle, de Broglie waves, group waves, phase velocity & group
velocity, uncertainty principle and its application. WAVE FUNCTION: probability & wave
equation, linearity and superposition of wave of wave functions, expectation values
SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION: time dependent and time independent SE, eigenvalue &
eigenfunctions, boundary conditions on wave function, APPLICATION OF SE: Particle in
a box, Finite potential Well, Tunneling through a barrier, Harmonic oscillator.
Essential Readings:
1. A. Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics , Tata-McGraw Hill, 6th edition (2009)
Supplementary Readings:
1. R. Resnick & R. Eisberg, Quantum Physics Of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei And
Particles, 2nd Edition.
2. K.S. Krane, Modern Physics, Wiley, 3rd edition (2012).
3. D.J. Griffith, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Pearson (2007).
Special Theory of Relativity

Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) Nobel, 1921 6

6
SPECIAL RELATIVITY
All motion is relative; the speed of light in free space is the same for all
observers

When such quantities as length, time interval, and mass are

considered in elementary physics, no special point is made about how
they are measured.

For instance, there is no question of principle involved in finding the

length of an airplane when we are on board. All we have to do is put
one end of a tape measure at the airplane’s nose and look at the
number on the tape at the airplane’s tail.

But what if the airplane is in flight and we are on the ground? It is not
hard to determine the length of a distant object with a tape measure to
establish a baseline, a surveyor’s transit to measure angles, and a
knowledge of trigonometry.

When we measure the moving airplane from the ground, though, we

find it to be shorter than it is to somebody in the airplane itself. To
understand how this unexpected difference arises we must analyze
the process of measurement when motion is involved. 7
 Reference frames
A frame of reference in physics, may refer to a coordinate
system or set of axes within which to measure the
position, orientation, and other properties of objects in it.
y

O x

Inertial frames Non-Inertial frames

z
 Accelerating w.r.t. an inertial
 No accelerations are observed in the reference frame
absence of external forces  Bodies have acceleration in the
Newton’s laws holds good. absence of applied forces

In many cases the earth’s surface can be considered as inertial frame of reference, even
though strictly peaking it is not.
For small scale phenomenon the earth is approximately an inertial frame of reference.
 Reference Frames

Platform at rest, tree moving—ball is Platform moving. Observer on

seen by observers on platform as being the ground (inertial frame) sees
deflected, but no force acts on it. ball move in a straight line, but
Violation of Newton’s second law. sees the catcher move away.

Platform is accelerating Ground is the

noninertial frame inertial frame
10
 Galilean Transformation
y´
y
S´
v
S
O´ x´
O x
x´ = x – vt
z´ y´ = y
z
z´ = z

Time is absolute t´ = t
Galilean Transformation

y S y´ S´
v EVENT

vt x´
x
x x´
O O´
x´ = x – vt
y´ = y
z´ = z
Time is absolute t´ = t
 Historical Perspective
• Light is a wave & waves require a medium through
which to propagate.
• Medium as called the ―ether‖ (from the Greek aither,
meaning upper air).
• Maxwell’s equations assume that light obeys the
Newtonian-Galilean transformation.
• ―Water waves travel in water. Sound waves travel in
air. What does light travel in? ether! (Or not.)‖
• In the 1880’s Michelson and Morley devised an
experiment to detect the motion of the Earth through
the ether – a universal ―atmosphere‖.
 Concept of Ether &
Michelson-Morley Experiment
• Light should move slower in the direction of the
Earth’s motion through space.
• Experiment designed to measure small changes in
the speed of light was performed by Albert A.
Michelson and Edward W. Morley (1818 – 1905).
• Used an optical instrument called an interferometer
that Michelson invented.
• Device was to detect presence of the ether.
• Outcome of the experiment was negative, thus
contradicting the ether hypothesis.

A.A. Michelson and E.W. Morley, American Journal of Science, 134 – 333, 1887)
 Michelson-Morley Experiment

• Albert Michelson (1852–1931) was the first

U.S. citizen to receive the Nobel Prize for
Physics (1907), and built an extremely precise
device called an interferometer to measure
the minute phase difference between two
light waves traveling in mutually orthogonal
directions.

15
Michelson Interferometer

16
 Michelson Interferometer
1. AC is parallel to the motion of
the Earth inducing an “ether
wind”

2. Light from source S is split by

mirror A and travels to mirrors C
and D in mutually perpendicular
directions

3. After reflection the beams

recombine at A slightly out of
phase due to the “ether wind” as
viewed by telescope E.
17
Typical interferometer fringe pattern expected
when the system is rotated by 90°

18
 The Analysis
Assuming the Galilean Transformation
Time t1 from A to C and back:

Time t2 from A to D and back:

So that the change in time is:

19
 The Analysis (continued)
Upon rotating the apparatus, the optical path lengths ℓ1 and
ℓ2 are interchanged producing a different change in time:
(note the change in denominators)

20
 Possible Explanations

• Many explanations were proposed but the

most popular was the ether drag hypothesis.
– This hypothesis suggested that the Earth
somehow “dragged” the ether along as it rotates
on its axis and revolves about the sun.
– This was contradicted by stellar abberation
wherein telescopes had to be tilted to observe
starlight due to the Earth’s motion. If ether was
dragged along, this tilting would not exist.

21
 Michelson’s Conclusion
 Michelson noted that he should be able to detect a phase
shift of light due to the time difference between path
lengths but found none.
 He thus concluded that the hypothesis of the stationary
ether must be incorrect.
 After several repeats and refinements with assistance
from Edward Morley (1893-1923), again a null result.
 Thus, ether does not seem to exist!
 Postulates of Special Relativity
The postulates of relativity as stated by Einstein (1905)
1. Equivalence of Physical Laws
The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames
of reference.
2. Constancy of the Speed of Light
The speed of light in a vacuum, c = 3.00 x 108 m/s, is
the same in all inertial frames of reference,
independent of the motion of the source or the
receiver.

There is no absolute reference frame

of time and space
 Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was only two years
old when Michelson reported his first null
measurement for the existence of the ether.

 At the age of 16 Einstein began thinking about the

form of Maxwell’s equations in moving inertial
systems.

 In 1905, at the age of 26, he published his startling

proposal about the principle of relativity, which
he believed to be fundamental.
 Galilean transformations

Galilean Space-Time Transformation

Coordinates: x'  x  vt y'  y z'  z t'  t

dx' dx
Velocities: ux '    v  ux - v u y '  u y uz '  uz
dt ' dt
2 2
d x' d x
Accelerations: ax '  2  2  ax ay'  ay az '  az
dt ' dt
Newton’s Laws involving accelerations are invariant with
respect to Galilean transformations!
Time (t) for all observers is a Fundamental invariant, i.e.,
the same for all inertial observers.
 Inverse Galilean transformations
Step 1. Replace with .
Step 2. Replace ―primed‖ quantities with ―unprimed‖
and ―unprimed‖ with ―primed.‖

Drawbacks of GT transformation
1. Violates both of the postulate of special theory of relativity
[i] Same equations of physics in S and S, but the equations
of electricity and magnetism is entirely different.
[ii] c = c - v
26
Go for different transformation
 The Transition to Modern Relativity

• Although Newton’s laws of motion had the same

form under the Galilean transformation,
Maxwell’s equations did not.
• In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed a fundamental
connection between space and time and that
Newton’s laws are only an approximation.

27
 The Need for Ether
• The wave nature of light suggested that there
existed a propagation medium called the
luminiferous ether or just ether.
– Ether had to have such a low density that the planets could
move through it without loss of energy

– It also had to have an elasticity to support the high velocity of

light waves
– In Maxwell’s theory the speed of light, in terms of the
permeability and permittivity of free space, was given by

– Thus the velocity of light between moving systems must be

a constant.
28
 Re-evaluation of Time

• In Newtonian physics we previously assumed

that t = t’
– Thus with “synchronized” clocks, events in K and K’
can be considered simultaneous

• Einstein realized that each system must have

its own observers with their own clocks and
meter sticks
– Thus events considered simultaneous in K may not
be in K’

29
 The Problem of Simultaneity
Frank at rest is equidistant from events A and B:

A B
−1 m +1 m
0

Frank “sees” both flashbulbs go off

simultaneously.

30
 The Problem of Simultaneity

Mary, moving to the right with speed v,

observes events A and B in different order:

−1 m 0 +1 m
A B

Mary “sees” event B, then A.

31
 We thus observe…

• Two events that are simultaneous in one

reference frame (S) are not necessarily
simultaneous in another reference frame (S’)
moving with respect to the first frame.

• This suggests that each coordinate system has

its own observers with “clocks” that are
synchronized…

32
 Synchronization of Clocks

Step 1: Place observers with clocks throughout

a given system.

Step 2: In that system bring all the clocks

together at one location.

Step 3: Compare the clock readings.

• If all of the clocks agree, then the clocks are

said to be synchronized.

33
 A method to synchronize…

• One way is to have one clock at the origin set

to t = 0 and advance each clock by a time (d/c)
with d being the distance of the clock from the
origin.
– Allow each of these clocks to begin timing when a
light signal arrives from the origin.
t=0

t = d/c t = d/c
d d

34
 The Lorentz Transformations
The special set of linear transformations that:

1) preserve the constancy of the speed of light (c)

between inertial observers;
and,
2) account for the problem of simultaneity between
these observers

known as the Lorentz transformation equations

35
Lorentz Transformation Equations

36
 Lorentz Transformation Equations
A more symmetric form:

37
 Properties of γ
Recall β = v/c < 1 for all observers.

1) equals 1 only when v = 0.

2) Graph of β:
(note v ≠ c)

38
 Derivation
• Use the fixed system K and the moving system K’
• At t = 0 the origins and axes of both systems are coincident with
system K’ moving to the right along the x axis.
• A flashbulb goes off at the origins when t = 0.
• According to postulate 2, the speed of light will be c in both systems
and the wavefronts observed in both systems must be spherical.

K K’

39
 Derivation

Spherical wavefronts in K:

Spherical wavefronts in K’:

Note: these are not preserved in the classical transformations

with

40
 Derivation
1) Let x’ = γ (x– vt) so that x = γ’(x’ + vt’)

2) By Einstein’s first postulate:

3) The wavefront along the x,x’- axis must satisfy:

x = ct and x’ = ct’

4) Thus ct’ = γ (ct – vt) and ct = γ(ct’ + vt’)

5) Solving the first one above for t’ and substituting into the
second...

41
 Derivation
Gives the following result:

from which we derive:

42
 Finding a Transformation for t’

Recalling x’ = (x – vt) substitute into x = (x’ + vt) and

solving for t ’ we obtain:

which may be written in terms of β (= v/c):

43
Thus the complete Lorentz Transformation

44
 Remarks

1) If v << c, i.e., β ≈ 0 and ≈ 1, we see these equations

reduce to the familiar Galilean transformation.

2) Space and time are now not separated.

3) For non-imaginary transformations, the frame velocity

cannot exceed c.

45
 Lorentz Transformations: (Purpose is to be
consistent with the Special Theory of Relativity)
1
x'  ( x  vt)
1 v c2 2

y'  y (L.T.)
z'  z

1  vx 
t'   t 2
1  v2 c2  c 
G.T
x'  x  vt y'  y z'  z t'  t
 LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION
(Purpose is to be consistent with the Special Theory of Relativity)

y x  k ( x  vt)
y
S x  vt
x 
S
v 1 v2 / c2
x
O
y  y
O x
z  z
vx
z t 2
t  c
z
 Basic formulas of 1 v2 / c2
electromagnetism are the A more symmetric form:
same in all inertial frames
G.T
x'  x  vt , y '  y, z '  z , t '  t
 Matrix form
 From a frame S(x, y, z, t) to a frame S (x, y, z, t) moving
with velocity v along the x-axis the space –time coordinates are
transformed as

Inverse Lorentz Transformation:

Measurements made in the moving frame S to their equivalents in S
vx
t 
x  vt  c2
x , y  y , z  z , t 
1 v / c
2 2
1 v2 / c2

H.W.: Check the validity of relativity postulates in Lorentz transformation ?

 Time Dilation and Length Contraction

Consequences of the Lorentz Transformation:

• Time Dilation:
Clocks in S’ run slow with respect to stationary
clocks in S.

• Length Contraction:
Lengths in S’ are contracted with respect to
the same lengths stationary in S.
49
 Time Dilation
 A moving clock ticks more slowly than a clock at rest

Actual difference of elapsed time between two events as measured

by observers either moving relative to each other or differently situated
from gravitational masses.
Time where clock is at rest
Time where clock is moving relative to the observer.
relative to the observer Proper time

t0
t  
1 v2 / c2
Clocks moving relative to an observer are
measured by that observer to run more
slowly, as compared to the clock at rest.

 This effect arises neither from technical aspects of the

clocks nor from the fact that signals need time to
propagate, but from the nature of space-time itself.
APPOLLO 11
Consider light beam reflected and observed on a
moving spaceship and from the ground
 Distance is shorter from the ship
Distance is longer from the ground
c = D/t
Since D is longer from the ground, so t must be too.

On Spaceship: On Earth:
2D
c 2 D 2  L2
t 0 c
t
2D 2L
t 0  v
c t
v t
L
2
 2 D 2  v 2 t 2 / 4
c
t
4D 2 t0-Proper time
c 
2
 v 2

t 2 -time interval when the 2 events are

2D at the same point in space
t 
c 1 v2 / c2 -In this example, on the spaceship
t0
t 
1 v2 / c2
 Experimental verification

• Time Dilation and Muon Decay

Muon Decay
 Cosmic rays enter the upper atmosphere
and interact with particles in the upper
atmosphere creating  mesons (pions),
decay into other particles called muons

 Obey radioactive law:

 ( 0.693t t 1 / 2 )
N  N 0e

N: No. of muons at t
No :No. of muons at t=0
Half life: t1/2 =1.5 x 10-6 sec
 The mean lifetime of a muon in its own reference
frame, called the proper life time, is 0 = 2.2 s. In a
v=0 frame moving at velocity v with respect to that
 0 = 2.2 s proper frame, the lifetime is  = 0 , where  is the
time dilation factor.
v = 0.995 c
  = 22 s = 10 0

v = 0.99995 c  = 220 s = 100 0



Mean lifetime  as measured in laboratory frame

A clock in a moving frame will be seen to be running slow, or "dilated" according to
the Lorentz transformation. The time will always be shortest as measured in its rest
frame. The time measured in the frame in which the clock is at rest is called the
"proper time".
 Atomic Clock Measurement

Figure 2.20: Two airplanes took off (at different times) from Washington, D.C., where the U.S. Naval
Observatory is located. The airplanes traveled east and west around Earth as it rotated. Atomic clocks on
the airplanes were compared with similar clocks kept at the observatory to show that the moving clocks
in the airplanes ran slower.

56
 TWIN PARADOX
A longer life, but it will not seem longer

twin paradox : a thought experiment

a twin makes a journey into space in a high-speed rocket and returns
home to find he has aged less than his identical twin who stayed on Earth.
puzzling
each twin sees the other twin as travelling, and so, according to a naive
application of time dilation, each should paradoxically find the other to have
aged more slowly.

50 Yr
20 Yr 20 Yr 70 Yr
However, this scenario can be resolved within the standard
framework of special relativity.

Because of time dilation, time is running more slowly in the

spacecraft as seen by the earthbound twin and the travelling twin
will find that the earthbound twin will be older upon return from the
journey. The common question: Is this real? would one twin really
be younger?

The clear implication is that the travelling twin would indeed be younger, but the
scenario is complicated by the fact that the travelling twin must be accelerated up
to travelling speed, turned around, and decelerated again upon return to Earth.

Accelerations are outside the realm of special

relativity and require general relativity.

 Despite the experimental difficulties, an experiment on a commercial airline

confirms the existence of a time difference between ground observers and a
reference frame moving with respect to them.
 Twin Paradox

The Set-up
Twins Dic and Jane at age 30 decide on two career paths: Dic decides to
become an astronaut and to leave on a trip 8 lightyears (ly) from the Earth at
a great speed and to return; Jane decides to reside on the Earth.

The Problem
Upon Dic’s return, Jane reasons that her clocks measuring her age must run
slow. As such, she will return younger. However, Dic claims that it is Jane who
is moving and consequently his clocks must run slow.

The Paradox
Who is younger upon Dic’s return?
 The Resolution

1) Jane’s clock is in an inertial system during the entire trip;

however, Dic’s clock is not. As long as Dic is traveling at
constant speed away from Jane’s, both of them can argue that
the other twin is aging less rapidly.

2) When Dic slows down to turn around, he leaves him original

inertial system and eventually returns in a completely
different inertial system.

3) Dic’s claim is no longer valid, because he does not remain in

the same inertial system. There is also no doubt as to who is in
the inertial system. Jane feels no acceleration during Dic’s
entire trip, but Dic does.
Time Dilation: Ex 1
What is the lifetime of a muon travelling at 0.60 c (1.8 X 108 m/s) if its rest lifetime is 2.2
s?
t0
t 
1 v2 / c2
2.2 106 s
t   2.8 106 s
1  (0.6c) 2 / c 2

Ex 2
If our apatosaurus aged 10 years, calculate how many years will have passed for his twin
brother if he travels at:
a) ¼ light speed a) 10.3 y
b) ½ light speed b) 11.5 y
c) ¾ light speed c) 10.5 y
 Ex 3
How long will a 100 year trip (as observed from earth) seem to the astronaut who is
travelling at 0.99 c?

t0  t 1  v 2 / c 2 4.5 year

Ex 4
If our apatosaurus aged 10 years, and his brother aged 70 years, calculate
the apatosaurus’ average speed for his trip. (Express your answer in
terms of c).
Ans: 0.99 c
 Length Contraction
Faster means shorter
Length where observer Length where observer is at
is moving relative to the rest relative to the length
length being measured. being measured.

L  L0 1  v 2 / c 2

The length of an object is measured to

be shorter when it is moving relative
to the observer than when it is at rest.

(a) (b)
Length Contraction
Observers from earth would see a spaceship
shorten in the length of travel

Only shortens in the direction of travel

t0  t 1  v 2 / c 2
L
v L is from
t 0 spacecraft
L
t0 
v
L
t  0
v
L0 L

v v 1 v2 / c2

L  L0 1  v 2 / c 2
Lo = Proper Length (at rest)
L = Length in motion (from stationary
observer)
Length Contraction: Ex 1
What are its dimensions to a stationary observer?

Still 1.00 m tall

L = Lo √( 1 - v2/c2 )
L = (1.50 m)(√ 1 - (0.90 c)2/c2)
L = 0.65 m

Ex 2
The apatosaurus had a length of about 25 m. Calculate the
dinosaur’s length if it was running at:
a) ½ lightspeed a) 21.7 m
b) ¾ lightspeed b) 15.5 n
c) 95% lightspeed c) 7.8 m
 Space Travel
Alpha Centauri is 4.3 light-years from earth. (It takes light 4.3 years to travel from earth to
Alpha Centauri).
How long would people on earth think it takes for a spaceship traveling v=0.95c to reach
Alpha Centauri?

d 4.3 light - years

t    4.5 years
v 0.95 c
How long do people on the ship think it takes?

People on ship have ‘proper’ time. They see earth leave, and
Alpha Centauri arrive in t0

t0 v2
t  t0  t 1  2  4.5 1  .952
v2
1 2 c
t0 = 1.4 years
c
 Length Contraction
People on ship and on earth agree on relative velocity v = 0.95 c. But they disagree on
the time (4.5 vs 1.4 years). What about the distance between the planets?

Earth/Alpha L0 = v t = .95 (3x108 m/s) (4.5 years)

= 4x1016m (4.3 light years)

Ship L = v t0 = .95 (3x108 m/s) (1.4 years)

= 1.25x1016m (1.3 light years)

Length in moving
frame
v2
L  L0 1  2
Length in object’s c
rest frame
 Length Contraction
Notice that even though the proper time clock is on the space ship, the length they are
measuring is not the proper length.
They see a ―moving stick of length L‖ with Earth at one end and Alpha-Centauri at the
other.
To calculate the proper length they multiply their measured length by .

Length in moving
frame

L
Length in object’s
L0 
2
rest frame v
1 2
c
 Time Dilation vs. Length Contraction
• Time intervals between same two events :
Consider only those intervals which occur at one point in rest
frame “on train”.
 to is in the reference frame at rest, “on train”. “proper time”
 t is measured between same two events in reference frame in which
train is moving, using clock that isn’t moving, “on ground”, in that frame.

v2 t > to Time seems longer

t0  t 1  2 from “outside”
c
• Length intervals of same object:
 L0 is in reference frame where object is at rest “proper length”
– L is length of moving object measured using ruler that is not moving.

v2 Length seems shorter

L  L0 1  2 Lo > L
from “outside”
c
 Velocity Addition
The light emitted from the S in the direction of its motion relative to another frame S
ought to have a speed of c + v as measured in S.

violets the postulate of relativity

Common sense is no more reliable as a guide in science than it is elsewhere

Suppose something is moving relative to both S and S . An observer in S measures its

three velocity components to be
dx dy dz
Vx  Vy  Vz 
dt dt dt

 dx   dy   dz 
While to an observer Vx  Vy  Vz 
dt  dt  dt 
By differentiating the inverse Lorentz transformation equations for x, y, z and t, we have
vdx
dx  vdt  dt  
dx  dy  dy dz  dz dt  c2
1 v / c
2 2
1 v2 / c2
 dx
v
dx dx  vdt  dt 
and so Vx   
dt vd x  v dx
dt   2 1 2
c c dt 
Relativistic velocity transformation

Vx  v Vy 1  v 2 / c 2
Vz 
Vz 1  v 2 / c 2
Vx  Vy  vV 
vVx vV  1  2x
1 2 1  2x
c c c

If Vx = c, if the light is emitted in the moving frame S in its direction of

motion relative to S, an observer in frame S will measure the speed:

Vx  v cv c (c  v )
Vx    c
vV  vc cv
1  2x 1 2
c c
Ex 1
What is the speed of the second
stage of the rocket shown with
respect to the earth?
u = v + u’
1 + vu’/c2

u = 0.60c + 0.60c
1 + [(0.60c)(0.60c)/c2 ]

u = 0.88 c

(classical addition would give you

1.20c, over the speed of light)
EX-2
Suppose a car travelling at 0.60c turns on its headlights.
What is the speed of the light travelling out from the car?
u = v + u’
1 + vu’/c2

u = 0.60c + c = 1.60c
1 + [(0.60c)(c)/c2 ] 1.60

u=c
EX-3
Now the car is travelling at c and turns on its headlights.

u = v + u’
1 + vu’/c2

u=c+ c = 2c
1 + [(c)(c)/c2 ] 2

u=c
DOPPLER EFFECT Why the universe is believed to be expanding

The change in frequency of a wave (or other periodic event)

for an observer moving relative to its source.
commonly heard when a vehicle sounding a siren or
horn approaches, passes, and recedes from an observer.
DOPPLER EFFECT
Doppler effect in sound:
 1 v / c 
  0  
1V / c 
c = speed of sound, v = speed of observer (+
for motion toward the source, - for motion
away from it), V = speed of the source (+ for
motion toward the observer, - for motion away
from him)

Doppler effect in sound varies depending whether the source, or the

observer, or both are moving.

 Doppler effect in sound appears to violate the principle of

relativity.

Doppler effect in Light:

Considering a light source as a clock that ticks 0 times per second
and emits a wave of light with each tick.
 Doppler effect in light:

1. Observer moving perpendicular 2. Observer receding 3. Observer approaching

to a line between him and the from the light source: the light source:
light source:
Transverse Doppler effect: Longitudinal Doppler effect:
1 v / c
  0 1  v2 / c2  (receding )   0
1 v / c  (approaching )   0
1 v / c
1 v / c

 Difference between relativistic Doppler effect for light and for sound
 With sound, the effect depend on which is moving, the source or the observer
 With light it is only the relative motion of the source and receiver that counts.
 Applications:
Sirens, Radar, Underwater Acoustics , Medical Imaging and blood flow
measurement etc

The expanding Universe

 Stars emit light of certain characteristic frequencies called
spectral lines, and motion of a star toward or away from the earth
shows up as a doppler shift in these frequencies.
 The spectral lines of distant galaxies of stars are all shifted toward the low
frequency(red) end of the spectrum and hence are called “red shifts”.

 Such shifts indicate that the galaxies are receding from us and
from one another. Hubble’s Law

 The speeds of recession are observed to be proportional to

distance, which suggests that the entire universe is expanding.
 RED SHIFT
• When we send an electric current through a chemical element
in its gaseous form, the electrons in the gas atoms absorb
energy and move to a higher energy level called an excited
state. When electrons return to the ground state they emit
light.
• A prism or a spectroscope to be more exact, is used to split
light into its different wavelengths. It is found that light
emitted consists of several different colours.
• Researchers have found that each element emits light with a
characteristic set of colours. We call this set of colours the
spectrum of an element.
 Red shift cont.

• The atoms in stars are also in the excited state due to high
temperatures, and so they emit light.
• Astronomers use large telescopes to collect light from the
stars. When this light from stars is analysed, spectra of gases
like hydrogen, helium and other heavier elements are found.
• Spectra is recognized because of a particular pattern of
colours that is portrait, which is similar to the one found on
earth.
• The difference that is seen is that all colours have wavelengths
that are a bit longer than on earth. All colours have
moved(shifted) towards the red end of the spectrum. We call
this the red shift.
 Doppler shifted spectrum

460 500 550 600 650 700

 Electromagnetism and Relativity

• Einstein was convinced that magnetic fields appeared as

electric fields observed in another inertial frame. That
conclusion is the key to electromagnetism and relativity.
• Einstein’s belief that Maxwell’s equations describe
electromagnetism in any inertial frame was the key that
led Einstein to the Lorentz transformations.
• Maxwell’s assertion that all electromagnetic waves travel
at the speed of light and Einstein’s postulate that the
speed of light is invariant in all inertial frames seem
intimately connected.
A Conducting Wire

84
 Relativistic Momentum
Because physicists believe that the conservation of
momentum is fundamental, we begin by considering
collisions where there do not exist external forces and
dP/dt = Fext = 0
 Relativistic Momentum
Frank (fixed or stationary system) is at rest in
system K holding a ball of mass m. Mary (moving
system) holds a similar ball in system K that is
moving in the x direction with velocity v with
respect to system K.

86
 Relativistic Momentum

• If we use the definition of momentum, the

momentum of the ball thrown by Frank is
entirely in the y direction:
pFy = mu0

The change of momentum as observed by

Frank is
ΔpF = ΔpFy = −2mu0
 According to Mary
• Mary measures the initial velocity of her own
ball to be u’Mx = 0 and u’My = −u0.

In order to determine the velocity of Mary’s

ball as measured by Frank we use the velocity
transformation equations:
 Relativistic Momentum
Before the collision, the momentum of Mary’s ball as measured by
Frank becomes

Before

Before (2.42)

For a perfectly elastic collision, the momentum after the collision is

After

After (2.43)

The change in momentum of Mary’s ball according to Frank is

(2.44)
 Relativistic Momentum
 The conservation of linear momentum requires the total
change in momentum of the collision, ΔpF + ΔpM, to be zero.
The addition of Equations (2.40) and (2.44) clearly does not
give zero.

 Linear momentum is not conserved if we use the

conventions for momentum from classical physics even if we
use the velocity transformation equations from the special
theory of relativity.

There is no problem with the x direction, but there is a

problem with the y direction along the direction the ball is
thrown in each system.
 Relativistic Momentum
• Rather than abandon the conservation of linear
momentum, let us look for a modification of the definition
of linear momentum that preserves both it and Newton’s
second law.
• To do so requires reexamining mass to conclude that:

Relativistic
momentum (2.48)
 Relativistic Second Law

• Due to the new idea of relativistic mass, we

must now redefine the concepts of work and
energy.
– Therefore, we modify Newton’s second law to
include our new definition of linear momentum,
and force becomes:
 Relativistic Energy
The work W12 done by a force to move a particle from
position 1 to position 2 along a path is defined to be

where K1 is defined to be the kinetic energy of the particle at

position 1.
For simplicity, let the particle start from rest under the
influence of the force and calculate the kinetic energy K after
the work is done.
 Relativistic Kinetic Energy

The limits of integration are from an initial value of 0 to a final

value of .

The integral in above is straightforward if done by the method

of integration by parts. The result, called the relativistic kinetic
energy, is

(2.58)
 Relativistic Kinetic Energy

Equation (2.58) does not seem to resemble the classical result for kinetic energy, K = ½mu2.
However, if it is correct, we expect it to reduce to the classical result for low speeds. Let’s see if it
does. For speeds u << c, we expand in a binomial series as follows:

where we have neglected all terms of power (u/c)4 and greater, because u << c. This gives the
following equation for the relativistic kinetic energy at low speeds:

which is the expected classical result. We show both the relativistic and classical kinetic energies
in Figure 2.31. They diverge considerably above a velocity of 0.6c.
Relativistic and Classical Kinetic
Energies
 Total Energy and Rest Energy
We rewrite Equation (2.58) in the form

The term mc2 is called the rest energy and is denoted by E0.

This leaves the sum of the kinetic energy and rest energy to be
interpreted as the total energy of the particle. The total energy is
denoted by E and is given by
 Momentum and Energy

We square this result, multiply by c2, and rearrange the

result.

We use Equation (2.62) for β2 and find

 Momentum and Energy….

The first term on the right-hand side is just E2, and the second term is E02. The
last equation becomes

We rearrange this last equation to find the result we are seeking, a relation
between energy and momentum.

or

Equation (2.70) is a useful result to relate the total energy of a particle with
its momentum. The quantities (E2 – p2c2) and m are invariant quantities.
Note that when a particle’s velocity is zero and it has no momentum,
Equation (2.70) correctly gives E0 as the particle’s total energy.

100
 Introduction to General Relativity
General relativity is the extension of special
relativity. It includes the effects of accelerating
objects and their mass on space time.
As a result, the theory is an explanation of
gravity.
It is based on two concepts: (1) the principle
of equivalence, which is an extension of
Einstein’s first postulate of special relativity
and (2) the curvature of space-time due to
gravity. 101
 Principle of Equivalence
 The principle of equivalence is
an experiment in noninertial
reference frames.
 Consider an astronaut sitting in a
confined space on a rocket
placed on Earth. The astronaut is
strapped into a chair that is
mounted on a weighing scale
that indicates a mass M. The
astronaut drops a safety manual
that falls to the floor.
 Now contrast this situation with the rocket accelerating through space. The
gravitational force of the Earth is now negligible. If the acceleration has exactly the
same magnitude g on Earth, then the weighing scale indicates the same mass M
that it did on Earth, and the safety manual still falls with the same acceleration as
measured by the astronaut. The question is: How can the astronaut tell whether
the rocket is on earth or in space?
 Principle of equivalence: There is no experiment that can be done in a small
confined space that can detect the difference between a uniform gravitational102field
and an equivalent uniform acceleration.
 Inertial Mass and Gravitational Mass
 Recall from Newton’s 2nd law that an object accelerates in
reaction to a force according to its inertial mass:

 Inertial mass measures how strongly an object resists a change in

its motion.

 Gravitational mass measures how strongly it attracts other

objects.

 For the same force, we get a ratio of masses:

 According to the principle of equivalence, the inertial and

gravitational masses are equal.

103
 Light Deflection
• Consider accelerating through a region of
space where the gravitational force is
negligible. A small window on the rocket
allows a beam of starlight to enter the
spacecraft. Since the velocity of light is finite,
there is a nonzero amount of time for the
light to shine across the opposite wall of the
spaceship. **During this time, the rocket
has accelerated upward. From the point of
view of a passenger in the rocket, the light
path appears to bend down toward the floor.
• The principle of equivalence implies that an
observer on Earth watching light pass
through the window of a classroom will
agree that the light bends toward the
ground. **This prediction seems surprising,
however the unification of mass and energy
from the special theory of relativity hints
that the gravitational force of the Earth 104
could act on effective mass of light beam.
 Space-time Curvature of Space
• Light bending for the Earth observer seems to violate the
premise that the velocity of light is constant from special
relativity. Light traveling at a constant velocity implies that it
travels in a straight line.
• Einstein recognized that we need to expand our definition of
a straight line.
• The shortest distance between two points on a flat surface
appears different than the same distance between points on
a sphere. The path on the sphere appears curved. We shall
expand our definition of a straight line to include any
minimized distance between two points.
• Thus if the spacetime near the Earth is not flat, then the
straight line path of light near the Earth will appear curved.

105
106
 Tests of General Relativity
Bending of Light
• During a solar eclipse of the sun by the moon,
most of the sun’s light is blocked on Earth,
which afforded the opportunity to view
starlight passing close to the sun in 1919. The
starlight was bent as it passed near the sun
which caused the star to appear displaced.
• Einstein’s general theory predicted a
deflection of 1.75 seconds of arc, and the two
measurements found 1.98 ± 0.16 and 1.61 ±
0.40 seconds.
• Since the eclipse of 1919, many experiments,
using both starlight and radio waves from
quasars, have confirmed Einstein’s predictions
about the bending of light with increasingly 107
good accuracy.
 Gravitational Lensing
 When light from a
distant object like a
quasar passes by a
nearby galaxy on its
way to us on Earth, the
light can be bent
multiple times as it
passes in different
directions around the
galaxy.

108